2013 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 108, pp. 739779

Hydrothermal Fluid Processes and Evolution of the Giant Serra Norte

Jaspilite-Hosted Iron Ore Deposits, Carajs Mineral Province, Brazil
ROSALINE CRISTINA FIGUEIREDO E SILVA,1, STEFFEN HAGEMANN,2 LYDIA MARIA LOBATO,1 CARLOS ALBERTO ROSIRE,1
DAVID A. BANKS,3 GARRY J. DAVIDSON,4 TORSTEN VENNEMANN,5 AND JANET HERGT6
1 Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Centro de Pesquisas Prof. Manoel Teixeira da Costa-Instituto de Geocincias. Av.
Antnio Carlos 6627, Campus Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270.901, Brazil
2 Centre for Exploration Targeting, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Western Australia,
Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009
3 School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
4 ARC for Ore Deposits (CODES COE), University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
5 Institute of Mineralogy and Geochemistry, University of Lausanne, Anthropole, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
6 School of Earth Science, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia

Abstract
The Serra Norte Carajs banded iron-formation (BIF)-hosted iron ore deposits are located in the Carajs
mineral province. The deposits are hosted in the ca. 2.7 Ga Gro Par Group, a metamorphosed volcanic-sed-
imentary sequence where jaspilites are under- and overlain by basalts, both at greenschist facies conditions.
They represent one of the largest high-grade (>60 wt % Fe) BIF iron ore deposits and resources in the world,
with hypogene iron mineralization considered to be Paleoproterozoic. Four main open pits have, to date, pro-
duced about 1.2 billion metric tons (Bt) of high-grade iron ore with additional resources of 10 Bt. Ore types at
the Serra Norte deposits include soft and hard ore; the latter consists of banded, massive and/or brecciated ores
and is mainly localized along the contact with the surrounding hydrothermally altered basalts.
Distinct hydrothermal alteration zones consist of veins and breccias that surround the hard ores, including:
(1) an early alteration zone (distal portion of orebodies), characterized by recrystallization of jasper, formation
of magnetite ( martite), and the local introduction of quartz and carbonate-sulfide (quartz) veins; (2) inter-
mediate alteration, synchronous with the main iron ore-forming event, which is accompanied by widespread
development of martite, quartz-hematite and hematite-quartz veins, and dissolution of carbonate; and (3) prox-
imal alteration zone having various types of hard and hard-porous hematite ores containing microplaty,
anhedral, euhedral, and tabular hematite species. Locally, high-grade breccia ores contain dolomite and kut-
nahorite matrices indicating carbonate introduction. High-grade ore zones contain quartz carbonate-
hematite veins and breccias.
Combined microthermometry, iron chromatography, and in situ laser ablation ICP-MS analyses on fluid
inclusion assemblages from five vein types reveal that (1) early alteration vein-breccia quartz-carbonate con-
tains high-salinity (up to 30 equiv wt % NaCl) fluid inclusions, with Ca, besides Na, K, and Mg, which were
trapped at temperatures of 220 to 320C. The quartz-hosted fluid inclusions have a wide range of Cl/Br ratios,
presence of Li, base metals Cu-Pb-Zn, and Fe; (2) intermediate alteration vein quartz contains both low-salin-
ity (Na-Fe-Mg-rich) and high-salinity (Ca-Mg-Fe-rich) fluid inclusions, with trapping temperatures of 210 to
290C; (3) advanced alteration vein and breccia quartz-carbonate has low- to high-salinity fluid inclusions and
trapping temperatures between 240 to 310C, with the low-salinity inclusions being much more abundant in
quartz. There is a gradual dilution of the metals signature in fluid inclusions from early to late- and/or
advanced-stage veins and breccias.
The large amount of Ca in the fluid inclusions is compatible with extensive exchange of the hydrothermal
fluids with the surrounding chloritized-hematitized metabasaltic wall rock.
Oxygen isotope analyses on different oxide species reveal that the heaviest 18OSMOW values, up to 15.2,
are recorded for jaspilites, followed by magnetite, between 0.4 to +4.3, and then by different hematite
species such as microplaty, anhedral and tabular, which fall in the range of 9.5 to 2.4. These results show
a progressive depletion in 18O values from the earliest introduced hydrothermal oxide magnetite toward the
latest tabular hematite. The advanced alteration stage in high-grade ore displays the most depleted 18O values
and represents the highest fluid/rock ratio during hydrothermal alteration. This depletion is interpreted to
result from the progressive mixture of descending, heated meteoric water with ascending modified magmatic
fluids. Sulfides from the distal zone of metabasaltic rocks have 34S values close to 0, consistent with a mag-
matic origin for the sulfur. Heavier 34S values, of up to 10.8, in vein sulfides hosted in jaspilite, may reflect
interaction with meteoric waters or, alternatively, variations in fO2 and pH conditions during evolution of the
hydrothermal fluid.
Calcite-kutnahorite 13C and 18O values from the distal alteration zones show a large 13C range of 5.5 to
2.4 and a relatively narrow 18O range of 9.3 to 11.7. However, dolomite matrix breccias from the

Corresponding author: e-mail, rosalinecris@yahoo.com.br

Submitted: January 26, 2012

0361-0128/13/4115/739-41 739 Accepted: September 11, 2012
740 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

advanced hydrothermal zone, i.e., ore, exhibit a wider 18O range from 15.1 to 21.8 and a more restricted
13C range from 5.0 to 3.9. This latter range points to a single carbon source, of possible magmatic na-
ture, whereas the larger 18O range suggests multiple carbon and oxygen sources. The 87Sr/86Sr ratios for car-
bonates from the distal and advanced hydrothermal zones range between 0.7116 to 0.7460, suggesting incor-
poration of strontium from multiple crustal sources, including magmatic-hydrothermal fluids.
A dual magmatic-meteoric hydrothermal fluid-flow model is proposed for the hematite ores in which an
early, low Cl/Br ratio, saline, ascending modified magmatic fluid, caused widespread oxidation of magnetite to
hematite. Progressive influx of light 18O meteoric water, mixing with the ascending magmatic fluids, is inter-
preted to have been initiated during the intermediate stage of alteration. The advanced and final hydrothermal
stage was dominated by a massive influx of low-salinity meteoric water, which maintained intermediate tem-
peratures of 240 to 310C, and concomitant formation of the paragenetically latest tabular hematite.
The giant Carajs iron deposits are unique in their setting within an Archean granite-greenstone belt and
their modified magmatic-meteoric hydrothermal system, compared to the other two end-member BIF iron de-
posit types, namely the basin-related Hamersley type and the metamorphosed metasedimentary- basin-related
Iron-Quadrangle-type. The distinct hydrothermal alteration signature present in both wall-rock basalts and
jaspilites, in combination with distinct fluid chemistry signatures, particularly the low 18O values of parage-
netically late oxides indicative of massive influx of meteoric water into the high-grade orebodies, provide dis-
tinctive parameters for defining the Carajs end-member type BIF deposit class.

Introduction techniques are applied to fluid inclusions, including mi-

THE CARAJS mineral province is richly endowed with a vari-
ety of metals in several distinct types of metallic ore deposits,
including Archean and Paleoproterozoic iron oxide-copper-
gold (IOCG)-type deposits and the giant jaspilite-hosted
Serra Norte iron deposits (e.g., Grainger et al., 2008). The
origin, age, and relative timing of the hard, high-grade (>64
wt % Fe) iron orebodies of the Serra Norte deposits have re-
mained uncertain and controversial. A hypogene origin has
been suggested since the 1970s by a number of workers, prior
to supergene residual enrichment via leaching of silica (e.g.,
Tolbert et al., 1971; Rezende and Barbosa, 1972; Beisegel et
al., 1973; Beukes et al., 2002; Guedes et al., 2002; Klein and
Ladeira, 2002; Dalstra and Guedes, 2004; Clout and Simon-
son, 2005). However, until recently (Figueiredo e Silva et al.,
2008) no systematic work, either in the public or private do-
mains, has been available on the hypogene ore, with the ex-
ception of Dalstra and Guedes (2004) and Lobato et al.
(2005a, b).
The hard, high-grade hematite iron orebodies are mainly
located along the contact between the protore jaspilites and
lower mafic wall rocks (i.e., basalts and gabbros) as lenses and
tabular bodies and also as lenses surrounded by mafic rocks.
The mafic wall rocks, as well as jaspilites, are hydrothermally
altered, with both intense chloritization and hematitization
developed along the contact with the orebody (Lobato et al.,
2005b; Zucchetti, 2007; Figueiredo e Silva, 2009). The pro-
posed modified magmatic-meteoric hydrothermal mineral-
ization model for the Carajs hard ores (Figueiredo e Silva et
al., 2008) is substantially different from models for the
Hamersley or Quadriltero Ferrfero (Iron Quadrangle) iron
ore deposits (Rosire et al., 2008; Thorne et al., 2008), but
may have a genetic link to the numerous Proterozoic mag-
matic-hydrothermal deposits in the Carajs mineral province
(Lobato et al., 2005a).
In order to better constrain and understand the hydrother-
mal processes that led to the upgrade of jaspilite to form hard,
high-grade iron ores in the Serra Norte deposits, we have in-
vestigated the composition of hydrothermal fluids from vein
breccias located in the different hydrothermal alteration
zones, using two main research approaches, viz. fluid inclu-
sions and stable and radiogenic isotopes. Several different
crothermometry, bulk-method, crush-leach extraction fol-
lowed by atomic absorption analyses and release by thermal
decrepitation, thereafter followed by ion-chromatography,
and laser ablation coupled to ICP-MS. Carbon and oxygen
isotope and strontium isotope analyses have been performed
on carbonates (calcite, dolomite); sulfur isotopes on sulfides
(pyrite and chalcopyrite); oxygen isotopes on magnetite, dif-
ferent hematite types, and on quartz in veins and breccias;
and hydrogen isotopes on fluid inclusions hosted by quartz
from different vein breccia types. Results from these analy-
ses, paired with detailed mineralogy and paragenetic studies
(Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2008), are used to propose a dual
magmatic-meteoric hydrothermal model that constrains min-
eralizing processes and fluid sources, which were integral to
the enrichment of jaspilite to high-grade iron ore.
Regional Geologic Setting
The Carajs mineral province is located in the southern
part of the Archean through the Paleoproterozoic portion of
the Amazon craton, which is one of the largest cratonic areas
in the world. The province is dominated by metavolcanic-
metasedimentary rocks and granitoids, formed between 2.76
and 2.68 Ga, and also includes the Meso-Archean igneous
and metamorphic Pium and Xingu Complexes (Santos, 2003).
The province is divided into two tectonic blocks, the southern
Rio Maria granite-greenstone terrane (Huhn et al., 1988),
and the northern Itacainas shear belt (Arajo et al., 1988).
The Carajs mineral province hosts a wealth of mineral de-
posits that encompass: (1) the giant iron ore deposits of the
Serras Norte (N1N9), Sul (S1S45), and Leste; (2) Cu-Au
deposits, which include the Archean iron oxide-copper-gold
(IOCG) Salobo, Pojuca, Alemo-Igarap Bahia, Cristalino,
and Sossego deposits, as well as the Paleoproterozoic Cu-Au
(W-Bi-Sn) Alvo 118, and Cu-Au Gameleira deposits
(Grainger et al., 2008); (3) the Paleoproterozoic Serra Pelada
Au-Pt-Pd deposit; (4) the manganese deposits at Azul and
Sereno; and (5) the Vermelho Ni deposit (Fig. 1).
The tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite Xingu Complex (ca.
2.86 Ga; Silva et al., 1974) forms the basement underlying the
volcano-sedimentary sequence in the northern Itacainas
shear belt. Archean granites intrude both the basement and

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 741

Aacm-Manganiferous pelite

Cu-Au, Ni and A u deposits

FIG. 1. Geologic map of the Itacainas shear belt, Carajs mineral province (modified after Rosire et al., 2006), show-
ing major mineral resources including iron ore deposits N1, N4, and N5 (Serra Norte), Serra Sul and Serra Leste; some
IOCG deposits (Alemo/Igarap Bahia, Sossego, Cristalino); some Cu-Au (W-Bi-Sn) such as Gameleira and Alvo 118; the
Serra Pelada gold-platinum-palladium deposit; the Azul manganese deposit, and the Vermelho nickel deposit. Lithostrati-
graphic classification is adapted with field data from Costa (2007) and interpretation by Seoane et al. (2004), based on Land-
sat ETM7 RGB 321, 752, and PC1-52 images.

overlie volcano-sedimentary sequences, with ages varying
from 2.76 to 2.74 Ga; and mafic-ultramafic units are 2.76 Ga
(Fig. 1).
Serra dos Carajs is an S-shaped mountain belt that contains
the major iron ore deposits. It is composed of metavolcanic
and metasedimentary rock units of the ca. 2.7 Itacainas
Supergroup (Fig. 1), with the Carajs Formation banded iron
formation (BIF) being host to iron mineralization.
In the study area, the Itacainas Supergroup includes
greenschist facies metavolcanic and metasedimentary se-
quences of the Igarap Bahia (2745 1 and 2747 1 Ma;
Galarza and Macambira, 2002), Aquiri, Gro Par (Santos,

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742 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

2003), and Rio Novo (e.g., Costa, 2007) groups. The Gro
Par Group (Fig. 1) is a greenstone belt succession composed
of volcanic and sedimentary rocks having ages between 2.8
and 2.7 Ga (Gibbs et al., 1986; Wirth et al., 1986; Olszewsky,
1989; Trendall et al., 1998) with interbeded BIF. The lower-
most Parauapebas Formation (Meirelles et al., 1984; Krymsky
et al., 2002; Lobato et al., 2005b) contains basalts and basaltic
andesites, and minor basic to intermediate pyroclastic rocks.
An amygdaloidal facies in the basic volcanic sequence occurs
at the top of the unit (Meirelles et al., 1984), intercalated with
BIF and basic tuff. Rhyolite layers at the base of the Pa-
rauapebas Formation are observed together with fluvial con-
glomerates and arenite. The volcanic, pyroclastic, or volcan-
oclastic rocks locally preserve some original textural features
and minerals that formed during ocean-floor hydrothermal
alteration (Zucchetti, 2007).
The Carajs Formation BIF (2751 4 Ma; Krymsky et al.,
2002) represents the stratigraphically intermediate portion of
the Gro Par Group (DOCEGEO, 1988). It contains layers
and discontinuous lenses of jaspilites and iron ores (hard and
soft), intruded by mafic sills and dikes. Jaspilites display typi-
cal intercalation of centimeter-thick, light and dark layers, or
mesolayers (about 5 cm thick), and microlayers composed of
iron-oxide layers intercalated with reddish to light-colored
layers of jasper and chert, respectively. Distal from mineral-
ization, jaspilites exhibit primary structures and textures, such
as syn-sedimentary microfaults and spherulites, viz. jasper or
chert ringed by hematite. Dolomite-bearing BIF consists of
layers of dolomite and chert in varying proportions, alternat-
ing with dark iron-oxide layers (Macambira and Schrank,
2002; Dalstra and Guedes, 2004). The dolomite-bearing BIF
is approximately 50 meters thick extending for about 400 m
along strike, and is interpreted as carbonate facies BIF by
Dalstra and Guedes (2004). A hydrothermal origin for this
carbonate has been suggested by Figueiredo e Silva et al.
(2008).
Psammo pelitic rocks, such as arenites, calcarenites, silt-
stones, and conglomerates of the guas Claras Formation
(Fig. 1) overlie the volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Gro
Par Group. Sedimentary rocks from guas Claras Formation
have been constrained to have a minimum age of 2708 37
Ma (Mougeot, 1996) by the U-Pb method based on zircons
obtained from crosscutting mafic dikes.
Paleoproterozoic A-type, alkaline to subalkaline granites,
such as the Serra dos Carajs granite (Fig. 1), intrude the Ita-
cainas Supergroup and have been dated at 1880 2 Ma
(Machado et al., 1991). DallAgnoll and de Oliveira (2007)
classified these intrusions as oxidized, magnetite-series, ra-
pakivi-type granites.
A Paleoproterozoic age for the iron mineralization was
originally constrained by whole-rock Sm-Nd data on hemati-
tized mafic to basic volcanics, which form the wallrocks to
the mineralization along the contact with the high-grade iron
ore (Lobato et al., 2005b). This age is well correlated to
Orosirian A-type granites in the Carajs region (e.g., Serra
dos Carajs granite at 1880 2 Ma; Machado et al., 1991).
More recently, Santos et al. (2010) obtained two distinct ages
using hydrothermal minerals interpreted to be co-genetic
with the iron oxides in mineralized samples at N5E. Anatase
in hematitized mafic volcanic rock yielded an age of 1717
12 Ma, whereas monazite included in hydrothermal hematite
in iron ore is 1613 21 Ma.
The giant iron-oxide orebodies of the Carajs mineral
province are intimately associated with folded BIF of the
Gro Par Group (Rosire et al., 2006), although significant
quantities of iron-oxide, mainly as monomineralic rocks, are
associated with other stratigraphic units. These BIFs are
commonly, but not ubiquitously, associated with Cu-Au and
Au ores, including the mafic units interlayered with the BIF.
Serra Norte Iron Ore Deposits: Geological Setting and
Hydrothermal Alteration Zonation
The four main Serra Norte iron deposits, N4E, N4W, N5E,
and N5S have been studied (Fig. 2) and details about the geo-
metry, grade in jaspilite, and alteration zones are provided in
Table 1 and Figueiredo e Silva et al. (2008). At the N4W de-
posit, porous, friable, and laminated-banded soft ore pre-
dominates and banded, massive, and/or brecciated hard ore is
scarce, whereas the N5E deposit contains the largest volume
of hard ore among the Serra Norte deposits. In the N5E de-
posit, the presence of carbonate in ore is restricted to depths
>200 m. In the N4E deposit, carbonates such as kutnahorite
and lesser calcite are present along the jaspilite-basalt and
hard ore-basalt contacts in the form of veins, and also ce-
menting ore breccias. Carbonates are less common in the
other deposits.
The hydrothermal alteration associated with iron mineral-
ization followed low-grade metamorphism of the entire se-
quence (Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2007a). According to
Rosire et al. (2006), the upgrading of the Carajs iron ore-
bodies postdates regional metamorphism and the emplace-
ment of all fold and shear events registered in the Carajs
province.
The extent of hydrothermal alteration is based on the trans-
formation of jaspilite to high-grade iron ores. Jaspilites were
affected to varying degrees and at different times during the
evolution of the iron deposits (Lobato et al., 2005a, b;
Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2007a, b, 2008). In these zones, the
transformation of jaspilite to iron ore is mainly defined by a
distinct paragenetic sequence of iron oxide minerals (Fig. 3A-
I) with concomitant removal of silica, introduction of carbon-
ate, and formation of specific types of veins that may contain
quartz, carbonate (calcite and dolomite), hematite, sulfides
(chalcopyrite and pyrite), monazite, and rare gold. As a result

FIG. 2. Simplified geologic map of the main open pits in the Serra Norte iron ore deposits (modified after Resende and
Barbosa, 1972). The map was constructed from drill core and open-pit mapping of the N4WN, N4WC, N4E, N5W, N5E,
and N5S deposits with location of selected drill holes and geologic sections (based on data from Vale). Drill holes F904, F910,
and F897 are located in the southern extension of the N5S deposit, where the surface litology was not avaiable. The
schematic cross sections indicated in the map are shown in Figure 20.

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 743

3000

N4WN Legend
A B Canga over ore
F693
Canga over mafic rock
Weathered mafic rock
Soft ore
2000 Jaspilite
Hard ore
Hematitized mafic rock
A
F660
B
N4E Mafic rock
Fault zone (approximate
based on pit mapping)
Fault zone (inferred based
1000
N4WC on photo-lineament
interpretation)
Drill hole

Cross sections
F603 A B
C D
C D
0 F703

N
1000 m

-1000

N5W
F318
C
750
D N5E F284

F603 F414 E F

-2000 F439
E F
F556 F405

500
1000

1250

1500

-3000 Meters
0 50 150 250

F686
E F
F700

750

-4000 F439

F817
G H
500
5250

5500

5750

6000

Meters

-5000
0 50 100 200 300
F760
N5S
F771

-6000
F825
G H
-1000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

F837
0

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744 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.
TABLE 1. Geologic Setting of the Serra Norte Iron Ore Deposits
Deposit Length Structures
N4E 4.5 km long; orebody Northern domain: the lithologic
350 m thick units strike mainly N-S and dip to
the W
Southern domain: trends NE-SW,
dipping 45 NW
E-W-trending faults interpreted as
normal faults, whereas the N-NW-
trending structures interpreted as
strike-slip faults (Melo et al., 1981
in Schobbenhaus and Coelho, 1986)
N4W 7 km long; orebody N 2030 E/4050 NW (northern)
200500 m wide,
400 m deep
N5E 1 km long; hard Trends N 40 W-N 80 W,
orebodies up to dipping 5060SW
50 m thick
N5S 5 km long, including No information available
Morro 1 and Morro 2
Abbreviations: HO = hard ore, Jp = jaspilite, SO = soft ore
of the variations in the paragenetic sequences and vein brec-
cia types, each Serra Norte deposit exhibits a specific stage of
hydrothermal alteration.
The mineralogy and zonation of hydrothermal alteration
zones are detailed by Figueiredo e Silva et al. (2008) and Lo-
bato et al. (2008). Alteration zones and thicknesses vary from
deposit to deposit. Specific zones may be lacking or predom-
inant in some deposits. The three alteration zones associated
with these deposits are (1) a distal zone representing early al-
teration, (2) an intermediate zone, and (3) proximal zones,
which are products of later alteration events, i.e., synchronous
with the main ore-forming event. The proximal alteration
zone, which represents the most advanced stage of hydro-
thermal alteration, also contains the high-grade iron ore.
The distal alteration zone in jaspilite is typical of the N4 de-
posit. It is mainly characterized by the recrystallization of
jasper with the removal of most original primary fine-grained
iron oxides and associated early formation of magnetite. Mag-
netite crystals are euhedral to anhedral (Fig. 3A, B) and form
(1) overgrowths on microcrystalline hematite in jasper layers,
(2) grains in the nuclei of recrystallized chert uniformly asso-
ciated with crosscutting quartz veins, or (3) grains in equilib-
rium with vein quartz and calcite. Magnetite can be replaced
by hematite, representing martitization, and leaving Fe+2-de-
ficient kenotetrahedral magnetite (cf. Kullerud et al., 1969;
Hagemann et al., 2008) relicts, which have been confirmed by
Mssbauer analyses (Figueiredo e Silva, 2009). Pyrite and
chalcopyrite may be associated with the hydrothermal alter-
ation, but it is noted that relatively rare, syngenetic pyrite
(N4W) and calcite (N4E) crystals also occur in parallel lami-
nae of jaspilite. Veins of this alteration zone typically lack
hematite. Because these textural features are not associated
with alteration zones that contain hematite ore, they are inter-
preted as products of the early hydrothermal alteration stage.
The intermediate alteration zone is characterized by wide-
spread martitization (Fig. 3C), with or without kenomagnetite,
and is best displayed in the N5S deposit. Quartz-hematite and
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Main characteristics Ore types
HO: proximity to faults trending Northern domain: SO dominates
NE-SW and NW-SE, dipping to Southern domain: brecciated Jps
NW (south) and HO with carbonates and
sulfides
Carbonate-veined hard ore
Mineralizedalteration zone Soft ore dominates
HO subordinate
Jp not in direct contact with HO HO predominates and
Tabular hematite veins in HO SO subordinate
Hematitized mafic (gabbro)
Magnetite veins; altered jaspilite SO dominates
intermediate alteration zone Gabbro intercalated with jaspilites
hematite-quartz veins are common and contain microplaty
hematite and subordinate sulfides. Where altered, the cohe-
sive jaspilites become progressively more porous, affecting
especially the original jasper layers. Precipitation of mi-
croplaty hematite and extensive martite alteration followed
the formation of magnetite in the early stage.
The proximal alteration zone is represented by varying
types of hard and hard-porous ores. The complete oxide se-
quence martite microplaty hematite anhedral hematite
euhedral-tabular hematite (Fig. 3D-H) is best portrayed by
the N5E deposit, which contains the largest volume of hard,
high-grade iron ore. In this alteration zone, the original shape
of martitic magnetite blasts is destroyed by progressive
martitization, forming anhedral hematite in abundant eye-
like agglomerates of lobate crystals. Intense carbonate alter-
ation associated with the formation of high-grade ores re-
sulted in ore breccias cemented by dolomite (N5 deposit) and
kutnahorite (N4 deposit). Hard ore with a predominance of
late-stage, tabular hematite lacks quartz and carbonate veins.
It is the abundance and nature in the different types of
hematite that suggests the proximal alteration stage is a con-
tinuation of the intermediate alteration stage. The high-grade
hematite ores reflect the highest fluid to rock ratio stages of
the hydrothermal system as a whole, therefore representing
the advanced alteration stage.
Microcrystalline hematite is stable even in the more ad-
vanced hydrothermal alteration stages. Stockwork-type veins
contain tabular hematite. These proximal alteration zones are
also characterized by discontinuous quartz carbonate veins
with intergrown microplaty hematite, which may be included
in the hematite-martite ore type. The microplaty hematite
and intergrown quartz form the matrix of hydrothermal brec-
cias in the proximal alteration zone.
Vein and breccia types in altered jaspilites
Detailed logging of 20 diamond drill cores, through the N4
and N5 deposits, and petrographic and textural descriptions
744
 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 745

A B
Mag
Mag

200 m
750 m

C D

MpHem
Mt
200 m 200 m

E AHem F
MpHem
AHem

100 m 200 m

G H
AHem THem

MpHem

100 m 100 m

O
Ore/
re/ Proximal
Proximal IIntermediate
ntermediate D
Distal
istal
I Microcrystalline hematite
M ic rocr ystalline h e matite

Earliest
E Magnetite
arliest M agne tite

M ar tite
Martite

K e nomagne tite
Kenomagnetite

M ic roplaty h
Microplaty e matite
hematite

A nhe dr al-subhe dr al hem

Anhedral-subhedral he m

La
L atest
Latest E uhe dr al-tabular h
Euhedral-tabular e matite
hematite

FIG. 3. Photomicrographs showing different oxides from altered jaspilite and hard ore samples. A. Bands of magnetite in
altered jaspilite (distal alteration zone) from the N4E deposit. Reflected light (50). B. Detailed photo (A), showing
backscattered image of euhedral-subhedral magnetite crystals (100). C. Martite crystals of martite-hematite brecciated
hard ore from the N4E deposit. Reflected light (100). D. Microplaty hematite in veined hematite (banded and/or brec-
ciated) hard ore from the N4E deposit. Reflected light (100). E. Microplaty and anhedral hematite vein in altered jaspilite
from N5S deposit. Reflected light, under crossed polars (200). F. Anhedral hematite portions of high-grade hematite ore,
N5E deposit. Note that holes made by laser ICP-MS analyses are shown. Reflected light, under crossed polars (100). G.
Anhedral hematite crystals with lobate borders in high-grade hematite ore, N5E deposit. Reflected light, under crossed po-
lars (200). H. Tabular hematite vein in brecciated N5E hematite ore. Reflected light, under crossed polars (200). I. Par-
agenetic sequence of oxides. Mineral abbreviations: AHem = anhedral hematite, Mag = magnetite, Mt = martite, MpHem
= microplaty hematite, THem = tabular hematite.

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746 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

of veins and breccias have been used to establish a vein clas-
sification in jaspilites with respect to their location in specific
hydrothermal alteration zones (Fig. 4; Table 2) and associated
iron mineralization and the iron oxide paragenesis. It must be
emphasized that the vein types from the distal alteration zone
lack hematite and represent an early stage of alteration and
mineralization. In contrast, hematite is intergrown with
quartz, carbonate, and sulfides, in veins from the intermedi-
ate and proximal alteration zones.
Vein and breccia types can be correlated in time from the
distal to proximal alteration zones, representing a paragenetic
sequence with V1 vein breccias the oldest and V5 vein brec-
cias the youngest. The defined vein breccia types (Fig. 4,
Table 1) are as follows:
1. Veins in the distal alteration zone of jaspilite are
hematite-free and include V1a quartz sulfide vein or brec-
cia, and V1b carbonate chalcopyrite (pyrite)-magnetite
vein/breccia, which either cut (V1a), or are parallel to (V1b),
jaspilite layers.
2. The intermediate alteration zone has two vein types: V2a
quartz-hematite chalcopyrite veins, and V2b quartz-
hematite veins with characteristics vugs, and V3 hematite-
quartz veins that cut and/or are parallel to the jaspilite bed-
ding. Locally, relict textures of carbonates suggest that they
were dissolved and/or replaced by microplaty hematite.
3. The proximal alteration zone is characterized by vein
filling in vein breccias classified as V4 carbonate-quartz
breccia with finely disseminated iron oxides in the carbonate,

V1a V1b Quartz-

Distal sulfide
breccia
Intermediate
V3 V2a V2b Amygdale 2 Amygdale 1

Jaspilite/ore Basalt

Distal
V4 Hem Carb

Qtz
V5 Hem

Qtz

Ore
Hem
Quartz breccia
Hem-Qz & Qz Fracture
Carb
Fracture

Proximal/Ore 0 4 cm
Intermediate
FIG. 4. Schematic diagram illustrating the different vein and breccias types in altered jaspilites and mafic wall rocks ob-
served in diamond core and open pit. Also shown are photographs of examples from core samples. In the altered jaspilites
two vein breccia types characterize the distal alteration zone which represents an early alteration/mineralization stage: V1a
= quartz sulfide breccia and V1b = carbonate sulfide quartz breccia-veins. The intermediate alteration zone is repre-
sented by the following vein types: V2a = quartz hematite bedding discordant veins; V2b = quartz-hematite bedding dis-
cordant vertical veins with characteristic vug textures; V3 = hematite quartz veins crosscut and/or parallel to the jaspilite
beds. The proximal alteration zone is characterized by V4 = carbonate quartz breccias with disseminated Fe particles in
the carbonate, and V5 = quartz microplaty hematite breccia, both are located in high-grade ore.
In the altered mafic wall rock, distal alteration zone is represented by amygdale 1 which is filled with quartz carbonate
chlorite, fracture filled in quartz carbonate sulfides and quartz breccia with quartz chlorite and sulfides. Intermedi-
ate alteration zone contains amygdale 2 filled in quartz hematite chlorite, fracture with hematite and quartz, and
hematite-quartz breccia. Schematic diagram from Zucchetti (2007).

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL
TABLE 2. Classification of Vein Breccia Located in the Altered Jaspilite, Serra Norte Iron Ore Deposits
Type Thickness Length Geometry
V1a 5 cm >10 cm Brecciated jaspilite
V1b 5 cm >10 cm Vertical and/or along the jaspilite-bedding; brecciated jaspilite
V2a 12 mm >30 cm Vertical (faulted) bedding discordant
V2b up to 7 cm >25 cm Vertical w/ cavities (vugs)
V3 1 cm >30 cm Vertical and/or along the jaspilite-bedding
V4 up to 10 cm >50 cm Brecciated hard ore
V5 13 mm 2-5 cm Brecciated hard ore
Abbreviations: Cal = calcite, Ccp = chalcopyrite, Hem = hematite, Kut = kutnahorite, Py = pyrite, Qtz = quartz, Mag = magnetite, Mt = martite, MpHem
= Microplaty hematite
and V5 quartz microplaty hematite vein breccia; both are
located in high-grade iron ore.
Veins and breccias are also present in the hydrothermally
altered basaltic wall rock that surrounds the jaspilites and iron
orebodies. Zucchetti (2007) and Figueiredo e Silva et al.
(2008) interpreted these as part of the hydrothermal system
that affected the jaspilites and which resulted in the forma-
tion of the high-grade, hard iron ores.
Veins and breccias in the distal alteration zone: The quartz
sulfide V1a vein type cuts jaspilite layers and consists of
jaspilite fragments in a matrix of white, fine- to medium-
grained (up to 2.4 mm) quartz crystals with polygonal con-
tacts. Jasper fragments may contain portions of hematite-free
chert layers. Sulfides comprise euhedral to anhedral pyrite
crystals, occuring in the center of cherty layers in jaspilite
fragments or inclusions in magnetite.
The carbonate sulfide quartz V1b vein/breccia type is
located parallel to the jaspilite layers but is laterally discon-
tinuous. The oxide layers of the jaspilite fragments are com-
posed of microcrystalline hematite (MiH), which is locally
overgrown by aggregates of subhedral-anhedral magnetite
(0.3 mm). Magnetite is weakly martitized and in place sur-
rounded by comb-textured quartz. Carbonate crystals in the
matrix are commonly cloudy, subhedral to euhedral, generally
fine grained (avg diam 0.2 mm), but locally coarse grained (>
10 mm), and can constitute up to 60 vol % of the breccia ma-
trix. Carbonates are mainly calcite, with subordinate dolomite
and kutnahorite. Some carbonate crystals are surrounded by
pyrite (0.2 mm). Quartz forms as small patches in the center
of carbonate and locally fine-grained (0.03 mm) crystals at the
border of veinlets with coarser grained (0.3 mm) carbonate in
the center. Euhedral pyrite (0.02 mm) crystals are situated in
V1b veins in textural equilibrium with carbonate, and are also
in veinlets close to the contact of the jaspilite and carbonate-
quartz veins. Fine-grained chalcopyrite crystals are in textural
equilibrium with pyrite or occur within magnetite and as
coarse-grained (up to 4 mm) crystals in carbonate V1b veins.
Veins in the intermediate alteration zone: The quartz
hematite V2a veins are discordant to the jaspilite bedding and
are characterized by milky quartz crystals. The V2b quartz-
hematite veins are also bedding-discordant with respect to the
jaspilite and commonly contain vugs within the quartz (Fig.
4). Locally, both vein types may include chalcopyrite. The V3
hematite-quartz-chalcopyrite veins crosscut and/or are paral-
lel to the jaspilite beds and are dominated by microplaty and
platy hematite, comb-textured quartz, and magnetite relicts.
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747
Mineralogy
Qtz sulfide (Ccy-Py)
Cal-Kut (Qtz) sulfide (Ccy-Py)-Mag
Qtz Hem (Ccy)
Qtz + Hem (Mt)
Hem Qtz
Kut (Fe-dusty) Qtz MpHem
Qtz-MpHem
Quartz is present principally as (1) micro- to cryptocrys-
talline aggregates of mosaic texture, probably the product of
recrystallization of chalcedony and amorphous silica (cf.
Lovering, 1972); (2) comb-textured crystals in V2 and V3
veinlets and veins, oriented perpendicular to magnetite crys-
tal faces; and (3) fine to very coarse (8 mm) pyramidal crystals
that are situated along polygonal grain boundaries in V2 veins.
Ore breccias and veins in the proximal alteration zone: The
V4 vein type is characterized by carbonate quartz crystals,
which are cemented in ore layers (Fig. 4) containing hematite-
martite and some microplaty hematite. Carbonate-hematite-
martite microplaty hematite ore breccias are dominated (up
to 70 vol %) by fine- (0.10.8 mm) to medium- (3 mm)
grained carbonate. The carbonate crystals are subhedral to
anhedral and contain very fine grained iron oxide particles.
Locally, carbonate crystals display zonation that is defined by
a dusty hematite pigment parallel to the external triangular
and rhombohedral crystal shapes (Fig. 5D); they are classified
as manganese-rich dolomite, i.e., kutnahorite, dolomite, and
rare calcite (Figueiredo e Silva, 2009). Martite crystals are in
places located in the center of these carbonates. Fine-
grained, anhedral to subhedral quartz crystals occur in the
center of carbonate. Locally, the quartz crystals are coarse
grained (4 mm) with polygonal contacts and are pyramidal in
shape. Quartz and dolomite may contain hematite inclusions.
The quartz microplaty hematite V5 veins are locally brec-
ciated with fragments of hematite-martite (i.e., hard ore)
within a quartz-microplaty hematite (MpHem) matrix. The
fragments are defined by martite crystals and layers of micro-
crystalline to fine-grained (0.020.1 mm) hematite. Anhedral
hematite and tabular hematite crystals also make up massive
layers, about 1 cm thick. The microplaty hematite is com-
monly observed in quartz veins and the center of martite ag-
gregates. Quartz crystals (up to 4 mm in size) can be pyrami-
dal in the center of crystal zones that have polygonal contacts.
Vein breccias in basaltic wall rocks
Vein breccia types are also described in the mafic wall rock
(Zucchetti, 2007) as part of the distal and intermediate alter-
ation zones (Fig. 4). They are classified as: (1) amygdules
filled with quartz carbonate chlorite in the distal alter-
ation zone and with quartz hematite chlorite in the inter-
mediate zone; (2) fracture-fill quartz carbonate sulfides
located in the distal zone, and hematite and quartz in the in-
termediate alteration zone; and (3) quartz breccia with quartz
chlorite and sulfides in the distal alteration zone and
hematite-quartz breccia in the intermediate zone.
747
748 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

A B C D Mt
Cc
Kut Kut Hem
Cc dusty
Jasper Kut
Mt
4 cm
750 m 4 cm 750 m

E F G H

Kut AHem
Dol
MpHem
Kut Dol
Dol
Mt-MpHem
4 cm 200 m 4 cm 100 m

J
I J

Kut

Cc
5 cm

200 m

FIG. 5. Hand samples and photomicrographs displaying carbonate samples that were analyzed for carbon and oxygen iso-
topes on carbonates. A. Hand sample of least altered jaspilite with V1 calcite veinlets from the N4E deposit. B. V1 calcite
vein and veinlets discordant and parallel to jaspilite banding, N4E deposit. Transmitted light, under crossed polars (25). C.
Hand sample of brecciated martite hard ore with carbonate, N4E deposit. D. Kutnahorite crystals showing interpreted
growth zones defined by dusty hematite particles. Transmitted light, under crossed polars (25). E. Hand sample of mar-
tite-microplaty hematite ore crosscut by V4 carbonate veinlets. F. Equilibrium kutnahorite-martite-microplaty hematite as-
semblage. Transmitted light, under crossed polars (100). G. Core sample of hematite ore with dolomite, N5E deposit. H.
Backscattered electron-microprobe image displaying zoned dolomite (high and low MnO contents; the latter represented by
darker areas), and rare euhedral calcite crystals (arrow), N5E deposit. I. Core sample of brecciated martite-hematite ore ce-
mented by carbonate, N4E deposit. J. Backscattered image showing calcite surrounded by kutnahorite. Mineral abbrevia-
tions: Carb = carbonate, Cc = calcite, Dol = dolomite, Kut = kutnahorite, MpHem = microplaty hematite, Mt = martite.

Fluid Inclusion Studies Occurrence and paragenesis: Detailed petrography reveals

Petrography
Samples for fluid inclusion analyses were selected from all
different vein breccia types (Figs. 4, 6), containing both
quartz and carbonate (Table 2, Fig. 6) crystals. Twenty-five
doubly polished sections were chosen, mapped, and exam-
ined petrographically, and of these, 13 and seven were se-
lected for microthermometry studies in quartz and carbonate
crystals, respectively. In samples selected for microthermom-
etry, quartz from vein breccias in intermediate and proximal
alteration zones (Fig. 6) is in textural equilibrium with
hematite crystals. Quartz-carbonate-sulfide veins and brec-
cias from the distal alteration zone are mostly devoid of
hematite, except in rare localities where microplaty hematite
is intergrown with quartz.
the presence of primary, pseudosecondary, and secondary
fluid inclusions (Roedder, 1984; Goldstein, 2003) in the stud-
ied vein breccia samples. Possible primary fluid inclusions are
present within quartz and carbonate, mainly as clusters (Fig.
7A) or individual, isolated inclusions. However, due to the
lack of growth zones these inclusions are classified as pseu-
dosecondary. Pseudosecondary fluid inclusions are common
in quartz and form as discontinuous trails within individual
crystals representing healed fractures and with variable ori-
entations (Fig. 7C). Secondary fluid inclusions crosscut inter-
nal trails and clusters of pseudosecondary inclusions and one
or more quartz or carbonate crystals (Fig. 7D).
Quartz crystals contain aqueous liquid-rich (1020 vol %
vapor) and subordinate vapor-rich (7080 vol % vapor) in-
clusions. They appear as clusters or internal trails, the latter

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 749

~30-35wt%
~30-35wt% Fe ~35-40wt%
~35-40wt% Fe 440-50wt%
0-50wt% Fe >
>50wt%
50wt% Fe
V1a V2b V3 V4 V5

Distal Int
Intermediate
ermediate Proximal
Proximal

MpHem A Qtz B Kut C MpHem D

400 m
400 m
200
m 50
m

FIG. 6. Polished sections displaying V1a quartz-breccia (N4W deposit); V2b vuggy quartz-hematite vein (N5S deposit);
V3 hematite-quartz vein (N5S deposit); V4 carbonate-quartz vein-breccia in martite hard ore (N4E deposit); and quartz-
hematite V5 vein portion in hematite hard ore (N5E deposit). Also shown is the average Fe content of studied core samples.
Photomicrographs: A. Trails of fluid inclusions trapped in quartz in equilibrium with microplaty hematite in V2b veins. B.
Trail of dark inclusions and cluster of two-phase aqueous inclusions trapped in quartz from V3 vein. C. Carbonate crystal
(Mn-rich dolomite). D. Fluid inclusions trapped in quartz in equilibrium with microplaty hematite in V5 vein.

typically oriented in random, three-dimensional arrays along 13) and V4 vein breccia type (n = 22), and therefore few in-
internal fractures within individual quartz grains. Fluid inclu- clusions are suitable for freezing and heating measurements.
sions that are interpreted as pseudosecondary have oval to ir- In calcite crystals from V1 vein breccia type, liquid-rich inclu-
regular shapes and range in size from <5 to 35 m, and rarely sions (n = 21) are typically isolated or located along internal
up to 75 m. Small, irregular-shaped inclusions, up to 12.5 fractures (Fig. 7B) and have square or rhombohedral shapes.
m in long dimension, and arranged in groups are possible
primary. Inclusions trapped along or within growth zones and Compositional types
internal trails in milky quartz of vein type V1 are very small in Aqueous inclusions are the only type of fluid inclusion ob-
size, 1 to 2 m, and/or their frequency is so high that mi- served in quartz and carbonate from all vein types; they are
crothermometry measurements are not possible. In rare lo- further subdivided into three subtypes based on low-temper-
calities, quartz is clear and contains large fluid inclusions, >5 ature microthermometric measurements including eutectic
m, in irregular, three-dimensional clusters (Fig. 6). Contin- temperature and data from corresponding saline systems
uous trails of small (<5 m) monophase and two-phase sec-
ondary inclusions with constant liquid/vapor ratio may cut TABLE 3. Summary of Fluid Inclusion Assemblages (FIAs) with
quartz crystals (Fig. 7D); they are observed in mostly vein Respect to Fluid Inclusion Type, Timing, and Vein Breccia Types
type 5 (Table 3). Irregular clusters of fluid inclusions, 7 to 25 Related to Distal, Intermediate, and Proximal Alteration Zones
m in size, are generally close to hematite crystals in vein type FIA Subtype Timing Mineral Vein breccia type
5 (Fig. 7A). Rare vapor-rich (80 vol % vapor) inclusions and
very rare three-phase (70 vol % liquid, 10 vol % vapor, and 20 1 1 P, PS Qtz, Carb V1a, V1b, V4, V5
vol % solid) inclusions are observed locally (Fig. 7J). The solid 2 2 P, PS Qtz V2a, V3, V4, V5
phase is commonly colorless with either a rectangular shape 3 3 PS Qtz V2a, V5
4 1,2 P, PS Qtz, Carb V1a, V2b, V4, V5
or rounded edges; upon heating these solids do not dissolve, 5 2,3 PS, S Carb, Qtz V1b, V2a, V3, V4, V5
hence they are likely accidently trapped solids. 6 1,2,3 P, PS, S Qtz V5
In the case of carbonate, most two-phase aqueous inclu-
sions are small (<6 m), especially in dolomites from V1 (n = Abbreviations: P = primary, PS = pseudosecondary, S = secondary

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750 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

A MpHem
B
Pseudosecondary trail

Primary cluster
200 m
800 m

C D
Crystal boundary

Pseudosecondary trail

Secondary trail

200 m 100 m

E F G

Sub-types 1, Sub-type 3 Clathrate

2 inclusions 10 m inclusion 10 m 10 m

H MpHem I J

Sub-type 3 Vapor-rich Sub-type 1

inclusion 10 m inclusion 10 m
3-phases 10 m

FIG. 7. Photomicrographs showing fluid inclusion locations and subtypes. A. Primary cluster of subtype 3 two-phase in-
clusions close to hematite crystals (V5 vein; sample N4EF603P55,50Area1), transmitted light (400). B. Pseudosecondary
trail of subtype 1 inclusions trapped in calcite of V1b vein breccia (sample N4EF703P152,98b), transmitted light (100). C.
Pseudosecondary inclusions trail in V2a quartz vein (sample N5SP157); transmitted light (100). D. Secondary fluid inclu-
sions trapped in quartz from V5 vein breccia (sample P32Area1), transmitted light (200). E. Subtypes 1 and 2 inclusions
trapped in quartz. F. and H. Subtype 3 inclusions trapped in quartz. G. Subtype 2 inclusions (clathrate). I. Vapor-rich sub-
type 3 inclusion trapped in quartz. J. Three-phase subtype 1 inclusions trapped in quartz.

(Borisenko, 1977; Goldstein and Reynolds, 1994)): (1) sub-
type 1inclusions with eutectic temperatures of <50C
(H2O-CaCl2) and 10 to 25 vol % vapor (majority of measured
inclusions; Figs. 7E, 8D); (2) subtype 2inclusions with eu-
tectic temperature between 49C and 30C (H2O-NaCl-
MgCl2) with 20 to 70 vol % vapor (vapor-rich inclusions less
commonly observed; Fig. 7I); and (3) subtype 3inclusions
with eutectic temperature of >29C (H2O-NaCl), mainly ob-
served in quartz from the proximal alteration zone (Figs. 7F,
H, 8E-G). Some rare inclusions (n = 8) trapped in quartz
crystals of V2 and V5 vein breccias display positive final ice-
melting temperature values (from 3.06.8C), suggesting
clathrate melting (Roedder, 1984), possibly caused by the
presence of CO2 (Fig. 7G). Because of the rarity of these in-
clusions, the exact gas species has not been determined.
Based on detailed petrography and low-temperature mea-
surements, the different fluid inclusion subtypes, observed in
primary and pseudosecondary fluid inclusion trails and
groups, define distinct fluid inclusion assemblages (FIA sensu
stricto; Goldstein and Reynolds, 1994; Table 3). Assemblages

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 751

A
Mt B
Pseudosecondary trails

400 m

9 Subtype 1
C D inclusions
24.5 wt % CaCl2
8
3
4
2
5
1 6
Subtype 3
inclusions 7
4.5 wt % NaCl
400 m

E F Pseudosecondary trails

G
800 m

Hem

Subtype 3
200 m inclusions

FIG. 8. A. Polished section of martite hard ore with V5 quartz-hematite vein-breccia, N4E deposit. B. Photomicrography
showing pseudosecondary internal trails in quartz. C. Stereoscopic image showing that trails do not cross quartz boundaries
(dashed line). D. Photomicrography showing the fluid inclusion assemblage 6 (Table 3) consisting of subtypes 1, 2, and 3 two-
phase inclusions (N4EF603P55Area2, groups 29 and 40 in Table 4). Note that the trail shown in the figure and overlying
sketch does contain more measured fluid inclusions as shown. E. Polished section of hematite hard ore with V5 quartz ma-
trix, N5E deposit. F. Photomicrography showing pseudosecondary internal trails crosscuting each other in quartz. G. De-
tailed photomicrography showing trail with subtype 3 two-phase inclusions of about 20 m in size (N5EF284P32Area2).

may include specific internal trails and groups that consist of
one subtype of inclusion only (i.e., monoassemblage). Based
on these observations, the relative timing of entrapment of
the fluid inclusion subtypes is interpreted to be contempora-
neous in all veins investigated (Table 3).
Microthermometry results
Freezing behavior: Table 4 presents the temperature
ranges of the eutectic (Te) and final melting of ice (Tm(ice)) of
all subtypes of fluid inclusions in the different vein breccia
types, with eutectic temperature of <63.0C, indicating the

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 TABLE 4. Microthermometry Results (mean and standard deviation (1) values are shown for n >3 in the second line of each sample/area) 752
Fluid Bulk
Groups Vein Alteration inclusion Equiv wt % Tm Bulk density molar
of FIAs Sample/area Mineral type zone subtype n CaCl2 Th(total) Tm(ice)1 CaCl2 (Te) (aq density) Molal CaCl2 volume

1 N4WF660P176Area1 Qtz V1a Distal T1(T2) n=7 23.3 to 29.1 138 to 152 45 to 17 63 to 36 1.10 to 1.20 3.03 to 3.69 19.69 to 19.86
25.91.9 1455 27.89.3 53.68.9 1.150.04 2.920.50 19.750.06
2 N4WF660P176Area22 Qtz V1a Distal T1 n = 19 9.6 to 24.5 160 to 190 26 to 6.3 60 to 49 0.94 to 1.17 0.96 to 2.92 19.88 to 20.84
1779 12.66.6 55.03.9 1.040.06 1.680.67 20.000.28
3 N4EF703P77,60Area12 Carb(Cal) V1b Distal T1 n=3 12.3 to 25.2 150 to 164 28 to 8.5 51.0 1.02 to 1.15 1.26 to 3.03 19.61 to 19.84

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1576 15.58.9 1.070.06 1.910.79 19.720.10
4 N4EF703P77,60Area22 Carb(Cal) V1b Distal T1 n=3 18.4 to 29.3 140 to 146 46 to 15 53.0 1.09 to 1.20 3.74 to 2.04 19.57 to 19.86
23.34.5 1423 27.313.4 1.140.05 2.790.71 19.680.13
5 N4EF703P123.90Area2 Qtz V1b Distal T2(T3) n=6 19.2 to 21.2 128 to 158 19 to 16.0 46 to 27 1.09 to 1.12 2.14to 2.42 19.38 to 19.76
20.2 0.8 146 11 17.5 1.3 37.0 7.8 1.10 0.01 2.28 0.12 19.63 0.13
6 N4EF703P123,9Area1 Carb(Kut) V1b Distal T1 n=1 27.4 172 37.0 65.0 1.16 3.40 20.20
7 N4EF703P123,9Area3 Carb(Kut) V1b Distal n=2 24.1; 29.1 115; 149 25; 45 1.14; 1.22 2.86; 3.69 19.58; 19.79
8 N4EF703P152,9Area1 Qtz Distal n=6 10.2 to 18.8 130 to 154 15.5 to 6.8 1.03 to 2.09 19.28 to 21.04
14.8 3.5 141 10 11.2 3.6 1.050.05 1.580.43 19.670.57
9 N4EF703P152,9Area2 Qtz V1b Distal n=5 15.9 to 19.2 145 to 157 16.0 to 12.0 1.06 to 1.09 1.70 to 2.14 19.53 to 19.66
17.91.2 1504 14.41.5 1.080.01 1.970.16 19.610.04
10 N4EF703P152,9area3 Qtz V1b Distal n=2 7.9 to 9.3 139 to 178 6.1 to 5 0.97 to 1.01 0.77 to 0.93 19.29 to 19.97
8.60.7 15920 5.60.6 0.990.02 0.850.08 19.630.34
11 N4EF703P157 Carb(Cal) V1b Distal n=2 6.63; 24.50 155; 134 4.1; 26 0.98; 1.16 0.64; 2.92 19.545; 19.623

752
12 N5SF825P276,4Area1 Carb(Kut) V1b Distal T1 n = 10 28.0 to 30.1 160 to 190 48.9 to 40.0 50.0 1.16 to 1.20 3.50 to 3.88 20.07 to 20.50
(mafic 29.10.9 16712 44.73.8 1.180.01 3.690.16 20.180.17
contact)
13 N5SF836P157Area1 Qtz V2a Intermediate T3 n=2 9.2; 9.7 155 6.0; 6.4 25.0; 27.0 1.00 0.91; 0.97 19.55
FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

14 N5SF836P157Area3 Qtz V2a Intermediate T2 n=3 10.6 to 11.4 155 7.8 to 7.1 40.0 to 36.0 1.01 to 1.02 1.07 to 1.16 19.55 to 19.56
11.20.5 7.60.4 38.72.3 1.02 1.130.06 19.56
15 N5SF825P88,95Area1 Qtz V2a T2 n=3 1.2 to 4.5 150 1.7 to 0.6 38.0 to 34.0 0.93 to 0.96 0.11 to 0.42 19.47 to 19.51
2.91.7 150 1.20.8 36.72.3 0.950.01 0.270.16 19.490.02
16 N5SF825P88,95Area2 Qtz V2a Inter- T2(T3) n=8 13.9 to 19.5 125 to 160 16.5 to 2.0 38 to 22 0.95 to 1.13 0.32 to 2.19 18.77 to 19.07
mediate (n = 4) 13326 8.06.1 31.66.1 1.030.07 1.120.80 19.310.34
3.5 to 5.4 (n = 4)
17 N5F836P157-Area1 Qtz V2a Intermediate T3 n = 14 8.9 to 14.4 150 to 187 10.4 to 5.8 27 to 16 1.00 19.55
11.11.9 1579 7.61.6 21.64.0
18 N5SF817P271,40Area1a2 Qtz V2b Intermediate T2(T1) n=9 4.9 to 13.9 120 to 162 10.0 to 1.5 50 to 34 0.94 to 1.06 0.25 to 1.45 19.00 to 19.69
5.03.0 41.38.1 1.000.04 0.760.42 19.310.26
19 N5SF817P271,40Area1b2 Qtz V2b Intermediate T1, T2 n = 12 3.5 to 19.2 175 to 198 16 to 2.6 50 to 31 0.90 to 1.08 0.42 to 2.14 19.57 to 21.24
17612 9.54.8 43.68.3 0.990.08 1.270.65 20.090.43
20 N5SF817P232,35Area1b2 Qtz V3 Intermediate T2 n=8 6.5 to 18.4 174 to 202 15.0 to 4.0 39.0 to 30.0 0.93 to 1.07 0.62 to 2.04 19.90 to 20.52
17810 11.33.7 34.34.5 1.030.04 1.590.47 20.020.21
21 N5SF817 P232,35Area1a Qtz V3 Intermediate T2, T3 n=4 15.9 to 18.0 109 to 123 14.4 to 12.0 29.0; 42.0 1.09 to 1.11 1.70 to 1.97 19.05 to 19.10
17.20.9 1137 13.61.1 1.100.01 1.880.12 19.080.02
22 N5SF817P232,35Area2a2 Qtz V3 Intermediate T2 n=6 11.1 to 24.5 130 to 150 26 to 7.5 35 to 34 1.02 to 1.16 1.12 to 2.92 19.45 to 19.58
13926 16.08.3 34.50.5 1.090.08 2.040.85 19.500.39
 TABLE 4. (Cont.)
Fluid Bulk
Groups Vein Alteration inclusion Equiv wt % Tm Bulk density molar
of FIAs Sample/area Mineral type zone subtype n CaCl2 Th(total) Tm(ice)1 CaCl2 (Te) (aq density) Molal CaCl2 volume

23 N4EF603P43,40(6)Area12 Qtz V4 Proximal T1 n=6 10.5 to 22.8 171 to 190 22.0 to 7.0 62 to 49 not calculated
1777 13.96.6 54.66.1 1.07 1.93 19.82
24 N4EF603P43,40(6)Area3 Qtz V4 Proximal T1 n=5 17.2 to 22.3 165 to 181 21 to 6.4 50 to 47 0.93 to 1.11 0.40 to 2.59 19.63 to 20.08
18.64.6 1676 14.06.9 49.41.3 1.060.07 1.840.83 19.860.15
25 N4EF603P43,40(5)Area1b Qtz V4 Proximal T2 n = 10 1.7 to 6.5 186 to 221 4.0 to 0.9 37 to 35 0.87 to 0.93 0.15 to 0.62 20.17 to 21.15

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
3.61.8 20610 2.11.1 35.30.8 0.900.02 0.340.17 20.710.28
26 N5EF439P247Area1b Carb(Dol) V4 Proximal T1(T2) n=8 26.3 to 29.8 142 to 187 48 to 18 50 to 38 1.09 to 1.21 2.33 to 3.83 19.37 to 20.26
28.31.6 14813 34.911.9 46.06.9 1.170.04 3.240.58 19.840.23
27 N5EF439P247Area2 Carb(Dol) V4 Proximal T1 n=4 26.3 to 27.6 142 38 to 32 50.0 1.17 to 1.18 3.21 to 3.43 19.78 to 19.83
27.10.6 35.52.6 1.180.01 3.340.10 19.810.02
28 N4EF603P43,40(5)2 Carb(Kut) V4 Proximal T1(T2) n=6 19.2 to 30.1 160 to 170 48.9 to 16 49 1.08 to 1.20 2.14 to 3.88 19.94 to 20.24
24.75.3 1684 31.616.1 1.130.06 3.010.84 20.070.13
29 N4EF603P55,50Area22 Qtz V5 Proximal T1, T2 n = 11 4.5 to 24.5 170 to 200 26 to 8.1 52 to 35 0.98 to 1.10 1.21 to 2.92 20.40 to 20.53
Area1a2 18713 13.66.2 45.96.4 1.040.05 2.080.75 20.450.07
30 N4EP603P55Area3Group Qtz V5 Proximal T1; P n=2 15.9; 13.9 170 12; 10 52 1.05; 1.03 1.70; 1.45 19.87; 19.84
31 N4EP603P55Area3TrailB Qtz V5 Proximal T3; PS n=2 9.2; 9.6 170 6.0; 6.3 28 0.99 0.91; 0.96 19.81
32 N4EF603P55,50Area3c Qtz V5 Proximal T2 n = 14 0.3 to 7.3 150 to 160 4.6 to 0.1 46 to 25 0.92 to 0.98 0.03 to 0.65
3.72.8 1593 2.21.8 36.47.7 0.950.02 0.360.27 19.650.06
33 N4EF603P55,50Area3c Qtz V5 Proximal T2 n=4 15.9 to 18.4 170 15 to 12 47.0 1.05 to 1.07 1.70 to 2.04 19.87 to 19.92
Cluster 16.51.3 12.81.5 1.050.01 1.780.17 19.880.03

753
34 N4EF603P55,50Area5a Qtz V5 Proximal T2, T3 n=5 2.0 to 3.3 160 1.9 to 1.1 32 to 22 0.93 to 0.94 0.19 to 0.31 19.67 to 19.69
2.80.6 1.60.3 27.07.1 0.940.00 0.260.05 19.680.01
35 N4EP621P50,15Area2 Qtz V5 Proximal T2, T3 n=5 1.2 to 1.7 189 to 191 0.9 to 0.6 50 to 26 0.89 to 0.90 0.11 to 0.15 20.36 to 20.41
1.30.2 1901 0.70.1 35.311.2 0.890.00 0.120.02 20.380.02
36 N5EF284P32Area1a Qtz V5 Proximal T2 n = 12 3.0 to 4.4 160 to 184 2.6 to 1.7 40 to 28 0.92 to 0.95 0.28 to 0.42 19.65 to 20.17
3.70.4 1628 2.10.2 32.54.4 0.940.01 0.340.04 19.700.16
37 N5EF284P32Area1b Qtz V5 Proximal T2 n=9 0.7 to 2.3 178 to 193 1.3 to 0.3 34.0 0.89 to 0.93 0.06 to 0.22 19.48 to 20.41
0.90.5 1825 0.50.3 0.900.01 0.090.05 20.120.26
38 N5EF284P32Area3 Qtz V5 Proximal T2 n = 12 3.2 to 4.1 160 2.4 to 1.8 40 to 37 0.94 to 0.95 0.29 to 0.38 19.66 to 19.67
3.70.3 2.20.2 34.86.7 0.950.00 0.350.03 19.660.01
39 N4EF621P55.40 Qtz mafic Proximal T2 n=5 17.6 to 19.2 170 to 190 16 to 14 48.0 1.04 to 1.06 1.93 to 2.14 19.92 to 20.25
18.30.7 18310 14.80.8 1.060.01 2.010.09 20.130.16

Equiv wt % NaCl Th L-V Tm Ice Tm NaCl (Te) Molal NaCl Bulk density Bulk MV

29 N4EF603P55,50Area23 Qtz V5 Proximal T3; PS n = 12 2.0 to 5.8 160 3.6 to 1.2 23 to 14

41 N4EP603P55Area3TrailA3 Qtz V5 Proximal T3; PS n=2 0.5; 0.7 160 0.2;0.3 23;17 0.92 0.05; 0.06 19.72
SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL

42 N5EF284P32Area1b3 Qtz V5 Proximal T3 n=8 0.5 to 0.8 180 to 187 0.5 to 0.3 21 to 17 0.11 to 0.14 0.89 to 0.90 20.09 to 20.28
0.70.1 1812 0.50.1 19.51.9 0.10.0 0.900.00 20.130.06
43 N5EF284P32Area23 Qtz V5 Proximal T3 n = 21 0.8 to 4.2 158 to 172 2.6 to 0.5 23.0 to 18.0 0.14 to 0.76 0.92 to 0.95 19.45 to 19.97
3.50.7 1615 2.20.4 21.31.7 0.630.13 0.930.01 19.700.13

1 Due to the salt rich inclusions and the melting very close to the initial ice melting (see Fig. 9), hydrohalite was observed only rarely
2 Assemblages which may have reequilibrated posttrapment, not shown in Figure 10
2
3 Salinity calculated according to equations of state by Bodnar and Vityk (1994), applied for the H O-NaCl-KCl system
753
754 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.
likely presence of complex cations, such as Ca2+ and Mg2+
(Borisenko, 1977), in addition to Na+ and K+ (Bodnar and
Vityk, 1994).
The majority of subtype 1 fluid inclusions have low initial
ice-melting temperatures between 63.0 and 50.0C (Table
4; Fig. 9A). Orange-peel texture, characteristic of Ca-rich sys-
tems (Goldstein and Reynolds, 1994) with Te of ca. 52C, is
commonly observed in subtype 1 inclusions trapped in quartz
from V4 and V5 vein breccias of the proximal alteration zone
(Fig. 8A-D). In some rare inclusions, hydrohalite was ob-
served (Table 4).
Final ice-melting temperatures for all three subtypes of
fluid inclusions show large ranges for each vein breccia type,
mostly from 24.0 to 4.3C (Table 4).
A few inclusions (n = 8) trapped in quartz from V2 and V5
vein breccias display positive final ice-melting temperatures
(from 3.06.8C), suggesting clathrate melting (Roedder,
1984).
Heating behavior: In subtype 1 inclusions, the vapor bub-
ble shrinks until final homogenization (Th(total)) to liquid at
temperatures between 155 to 190C in quartz and carbonate
from V1 vein breccia and from 145 to 219C in quartz from
V4 vein breccia (Table 4; Fig. 9C). Subtype 2 inclusions show
a wider range of final homogenization temperatures (into L)
from 120 to 200C, whereas subtype 3 inclusions display a
range of Th(tot) (L) from 109 to 221C (Table 4; Fig. 9C).
One group of inclusions, viz., V4 vein breccia type, contains
a three-phase (L-V-S) inclusion, which decrepitated at 315C.
Following decrepitation, the unknown solid did not change
shape during heating to 500C. One vapor-rich (70 vol %
vapor) inclusion decrepitated into vapor at 340C.
Quantitative estimation of composition
Salinity (equiv wt % NaCl and equiv wt % CaCl2), bulk
composition, and bulk density of all fluid inclusion subtypes
were calculated using the MacFlinCor program (Brown and
Hagemann, 1995). Equations of state, by Bodnar and Vityk
(1994), were applied for the H2O-NaCl-KCl system and by
Zhang and Frantz (1987) for the H2O-CaCl2-NaCl-KCl sys-
tem (Table 4). In most aqueous inclusions trapped in carbon-
ate crystals the eutectic temperature was not observed, and
for these inclusions the final ice-melting temperature was
used to determine the salt system. In the majority of mea-
sured inclusions (subtypes 1 and 2), the final ice-melting tem-
peratures are below the eutectic for H2O-NaCl (<21.2C).
As a result, the salinities in these inclusions were calculated
using the H2O-CaCl2-NaCl-KCl system (Zhang and Frantz,
1987). Initial ice-melting temperatures of about 20C ob-
served in two-phase, liquid-vapor, subtype 3 inclusions indi-
cate that the salinity of the inclusions is dominated by NaCl
(Te = 21.2C). Therefore, Tm(ice) values were converted to
salinity using data for the NaCl-H2O system (Table 4). The
presence of the CO2 clathrate is indicated by temperatures
between 3 and 6.8C (n = 8) in rare fluid inclusions trapped
in quartz from V2 and V5 vein types.
Salinity: Figure 9B shows the ranges of salinities for differ-
ent fluid inclusion subtypes. Approximately 90% of measured
subtype 1 inclusions in quartz and carbonate from V1 vein
breccias (distal alteration zone) have medium to high salini-
ties ranging from 15 to 30 equiv wt % NaCl and CaCl2 (Figs.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
9, 10). Salinities, expressed as equiv wt % NaCl and CaCl2, in
both types 2 and 3 inclusions within V2 to V5 veins and brec-
cias display a characteristic large range (Fig. 10) of values
from approximately 0.5 to 29.8 equiv wt %. Subtype 2 inclu-
sions trapped in carbonate (kutnahorite) from V4 vein breccia
show only high salinities of 19.2 to 30.1 equiv wt % NaCl and
CaCl2. The majority of subtype 3 fluid inclusions trapped in
quartz from V3 veins have low to medium salinity, from 1.2 to
19.2 equiv wt % NaCl and CaCl2. Calcite crystals that cut
quartz in V1 vein breccia, filling the center of such veins, may
contain subtype 3 inclusions that have low salinities of <5%
equiv wt % NaCl and CaCl2. Fluid inclusions measured in
quartz from V5 vein breccia also yield low salinities ranging
between 1 and 7.3 equiv wt % NaCl and CaCl2 (Figs. 9, 10).
Density/molar volume: The bulk density for subtypes 1, 2,
and 3 fluid inclusions ranges from 1.00 to 1.20, 0.93 to 1.15,
and 0.89 to 0.95 g/cm3, respectively, and the molar volume
from 19.63 to 20.20, 19.05 to 21.24, and from 19.10 to 20.38,
respectively (Table 4).
Ion chromatography
Sample selection and results: The cations Na, K, Li and an-
ions F, Cl, Br, SO4 were measured in fluid inclusions trapped
in quartz of V1a (5 samples), V2 (4 samples) and V3 veins (5
samples), and in carbonate of V1b (2 samples) and V4 (3
samples) vein breccias (Table 5). Fluid inclusions trapped in
hematite, mainly as the microplaty and anhedral types, from
several high-grade iron hard ore samples in proximal alter-
ation zones of the N5E and N5S deposits, were also analyzed
(filled black triangles in Fig. 11).
Ion chromatography analyses yielded F, Cl, and Br con-
centrations (Table 5). From all quartz and carbonate vein
crystals analyzed, only three quartz samples from V2 veins
contain fluorine.
Quartz crystals from V1 vein breccia type show a relatively
wide range of Cl/Br molar ratios of 751 to 1,945, whereas
quartz from V2 presents a more restricted range from 447 to
1154 (n = 3, Table 5). Only two quartz samples of V3 vein
were analyzed, having ratios of 167 and 1,823. Carbonate
crystals from V1 vein breccia have Cl/Br molar ratios between
414 and 793, whereas one kutnahorite sample from V4 vein
breccia has a lower ratio of 128.
Fluid inclusions in hematite hard ore from the proximal al-
teration zone display the lowest Na/Cl molar ratios of 0.02 to
0.39, compared to quartz-carbonate samples from the inter-
mediate and distal alteration zones that have ratios of 0.19 to
0.51. The latter shows a wide range of Cl/Br ratios from 105
to 2,840 (Table 5). In some samples, mainly containing mi-
croplaty hematite, the Cl/Br ratios are exceptionally high, be-
tween 3,000 and 8,000 (not shown in Fig. 11).
Breccia and fracture-fill veins from the distal and interme-
diate alteration zones, hosted in the basaltic wall rocks, show
similar Cl/Br ratios to those in jaspilites and ores, from 102 to
934 (n = 9), with three samples exhibiting values up to 2,342
(Table 5) (Zucchetti, 2007).
In situ laser ICP-MS analysis
Sample selection and results: The elements Na, Ca, K, Mg,
Fe, Mn, Li, Sr, Ba, Cu, Zn, and Pb were selected and quanti-
fied in all vein breccia types (Table 6). The compositional
754
 A
20
20
V1Carb
6
V1Qtz
CaCl2 MgCl2 NaCl 15 15
5

4
10 10
3

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
2 5
5

Frequency

DISTAL ZONE
1
0
0 0 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 ThTOT L-V
T eutectic Equivalent wt% NaCl and CaCl 2

9 25 25 B
V2Qtz
8 CaCl2 MgCl2 NaCl V2 NaCl
7 20 20 V3Qtz
6
15 15
5
4
10
3 10

Frequency

755
2 5
5
1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

INTERMEDIATE ZONE
T eutectic Equivalent wt% NaCl and CaCl 2
ThTOT L-V

30 35
C
12
V4Qtz
CaCl2 MgCl2 NaCl 25 30
10 V4Carb
25 V5Qtz
8 20
20
6 15
15
4 10

Frequency
10
2 5
5
SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL

PROXIMAL ZONE
0 0 0
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

T eutectic Equivalent wt% NaCl and CaCl 2 ThTOT L-V

FIG. 9. Histogram of microthermometric data including temperature of initial ice-melt (Teutectic), salinity (equiv wt % of NaCl and CaCl2) and temperature of ho-
mogenization (Th(total)L-V) for fluid inclusions trapped in quartz and carbonate from: (A) vein-breccias V1 (distal alteration zone); (B) V2, V3 (intermediate alteration
zone); and (C) V4 and V5 (proximal alteration zone). Eutectic temperatures lines as given by Borisenko (1977).
755
 ThTOT L -V ThTOT L - V ThTOT L - V
756

50
100
150
200
250
300
350

100
150
200
250
300
350

50
50
0

100
150
200
250
300
350

0
A

C
B

15&16
5

5
5

36

35, 38 & 39
32
25
17
10

10
8

10
31

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
13&14
15

15
15

30 & 33
9

24
21

33
20

20

20
5

Equivalent wt% NaCl and CaCl2

Distal V1 vein-breccias

25
25

25
1

27
7

of state for H2O-NaCl-KCl system (Bodnar and Vityk, 1994).

26
Intermediate V2-V3 vein-breccias
12

30

Proximal V4 and V5 vein-breccias

30

30
35
35
35

(C). Data for groups of FIAs 17, 29, 41, to 43 were calculated using equation
trapped in veins located in the distal alteration zone shown in (A), (B), and
proximal alteration zone. Detailed contours of all groups of fluid assemblages
veins from intermediate alteration zone. C. V4 and V5 vein breccias from
vein breccia of distal alteration zone displayed by assemblages B. V2 and V3
sions trapped in quartz and carbonate (calcite and kutnahorite) from: A. V1
Th(total)(L-V) based on microthermometry analyses obtained from fluid inclu-
FIG. 10. Diagrams showing salinity (equiv wt % NaCl and CaCl2) vs.

756
TABLE 5. Cation and Anion Concentrations in Fluid Inclusions from the Serra Norte Iron Ore Deposits (contents in ppb, nd = not detected)

Alteration Cl/Br Na/Br Na/Cl Br/Cl

Sample Vein type Mineral zone F Cl Br Na K Li ratios ratios ratios (*1,000)
FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

N4WF617P233,60 V1a Qtz Distal nd 30,073 78 10,090 1,528 60.0 885.837 452.281 0.511 1.129
N4WF618P176,40 V1a Qtz Distal nd 34,607 41 8,080 1,672 21.0 1,945.883 691.360 0.355 0.514
N4WF618P176,80 V1a Qtz Distal nd 47,483 81 7,090 1,505 1.5 1,344.173 305.426 0.227 0.744
N4WF588P144,00 V1a Qtz Distal nd 54,286 162 11,650 2,249 39.0 766.876 250.440 0.327 1.304
N4WF588P144,00 V1a Qtz Distal nd 52,177 159 11,350 2,524 43.0 751.025 248.606 0.331 1.332
N4EF703P77,60 V1b Cal Distal nd 4,079 23 1,110 357 8.0 413.857 171.380 0.414 2.416
N5SF825P276,40 V1b Cal Distal nd 2,743 8 670 109 6.0 792.643 294.623 0.372 1.262
N4EF703P77,60 V1b Mag-Cal Distal 36 1,664 2 370 130 0.2 1,571.395 531.703 0.338 0.636
N4EF703P98,35 V1b Mag-Cal Distal 2 2,327 4 410 116 0.6 1,402.789 376.130 0.268 0.713
N5SF686P163,15 V1b Mt(Kmag)-MiHem Distal 3 2,329 3 410 187 0.2 1,831.353 490.703 0.268 0.546
N5SF825P239,20 V2 Qtz Intermediate nd 39,984 56 5,020 926 1.0 1,616.527 308.842 0.191 0.619
N5SF817P320,90 V2 Qtz Intermediate nd 18,474 54 3,480 584 20.0 783.894 224.707 0.287 1.276
N5SF825P86,05 V2 Qtz Intermediate 12 6,418 33 840 117 2.0 446.688 88.966 0.199 2.239
N5SF817P271,40 V2 Qtz Intermediate 73 7,176 14 1,830 272 11.0 1,153.647 447.694 0.388 0.867
N5SF836P156,25 V3 Qtz Intermediate nd 6,549 8 1,030 137 4.0 1,823.223 436.357 0.239 0.548
N5SF836P226,00 V3 Qtz Intermediate 4 3,955 6 7,950 1,205 4.4 1,393.708 4,263.027 3.059 0.718
N5SF837P132,20 V3 Qtz Intermediate nd 2,043 28 260 24 1.0 166.567 32.258 0.194 6.004
N5SF686P163,40 V3(V2) Qtz Intermediate nd 26,787 1 319 108 0.2 42,902.555 777.480 0.018 0.023
N5SF817P232,75 V3 Qtz(Mag) Intermediate nd 2,281 3 340 113 0.1 1,729.519 392.280 0.227 0.578
N4EF603P43,40 V4 Kut Proximal nd 63,737 1137 10,070 2,134 44.0 127.971 30.767 0.240 7.814
N4EF529P100,40 V4 Kut Proximal nd 64,090 nd
N4EF529P120,70 V4 Kut Proximal nd 22,330 6 9,560 1,680 2.4 8,738.828 5,693.182 0.651 0.114
 TABLE 5. (Cont.)

Alteration Cl/Br Na/Br Na/Cl Br/Cl

Sample Vein type Mineral zone F Cl Br Na K Li ratios ratios ratios (*1,000)

N5EF577P222,25 Hard ore MiHem-AHem Proximal/ore nd 3,869 11 200 103 0.3 819.767 64.489 0.079 1.220
N5EF577P232,40 Hard ore MiHem-AHem Proximal/ore nd 2,778 1 130 67 0.1 7,905.094 562.923 0.071 0.127
N5EF577P242,25 Hard porous ore RecrysMiHem-AHem Proximal/ore nd 2,954 8 180 177 0.1 886.256 82.188 0.093 1.128
N5EF577P257,86 Hard ore MiHem-AHem Proximal/ore nd 3,271 5 170 116 0.2 1,450.303 114.706 0.079 0.690
N5EF577P261,55 Hard ore-mafic Mt-MiHem-MpHem Proximal/ore 9 3,593 78 360 122 0.2 105.284 16.053 0.152 9.498
contact

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
N5SF897P132,20 Hard porous ore MiHem-Mt Proximal/ore 20 3,299 7 460 263 0.3 1,079.983 229.147 0.212 0.926
N5EF284P31,00 Hard ore Recryst MiHem Proximal/ore nd 2,172 2 250 182 0.2 3,055.540 535.107 0.175 0.327
N5EF284P32,65 Hard ore Recryst MiHem Proximal/ore nd 2,044 3 280 110 0.3 1,831.846 381.952 0.209 0.546
N5EF561P156,70 Hard ore MiHem Proximal/ore 3 3,152 6 240 133 0.1 1,137.400 131.795 0.116 0.879
N5SF686P172,20 Hard porous ore MiHem Proximal/ore 6 3,130 12 140 76 0.1 605.623 41.220 0.068 1.651
N5SF817P349,83 Hard ore Mt Proximal/ore nd 6,517 5 380 292 0.8 2,840.807 252.068 0.089 0.352
N5SF700P274,60 Hard ore-mafic Mt Proximal/ore 3 11,362 2 230 140 0.2 16,205.419 499.204 0.031 0.062
contact
N4EF603P53,50 Hard ore Mt-(Kut) Proximal/ore nd 6,115 20 940 146 0.4 685.695 160.398 0.234 1.458
N4EF603P43,40 Hard ore Mt-(Kut) Proximal/ore 22 3,932 13 470 88 0.4 703.885 128.031 0.182 1.421
N4EF621P50,15 Hard ore Mt-(Qtz) Proximal/ore 1 2,234 1 230 57 1.0 6,193.805 970.577 0.157 0.161
N4EF603P55,50 Hard ore Mt Proximal/ore nd 74 nd nd nd nd
N4EF603P53,50 Hard ore Mt Proximal/ore nd 1,112 1 510 75 0.3 1,743.580 1,217.138 0.698 0.574
N5SF836P234,80 Hard porous ore Platy-AHem-Mt Proximal/ore 95 3,974 2 820 376 1.2 4,626.661 1,452.605 0.314 0.216
N5SF836P232,45 Hard porous ore Platy-AHem-Mt Proximal/ore 104 4,955 20 540 279 0.6 567.590 94.123 0.166 1.762
N5EF577P445,40 V5 MpHem-Mt-Them Proximal/ore nd 2,636 1 30 17 0.1 4,186.764 72.512 0.017 0.239
N5EF572P267,90 V5 MpHem Proximal/ore nd 3,344 2 110 56 0.1 4,455.968 223.054 0.050 0.224
N5EF572P382,85 V5 MpHem-Them Proximal/ore 4 2,501 5 50 3 0.3 1,161.873 35.353 0.030 0.861

757
N1F036P25,55 V5 MpHem Proximal/ore nd 3,915 2 410 48 0.7 5,040.837 803.370 0.159 0.198
N5EF040251,80 V5 MpHem Proximal/ore 4 9,098 3 150 25 1.2 7,823.934 196.288 0.025 0.128
N5SF910P252,50 Hard ore AHem Proximal/ore 18 3,299 10 460 322 0.3 763.697 162.062 0.212 1.309
N5SF910P253,35 Hard ore AHem-Mt-MpHem Proximal/ore 52 4,285 10 640 777 0.4 990.164 225.038 0.227 1.010
N5SF904P107,65 Hard ore AHem Proximal/ore nd 3,412 8 360 190 0.2 1,020.921 163.906 0.161 0.980
N5SF904P134,85 Hard ore AHem-MpHem Proximal/ore 43 2,752 6 710 274 0.3 1,123.068 440.913 0.393 0.890
N5EF571P84,00 Hard ore AHem Proximal/ore nd 4,735 19 620 215 0.2 578.030 115.169 0.199 1.730
N5EF571P90,55 Hard ore AHem Proximal/ore 14 3,927 nd 530 178 0.2
N5EF571P214,30 Hard ore AHem-MiHem- Proximal/ore nd 3,903 5 460 186 0.2 1,729.489 310.146 0.179 0.578
THem
N5EF439P249,80 Hard ore AHem-(Dol) Proximal/ore nd 9,923 71 1,510 603 0.6 320.695 74.262 0.232 3.118
N5EF439P247,00 Hard ore AHem Proximal/ore 2 2,882 5 190 27 0.2 1,450.678 145.538 0.100 0.689
N5EF439P247,00 Hard ore AHem-(Dol) Proximal/ore nd 2,797 6 660 141 0.4 1,096.582 393.738 0.359 0.912
N5EF318P172,70 V5 THem Proximal/ore 4 8,044 8 270 132 0.2 2,321.607 118.577 0.051 0.431

Mafic wall rock (Zucchetti, 2007)

N4EF707P20,41 Qtz-breccia Qtz Distal 44 13,816 45 3,790 1,153 55.0 697.787 291.286 0.417 1.433
N4EF764P117,60 Qtz-breccia Qtz Distal nd 4,310 4 1,170 155 54.0 2,342.646 967.733 0.413 0.427
N5SF817P100,80 Qtz-breccia Qtz Distal nd 4,052 10 700 75 22.0 934.357 245.630 0.263 1.070
N5SF817P263,15 Qtz-breccia Qtz Distal 18 13,128 153 4,040 638 160.0 195.878 91.729 0.468 5.105
SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL

N5SF843P271,00 Qtz-breccia Qtz Distal 30 10,101 20 2,290 387 29.0 1,147.221 395.784 0.345 0.872
N5EF40P215,35 Fracture-fill Qtz Distal 44 9,051 130 2,510 205 190.0 158.940 67.073 0.422 6.292
N5SF825P328,00 Fracture-fill Qtz Distal 35 44,331 130 10,720 1,084 215.0 778.472 286.464 0.368 1.285
N5SF837P294,20 Fracture-fill Qtz Distal 32 21,448 31 5,360 412 210.0 1,564.304 594.894 0.380 0.639
N5EF508P146,30 Fracture-fill Qtz Distal 16 851 3 190 95 9.0 588.700 200.013 0.340 1.699
N5EF523P213,45 Fracture-fill Qtz Intermediate 20 4,459 23 1,740 890 128.0 442.577 262.809 0.594 2.259
N5SF817P149,00 Fracture-fill Qtz Intermediate 40 403 3 100 42 7.0 340.738 128.663 0.378 2.935
N5EF523P187,00 Qtz-breccia Qtz Intermediate 10 7,584 169 1,070 630 69.0 102.445 21.995 0.215 9.761
757
758 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

3000
A 3000
B
Halite

2500 2500

2000
2000
Cl/Br molar ratio

Cl /B r m o l ar r ati o
1500
1500

1000
1000 Sea water

500
500
Sea water evaporation

0
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Na/Cl molar ratio Na/Br molar ratio

Qtz V1 - Distal zone

10,00 C
Cal V1 - Distal zone

Qtz V2-V3 - Intermediate zone

Kut-Dol V4 breccia - Proximal

zone
Br/Cl(*1000) molar

Qtz - distal zone mafic

Magmatic

1,00 Qtz - Intermediate zone mafic

MiHem-AHem - hard ore

Mt - hard ore

MpHem - hard ore

AHem - hard ore

0,10
10,00 100,00 1000,00 THem - hard ore

Cl(ppm) Hamersley data

FIG. 11. Diagrams displaying ion chromatography results obtained from fluid inclusions of different vein breccia types
from distal to proximal alteration zones of the Serra Norte iron ore deposits. A. Plot of Na/Cl vs. Cl/Br molar ratio. B. Na/Br
vs. Cl/Br molar ratio. C. Plot of Cl concentration (in ppm) vs. Br/Cl ( 1,000) molar ratio. Gray area shown in (A), (B) rep-
resents data from hematite ores of the Hamersley province (Thorne et al., 2009). The range of magmatic Br/Cl ratios indi-
cated in (C) is based on values quoted in Bhlke and Irwin (1992), Banks et al. (2000, 2002), and Baker et al. (2006).

variation is here addressed according to vein-breccia types
(Fig. 12). Concentrations of some elements (e.g., Mn and Li)
are commonly below detection or were not measured for
every inclusion assemblage.
With respect to the contents of the cations Na, Ca, K, and
Mg, fluid inclusions in V1 veins display slightly higher content
when compared to those in V2b and V3 veins (Fig. 12A-G), and
fluid inclusions from the latter two are compositionally simi-
lar. In V5 veins, their content is significantly lower relative to
other vein types (Fig. 12I). The majority of the analyzed fluid
inclusions in all vein types are Na rich, followed by Ca and K.
Exceptions are fluid inclusions in V3 veins, where higher Na
contents are followed by K contents (Fig. 12G). Magnesium
is higher in V2a veins than in all other veins (Fig. 12C).
Lithium and Sr contents are similar in all vein types (Fig.
12A-J), except in V1 veins that display slightly higher Li than
the other veins, with Sr concentrations higher than Li (Fig.
12B). The V2b and V5 veins have the lowest Sr contents; Li is
only detected in two inclusions of V5 veins (Table 6).
Figure 12 shows that Fe is present in most fluid inclusions
from all vein types, with those in V5 displaying the lowest
concentrations. Fluid inclusions in V1a and V2 veins have
higher Fe and Mn contents compared to other vein types but
only slightly higher concentrations than V3 veins (Fig. 12G).
Among the base metals, Cu is the predominant metal in V1
veins, followed by V3 veins. The next most important metal is
Zn, occurring in both distal V1 and intermediate V2 and V3
veins. Copper, Zn, and Pb decrease slightly from V2b to V5

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 759

TABLE 6. LA-ICP-MS Concentration Data (in ppm) for Fluid Inclusions Trapped in Quartz and Carbonate of Different Vein Breccia Types
from Distal to Proximal Alteration Zones of the Serra Norte Iron Ore Deposits

Groups of FIAs N4WF660P176-V1a Na Ca K Mg Fe Mn Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb

1 AverageArea1 29,976 17,542 15,048 2,774 12,035 9,890 480 293 1,317 164 1,918 106
2 Area2aFlinc18 19,116 24,391 9,663 4,995 8,358 6,525 392 1,008 2,563 12,156 4,982 534
Area2Flinc9 35,915 14,039 15,817 5,818 908 1,827 300 376 959 1,179 115
Area2Flinc1 26,717 22,906 13,930 4,055 4,551 7,931 416 749 1,162 1,703 111
Area2Flinc12 27,567 17,365 11,501 826 8,981 5,046 230 558 1,462 1,921 1,919 154
Area2Flinc17 21,060 16,093 9,685 8,632 3,197 5,572 224 313 959 1,196 78
Area2Flinc17b 23,684 13,720 9,036 7,344 7,096 3,987 264 431 914 1,517 1,516 122
Area3Trail1 34,403 15,155 12,811 6,680 2,823 63 767 543 961 1,738 1,174 63

N5SF836P157-V2a
13 Area1 8,800 6,210 123 23,138 138 367 1,138 494 168 22
Area2 21,870 16,056 563 12,431 892 479 1,140 1,233 411
14 Area3 15,137 6,767 4,846 15,489 7,845 5,024 116 1,288 1,373 395 695 34
Area4 21,011 9,240 6,901 1,821 1,546 1,075 183 445 2,129 125 450 80

N5SF817P271,40-V2b
18 Area1a 16,235 7,152 6,990 5,251 5,441 3,502 84 122 145 55 1,136 22
Area1a 14,662 6,459 6,798 7,322 4,914 3,162 79 22 47 50 1,026 20
Area1a 10,370 4,568 4,788 3,539 3,475 2,237 49 38 58 35 725 14
19 Area1bTrail2 30,526 8,420 16,391 13,982 4,093 249 545 766 442
Area1bTrail2 33,484 9,236 16,774 14,846 4,489 183 62 293 840 484
Area1bTrail1 35,239 30,823 9,108 2,869 17,507 7,281 41 147 276 4,044 406
Area1bTrail1 58,021 41,333 21,888 7,374 195 148 611 763 110 81
Area1bTrail1 29,859 18,847 9,491 2,431 8,569 68 100 274 123 2,546 195
Area1bTrail1 31,711 27,737 8,132 9,821 15,755 6,552 294 171 37 3,640 365
Area1bTrail1 55,223 34,109 19,431 1,470 6,514 6,996 1,454 162 29 2,160 177
Area1bTrail1 31,113 20,027 9,463 5,232 3,623 554 129 26 2,104 230

N5SF825P88,95-V2a
15 Area1-average 8,227 4,227 3,586 1,978 1,228 40 30 110 100 10 94 4
16 Area2-Flinc9 1,660 1,484 836 7,636 82 12 25 5 20 3
Area2-Trail 5,023 3,630 2,686 3,274 801 1,079 5 13 76 30 164 5
Area2-Flinc10 9,487 4,875 4,150 1,027 1,416 46 37 87 12 108 5
Area2a 4,288 3,099 2,388 4,287 683 921 70 146 26 140 4
Area2-Flinc10b 12,039 2,372 8,222 2,685 127 149 86 9
Area2a-Traila 6,104 3,137 2,770 28,479 911 30 76 114 8 70 3
Area2a-Trailb 5,762 4,164 3,187 26,124 918 1,237 12 67 34 188 6

N5SF817P232,35-V3
18 Area1a-AverageCluster 36,330 5,544 19,459 3,073 3,588 134 75 183 211 51
19 Area1b-Flinc17 53,573 5,544 20,332 16,884 3,588 828 291 291 211 51
Area1b-ClusterFlincs14-15 49,402 4,998 22,962 15,961 7,500 212 154 236 50
22 Area2a-Flincs1-3 63,345 4,478 10,526 2,287 14,052 198 1,181 15
Area2a-Flincs4-6 66,567 7,912 23,036 4,942 8,598 8 1,236 5,304 1,027 517

N4EF603P55&N5EF284P32-V5
29 P55-Area1b 4,564 371 2,089 352 1,432 431 3 2 192 41 6
N4EF603P55Area1b 4,563 371 2,090 352 1,432 431 3 2 192 41 6
36 N5EF284P32Area1Trail1 2,965 425 1,107 2,644 31 288 148 31
N5EF284P32Area2aTrail2 2,850 368 1,006 2,297 3,620 33 109 166 67 38 5
43 N5EF284P32Area2a 3,562 399 693 2,588 41 85 108 25 8
N4EF603P55Area1bCluster 1,499 246 1,424 345 950 286 13 69 127 27 4
41 N4EF603P55Area3c 1,127 333 893 900 1,005 48 131 9 5 43 47 6

Groups of FIAs N5SF825P276&N5EF439

P247-V1b&V4 - Carbonate Na K Li Zn As Ag Cs Pb

12 F825Area1 77,630 23,987 2,572 5,507 344 79 15 85

F825Area1b 80,044 28,158 793 7,884 418 273 14 380
26 P247Area1b 44,892 44,708 6,626 2,023 1,236 96 29 118
28 P43(5) 42,955 47,353 156 1,264 247 108 7 68
P43(5) 40,956 37,360 1,280 1,608 500 123 14 134

Note: = below detection limit

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760 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

Quartz V1a veins

40000
Non-outlier Max
A 35000
Non-outlier Min
3000
30000
B 75%
25000
25%
2000 Median
20000
Outliers
15000
1000
Extremes
10000

5000
0
0 Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb
Na Ca K Mg Fe Mn Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb

Quartz V2a veins Quartz V2b veins

40000 40000

35000 C 35000
E
30000 3000 30000 3000

25000 D 25000 F
2000 2000
20000 20000

15000 15000
1000
1000
10000 10000

5000 0 5000
Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb 0
Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb
0 0
Na Ca K Mg Fe Mn Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb Na Ca K Mg Fe Mn Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb

Quartz V3 veins
72000 40000
3000
64000 35000 G
56000
H
30000
48000 2000
25000
40000
20000
32000

15000 1000
24000

16000 10000

8000 5000
0
Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb
0
0
Na Ca K Mg Fe Mn Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb

Quartz V5 veins
40000

35000
I J
30000 3000

25000

20000 2000

15000

10000 1000

5000

0 0
Na Ca K Mg Fe Mn Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb
Na Ca K Mg Fe Mn Li Sr Ba Cu Zn Pb

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 761

veins (Fig. 12E-J) and are somewhat higher in overall values
in V1a and V2a veins (Fig. 12A-D). There is a significant de-
crease in Cu concentrations from V1a to V2a veins; the low-
est contents are observed in V2b and V5 veins. Copper is de-
tected only in some inclusions of V1 veins.
Fluid inclusions trapped in calcite from V1b vein breccias
and kutnahorite from V4 ore breccias have also been ana-
lyzed. The values are shown only in Table 6, although Ca, Mn,
and Fe were not considered since these elements are part of
carbonate composition. In carbonate-hosted fluid inclusions,
the order of abundance is Na > K > Zn > Li > Cu > As > Pb
> Ag > Cs.
Fluid Inclusions: Processes and Trapping Conditions
Processes
Fluid inclusion studies in metallic ore deposits have re-
vealed three major processes that can explain heterogeneous
fluid chemistry and trapping conditions in fluid inclusions
trapped in individual trails and clusters at the same time
(Goldstein and Reynolds, 1994). These processes are (1) cool-
ing of a homogeneous fluid inclusion population (Roedder,
1984; Diamond, 1990), (2) boiling of a homogenous fluid that
results in trapping of two end-member fluids (Shepherd et
al., 1985), and (3) heterogeneous trapping of two or more
originally partly miscible, homogeneous fluids as a result of
partial mixing (Anderson et al., 1992). These three processes
are considered and discussed below for the present study.
Fluid boiling and cooling: Only limited evidence exists for
fluid boiling (cf. Ramboz et al., 1982) in the great majority of
fluid inclusions trapped in veins and breccias from the Serra
Norte deposits. Some trails contain vapor-rich inclusions in
carbonate crystals of V4 veins and quartz crystals of V5 veins
(Fig. 7). However, liquid-rich fluid inclusions trapped in the
same trails display significantly different homogenization
temperatures and densities compared to the vapor-rich inclu-
sions, and consequently do not satisfy the criteria for boiling
established by Ramboz et al. (1982). As a result, it is con-
cluded that fluid boiling was not a major fluid process during
the entrapment of fluid inclusions in the veins and breccias.
Fluid cooling also cannot be invoked as a trapping mecha-
nism, because individual trails and clusters show only limited
variation of homogenization temperatures (Table 4, Fig. 9A-
C).
Fluid mixing: Fluid mixing can be an efficient mechanism
for trapping fluid inclusions and is commonly invoked if two
different fluid sources penetrate the crust simultaneously
(e.g., Gleeson et al., 2000; Schwinn et al., 2006). In the case
of the Serra Norte iron ore deposits, low-salinity fluid inclu-
sions within veins located in the intermediate and proximal
alteration zones are suggested to represent meteoric water. In
contrast, high-salinity fluid inclusions that characterize
mainly V1 vein breccias from the distal alteration zone could
be related to either basinal brines or modified magmatic
Th(total) fluids. A plot of Th(total) against equiv wt % NaCl and
CaCl2 for fluid inclusions trapped in different veins from the
distal, intermediate, and proximal alteration zones (Fig. 10)
shows that for the majority of FIAs, the high- and low-salin-
ity equivalents of these inclusion fluids do not form distinct
and separate populations but rather define a mixing line at
near-constant homogenization temperatures. This pattern is
in contrast to the classic mixing lines proposed for epither-
mal vein systems (e.g., Drummond and Ohmoto, 1985) in
which both salinity and temperature covary. One possible
mechanism to explain this phenomenom is that the low-
salinity fluid, i.e., meteoric water, mixed after it had already
been heated during its descent into the crust. For example,
studies of the Bajo de la Alumbrera porphyry system by Ul-
rich et al. (2001) revealed the mixing of heated meteoric
water with modified magmatic fluids. The mixing of two
end-member fluids was probably very heterogeneous, as in-
dividual fluid populations contain high- and low-salinity
populations only.
Trapping conditions
Pressure corrections: Due to the lack of evidence for fluid
boiling, the trapped fluid inclusions are not located at the
solvus of an aqueous system; hence, a pressure (temperature)
correction (Potter, 1977) is necessary in order to estimate true
trapping temperatures. Several lines of evidence suggest that
structural and hydrothermal processes operated at an upper
crustal level in the Serra Norte iron deposits during the time
of high-grade iron ore formation. These include (1) absence
of a pervasive foliation in the rocks that host the high-grade
iron ore; (2) preservation of igneous and sedimentary fea-
tures, such as amygdales in basalts and spherulites in
jaspilites; (3) preservation of the metamorphic equilibrium
assemblage of chlorite-calcite-tremolite-actinolite-epidote in
distal alteration zones of mafic wall rocks, which is represen-
tative of low-grade metamorphism prior to hydrothermal al-
teration and high-grade iron ore formation (Zucchetti, 2007);
and (4) occurrence of textures indicative of epizonal condi-
tions, e.g., comb-textured quartz and hematite. Assuming a
pressure of approximately 1 to 2 kbars, which is compatible
with the estimates based on isochore intersections with tem-
peratures obtained by quartz-magnetite and quartz-hematite
oxygen isotope thermometry on distal and intermediate alter-
ation veins, respectively 250 and 240C, a maximum pres-
sure correction of 95C is applied to fluid inclusions in the
present study, in order to determine the trapping tempera-
tures. This pressure correction is also consistent with the es-
timates by Zucchetti (2007), based on isochore intersections
with temperatures obtained by chlorite geothermometry (on
samples from distal alteration zone).

FIG. 12. Diagrams showing metal concentrations obtained from LA-ICPMS analyses of fluid inclusion assemblages and
individual fluid inclusions: A. and B. Quartz from V1a vein breccias. C. and D. Quartz from V2a veins. E. and F. Quartz from
V2b veins. G. and H. Quartz from V3 veins. I. and J. Quartz from V5 veins located in high-grade hard iron ore. For a group
or internal trail of inclusions with similar salinity values, the average concentration of elements was used. Numbers refer to
the sequence of samples listed in Table 4. Error bars show 1 variability within an assemblage of similar inclusions. (B), (D),
(F), and (H) show detail of Li, Sr, Ba, Cu, Zn, and Pb concentrations.

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762 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

Stable and Radiogenic Isotopes -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20

A
Oxygen isotope analysis of oxides Tabular Hem (- 7.8 1.4) Magmatic fluid

Samples for oxygen isotopes were selected from (1) mag-

netite, (2) microplaty hematite, (3) anhedral hematite, (4)
Anhedral Hem (- 6.6 0.9)
tabular hematite, (5) quartz from V1, V2, and V5 vein brec-
cias, and (6) least altered (whole-rock basis) jaspilite con-
taining the assemblage microcrystalline hematite martite;
Microplaty Hem (- 5.4 1.7)
analyses of microcrystalline hematite were also performed. In
most oxide samples, it was not possible to handpick individual
minerals due to their micron-scale intergrowths, for example,
Martite (- 5.0 1.4)
martite-microcrystalline hematite, microplaty-tabular hematite,
and anhedral-microplaty hematite (see Fig. 3, Table 7A).
Quartz vein types 2 and 5 contain fine-grained hematite-
Magnetite
quartz intergrowths, and for that reason these samples do not (+ 2.1 2.2)

represent pure end-member minerals. Quartz is subordinate

in V4 vein breccia type, where carbonate predominates; ( Microcrystalline Hem)
Jaspilite
therefore this vein type was not analyzed. ( - 3.8; - 1.6) (+ 11.4 2.8)
The 18O values display a large range (Table 7, Fig. 13) from
15.2 for the least altered jaspilites (whole-rock analyses) to -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20

9.5 for the paragenetically latest, euhedral-tabular hematite

(Fig. 3H) in the high-grade iron ore. Note that magnetite, B
which is the first hydrothermal oxide to develop after MiHem V5 (+ 13.3)
in the least altered jaspilite (Fig. 13A), has intermediate 18O
V2
values of 0 to 4, between those for jaspilites and the differ- (+ 15.0 3.4)
ent types of hydrothermal hematite (Fig. 13A). For quartz in V1
V1 veins from the distal alteration zone, V2a and V2b veins
(+ 13.9 1.7)
from the intermediate alteration zone, and one sample of V5
vein breccia from the proximal alteration zone, 18O values
vary from 10.1 to 16.4, 15.3 to 18.8 (Fig. 13B), and -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20

O SMOW and O fluid

13.3, respectively.
The 18Ofluid values were calculated based on homogeniza-
tion temperatures, after pressure correction, of fluid inclusions
trapped in quartz and carbonate crystals that are in textural
equilibrium with hematite and/or magnetite, and on the equa-
tions of state of Yapp (1990) for hematite, Zheng (1991, 1995)
for magnetite, and Matsuhisa et al. (1979) for quartz. For mag-
netite, the average pressure-corrected trapping temperature
of 245C, obtained in fluid inclusions within V1 quartz-car-
bonate crystals that are in textural equilibrium with magnetite,
was used. Following a similar procedure, the trapping tem-
perature for ore hematite was that obtained in quartz, viz. 245
to 285C. As shown in Figure 13A, the 18Ofluid values for the
different hematite types increased about 6 to 8 with respect
to the least altered jaspilite, whereas the average 18Ofluid
value for magnetite increased by about 6 compared to the
respective 18O values. There is a clear decrease in both the
18O and 18Ofluid values from the paragenetically earliest to
the latest hematite types (Fig. 13A).
Sulfur isotope analyses
At the Serra Norte hematite iron deposits, a systematic re-
lationship exists between sulfides, such as pyrite and chal-
copyrite, and hydrothermal iron oxides, quartz, and carbon-
ate, which characterizes several paragenetic stages, including
hydrothermal veins in jaspilites and basalts (Zucchetti, 2007;
Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2008). For example, pyrite is in tex-
tural equilibrium with V1b carbonate sulfide quartz (Table
8) that formed synchronously with the early iron mineraliza-
tion stage in the distal alteration zone (Fig. 4). Hydrothermally
18 18
FIG. 13. Diagram showing oxygen isotope values of (A) least altered
jaspilite (including two values for microcrystalline hematite from jaspilite
samples), magnetite, different hematite types; and (B) Quartz V1, V2, and
one sample from V5 breccia type. Black line boxes correspond to calculated
fluid values according to the following equations: Yapp (1990) for hematite
(Ttrap of 250 and 275C); Zheng (1991) for magnetite (245C); Matsuhisa et
al. (1979) for quartz (Ttrap from 245285C). Magmatic reservoir box is
shown in gray, according to Taylor (1997).
altered basaltic wall rocks that surround the iron orebodies
display the distal alteration assemblages of pyrite-quartz and
chalcopyrite-quartz (Fig. 4; Zucchetti, 2007).
A range of in situ laser ablation sulfur isotope analyses were
obtained from (1) pyrite; (2) chalcopyrite crystals in textural
equilibrium with magnetite-calcite-quartz in V1 discordant
veins (Fig. 14A-D) located in the distal alteration zone, i.e.,
early hydrothermal stage of jaspilite; and (3) pyrite and chal-
copyrite in equilibrium with quartz in hydrothermal quartz
veins, mainly fracture fillings (Fig. 14E, F) in the distal alter-
ation zone of hydrothermally altered basalts (Zucchetti, 2007;
Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2008). Laser ablation analyses were
preferred because the sulfide grain size is too small (<1 mm
diam) for separation of pure pyrite and chalcopyrite by con-
ventional hand drilling. In addition, the laser technique al-
lowed the selection of grains that were not contaminated by
other sulfide inclusions.
The results shown in Figure 15 show two different popula-
tions of 34S values: high 34S values from 7.4 to 10.8,
which are measured for pyrites in V1 veins from the early

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 763

TABLE 7. Oxygen Isotope Compositions of (A) Least Altered Jaspilite and Various Oxide Types and (B) Various Quartz Vein Breccias Types

A. Oxygen isotope compositions of least altered jaspilite and various oxide types

Deposit Drill core Depth Rock/oxide type 18OSMOW (%) 18Owater

N4W 618 96,00 Jaspilite 8.1 -

N4E face - Jaspilite 15.1 -
N5E 284 27,00 Jaspilite 6.6 -
N5E 405 24,75 Jaspilite 10.9 -
N5S 817 271,40 Jaspilite 10.7 -
N5S 825 276,40 Jaspilite 15.2 -
N5S 836 156,25 Jaspilite 8.6 -
N4W 693 103,00 Magnetite 3.8 0.6
N4E 703 77,60 Magnetite 0.4 2.8
N4E 703 93,30 Magnetite 3.1 0.0
N4E 703 123,90 Magnetite 0.1 3.0
N5S 817 111,10 Magnetite 4.3 1.1
N4E 603 43,40 Martite 3.5 3.2
N4E 603 53,50 Martite 4.3 2.0
N5E 318 172,70 Martite 5.9 0.5
N5E 577 261,55 Martite (MpHem) 6.7 0.4
N5S 686 163,15 Martite (MiHem) 4.9 1.4
N5S 686 163,40 Martite (Mag) 3.2 3.2
N5E 040 251,80 Martite (MpHem-THem) 6.6 0.3
N1 036 25,55 Microplaty hematite 7.1 0.7
N4E 621 50,15 Microplaty hematite 5.5 0.8
N5E 284 31,00 Microplaty hematite (MiHem) 5.6 3.5
N5E 414 251,70 Microplaty hematite 5.8 0.5
N5E 484 230,00 Microplaty hematite (THem) 6.2 0.2
N5E 572 382,85 Microplaty hematite (THem) 3.5 2.8
N5E 577 445,40 Microplaty hematite (Mt-THem) 7.5 1.2
N5S 817 278,88 Microplaty hematite 5.9 0.5
N5S 817 308,57 Microplaty hematite 5.8 0.6
N5S 817 361,90 Microplaty hematite 2.7 3.6
N5S 836 234,80 Microplaty hematite (AHem) 7.2 1.8
N5S 771 182,25 Microplaty hematite (AHem) 2.4 6.6
N5S 897 132,20 Microplaty hematite (Mt) 6.3 0.0
N5S 817 232,75 Platy hematite (THem) 4.0 2.3
N4E 529 120,70 Anhedral hematite 7.0 0.1
N5E 284 32,65 Anhedral hematite 6.9 2.2
N5E 414 257,00 Anhedral hematite 4.9 2.0
N5E 439 247,00 Anhedral hematite 8.5 1.6
N5E 439 249,80 Anhedral hematite 6.4 0.5
N5E 439 249,80 Anhedral hematite 6.2 0.6
N5E 571 214,30 Anhedral hematite (THem) 6.2 0.7
N5E 577 242,25 AHem(Mt) veinlets + MiH recryst 6.8 0.1
N5S 904 134,85 Anhedral hematite (MpHem) 6.8 0.1
N5S 910 253,35 Anhedral hematite (MpHem) 6.7 0.2
N5E 318 172,70 Tabular hematite 5.8 1.0
N5E 414 246,10 Tabular hematite 9.5 2.6
N5E 414 247,70 Tabular hematite 8.1 1.2
N5E 414 252,00 Tabular hematite 7.2 0.3
N5S 686 172,20 Tabular hematite (Mag) 8.5 1.6
B. Oxygen isotope composition of various quartz vein breccias types

Deposit Drill core Depth Vein-breccia type 18OSMOW (%) 18Owater

N4W 588 144,00 Distal V1a 15.7 6.8

N4W 617 233,60 Distal V1a 10.1 1.8
N4W 660 176,45 Distal V1a 13.0 3.8
N4W 618 176,80 Distal V1a 14.5 5.4
N4W 618 176,80 Distal V1a 13.7 4.6
N5E 405 24,75 Distal V1a 16.4 7.2
N5S 837 132,20 Distal V1a 13.1 4.9
N5S 817 252,45 Distal-Intermediate V1/V2a 14.6 5.4
N5S 817 271,40 Distal-Intermediate V1/V2b 13.9 5.0
N5S 817 278,88 Distal V1 (mafic contact) 14.6 5.4
N5S 836 156,25 Intermediate V2b 15.7 6.5
N5S 825 86,05 Intermediate V2b 18.8 9.6
N4W 693 108,50 Intermediate V2b 15.3 6.4
N4E 621 55,40 Proximal V5 13.3 5.9

Note: - = Not analyzed

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764 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

TABLE 8. Sulfur Isotope Compositions of Sulfides Hosted in V1b Veins stage of alteration, with the exception of two data points hav-
from Altered Jaspilites and Fracture-Fill Veins from Altered ing 34S values of 2.5 and 3.0; and low 34S values from 5
Mafic Wall Rocks (the latter data set from Zucchetti, 2007) to +5, obtained for pyrite and chalcopyrite from the inter-
Sulfide Alteration 34S w.r.t.
mediate alteration zone of hydrothermally altered basalts
Sample no. species Vein type zone CDT () (Fig. 15). The majority of the data points of the latter popula-
tion are between 2.5 to +2.5, but several analyses display
N5SF825P235.25 Chalcopyrite V1b Distal 10.7 a shift of up to 2.5 toward higher 34S values (Figs. 14, 16).
N4EF703P78.10 Chalcopyrite V1b Distal 3.2
N4EF703P78.10 Pyrite V1b Distal 3.4 Hydrogen isotope analyses
N4EF703P78.10 Pyrite V1b Distal 2.7 Hydrogen isotope data were obtained from fluid inclusions
N4EF703P78.10 Pyrite V1b Distal 7.9
trapped in quartz from hydrothermal V1a, V2b, and V3 vein
N4EF703P123.90 Pyrite V1b Distal 10.8
N4EF703P123.90 Pyrite V1b Distal 8.1
types (Table 9). The hydrogen values from fluid inclusions
N4EF703P123.90 Pyrite V1b Distal 7.4 trapped in V2 and V3 quartz veins that are synchronous with
N4EF703P123.90 Pyrite V1b Distal 8.3 iron mineralization are restricted to 20 to 43 with two
N4EF703P123.90 Pyrite V1b Distal 7.7 outliers at 3 and 104 (Fig. 17).

Mafic wall rocks Carbon and oxygen isotope analyses

N5SF837P294.20 Chalcopyrite Fracture Fill Distal 0.7 Carbonate crystals for carbon and oxygen isotope analyses
N5SF837P294.20 Chalcopyrite Fracture Fill Distal 5.7 (Table 10) were selected from two different vein breccia types
N5SF837P294.20 Chalcopyrite Fracture Fill Distal 3.4 located mainly in the N4E deposit (Fig. 2), where carbonate
N5SF837P294.20 Chalcopyrite Fracture Fill Distal 0.5 is more abundant relative to the N5E deposit, and also from
N5SF837P294.20 Chalcopyrite Fracture Fill Distal 3.3 amygdules and veins in hydrothermally altered mafic wall
N5SF843P271.00 Pyrite Breccia Distal 1.0
N5SF843P271.00 Pyrite Fracture Fill Distal 1.4
rock. The aim is to better constrain the carbon fluid source
N5SF843P271.00 Chalcopyrite Breccia Distal 0.4 related to the iron ore-forming process. Carbonate samples
N5SF843P271.00 Pyrite Breccia Distal 0.7 consist of the following: (1) calcite (Fig. 5A, B) and kutna-
N5SF825P282.45 Pyrite Breccia Distal 2.8 horite in discordant V1 veins located in the distal alteration
N5SF825P282.45 Pyrite Breccia Distal 4.9 zone within jaspilites (Fig. 4); (2) kutnahorite (Fig. 5D) and
N5SF825P282.45 Chalcopyrite Breccia Distal 1.3 dolomite in V4 breccias in high-grade ore (Fig. 5C, E), with
N5SF825P282.45 Pyrite Fracture Fill Distal 2.4 kutnahorite in textural equilibrium with an assemblage of
N5EF375P109.80 Chalcopyrite Fracture Fill Distal 4.3 martite and microplaty hematite (Fig. 5F); (3) calcite from
N5EF375P109.80 Pyrite Fracture Fill Distal 1.0
N5EF375P109.80 Chalcopyrite Fracture Fill Distal 1.8
amygdules in basaltic wall rock; and (4) calcite veins in hy-
N5EF375P109.80 Pyrite Fracture Fill Distal 1.2 drothermally altered basaltic wall rocks.
Three main groups of 13C and 18O values are recognized
w.r.t. = with respect to (Table 10; Fig. 18): (1) Group 1: one amygdule and two

A B C
Mag Mag
Cal Ccp
Cal Py
Py
750 m Cal 400 m 100 m

D E F
Ccp Py
(a) (b)Ccp
Ccp
Cal
100 m
Cal Cal
400 m 200 m

FIG. 14. Photomicrographs. A. and B. Pyrite crystals in equilibrium with magnetite and calcite in V1b vein breccias from
distal alteration zone (early-stage) of altered jaspilites (reflected light 25, 50). C. and D. Chalcopyrite (Ccp) crystals as-
sociated with kutnahorite in V1b vein breccias from distal alteration zone of altered jaspilites (transmitted and reflected light
20). E. Pyrite and chalcopyrite associated with calcite in vein breccia from distal alteration zone of hydrothermally altered
mafic wall rock (reflected light 50). F. Chalcopyrite crystals from distal alteration zone of hydrothermally altered mafic wall
rock (reflected light 100).

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 765

Py and Ccp - hydrothermally

3 altered basaltic wallrocks
(distal alteration zone; Zucchetti, 2007)
(+1.1 1.9; n=17)

2 Py - V1b vein-breccia hydrothermally

altered jaspilite
(distal alteration zone) (+7.5 2.3; n=8)
Ccp - V1b vein-breccia hydrothermally
1 altered jaspilite
(distal alteration zone) (+10.7; + 3.2 )

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

34 S
FIG. 15. Histogram showing range of sulfur isotope values of pyrite and chalcopyrite (n = 2) from V1b hydrothermal vein
breccia located in the distal alteration zone of altered jaspilites, and fracture-fill veins and breccias of hydrothermally altered
basaltic wall rocks (data from Zucchetti 2007). Note that the V2 veins could not be analyzed due to very fine grained crystal
size of the sulfides (less than 0.4 mm diam).

fracture-filling veins from the distal alteration zone of hy- other data shown in Figure 18, show only a limited range in
drothermally altered basaltic wall rocks display the highest 18O and 13C values of 2.5 and 3.5, respectively (Fig.
13C values and largest range in 18O values relative to the 18A); and (3) Group 3: kutnahorite and dolomite from V4
other two groups; (2) Group 2: V1b calcite-kutnahorite vein vein breccias, exhibit the highest 18O values and a slightly
breccias, which have the lowest 18O values, compared to the larger range (about 7) compared to the second group,
whereas the 13C values are relatively well constrained in the
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 range of 3 (Fig. 18A).
Fe-ORE DEPOSITS SERRA NORTE Strontium isotope analyses
Py and Ccp - basaltic wall rocks Strontium isotope analyses from 15 samples of hydrother-
(distal alteration zone; Zucchetti, 2007) mal carbonate minerals (e.g., calcite, kutnahorite, or dolomite)
Py (Ccp) V1 veins were obtained from early-stage alteration V1 veins in jaspilites.
(distal alteration zone)
Three samples are from the main-stage, proximal-alteration V4
Cu-Au CARAJS veins and breccias in iron ores, as well as from veins (n = 6) in
IOCG Igarap Bahia (Dreher et al., 2008; the intermediate alteration zones within hydrothermally al-
Tallarico et al., 2005)
tered basaltic wall rocks (Table 10). Preparation of carbonate
Cu-Au Sossego (Monteiro et al., 2008)
samples was carried out at the University of Western Australia
Cu-Au Estrela (Lindenmayer et al., 2005)
and the isotopic analyses conducted at the University of Mel-
Cu-Au Gameleira (Lindenmayer et al., 2001)
bourne, Australia. Prior to the isotopic analyses, microprobe
Cu-Au-Mo Breves (Botelho et al., 2005)
analyses were performed at UFMG and UWA to determine
the carbonate composition in each sample (Table 10).
SULFUR RESERVOIRS ( Hoefs, 2007) Figure 19 shows the range of initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios, for
Basaltic rocks which values of most carbonates are between 0.7116 and
0.7247, with two extremely radiogenic values of 0.7409 and
Granitic rocks
0.7460 obtained for the early alteration V1 carbonates. Four
Ocean water whole-rock samples were also analyzed, including two samples
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
of the Serra dos Carajs granite (0.7083; 0.7055), one of the
least altered basalt (0.7038), and one sample of a least altered
34 S gabbro (0.7036) from the N5S deposit (Fig. 19).
FIG. 16. Range of sulfur isotope values of pyrite and chalcopyrite from the
Serra Norte iron deposits hydrothermal vein breccias located in the distal al-
Potential Fluid Sources for Hypogene Upgrade of
teration zone of altered jaspilites and vein breccia of hydrothermally altered BIF to Form High-Grade Iron Ore
basaltic wall rocks (data from Zucchetti, 2007); Archean Cu-Au deposits of In order to present a consistent paleohydrothermal model
Gameleira (Lindenmayer et al., 2001), Igarap Bahia (Tallarico et al., 2005;
Dreher et al., 2008), Sossego (Monteiro et al., 2008a), Estrela (Botelho et al., for the Serra Norte iron ore deposit, the fluid inclusion and
2005), Breves (Lindenmayer et al., 2005). Also shown are reservoirs of isotopic data sets need to be interpreted in terms of potential
basaltic, granitic rocks and ocean water (Hoefs, 2007). fluid sources.

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766 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

TABLE 9. Hydrogen Isotope Values Obtained in Fluid Inclusions fluid sources, as suggested by Bhlke and Irwin (1992). These
Trapped in V1, V2, and V3 Vein Types authors studied magmatic volatiles using data from fluid in-
Vein type Sample no. Mineral D clusions from the hydrothermal Sn and Cu ores associated
with granitic greisen at St. Austell, England, where Br/Cl ra-
V1a N4WF617P233,60 Quartz 14 tios are 0.85 0.04 103. These ratios are significantly lower
V1a N4WF618P176,80 Quartz 54 than those of seawater, but higher than hydrothermal fluids
V1a N4WF550P144,00 Quartz 43
V1 (V2) N5SF817P252,45 Quartz 35
that acquired high salinities by dissolving evaporites (e.g.,
V2b N5SF817P271,40 Quartz 20 Salton Sea and Red Sea brines; Bhlke and Irwin, 1992). On
V2b N5SF817P169,50 Quartz 25 the other hand, data from microplaty hematite samples are
V2b N5SF817P296,60 Quartz 43 incompatible with magmatic or metamorphic derivation (Fig.
V2b N4WF693P108,501 Quartz 104 11C) indicating an external fluid source (e.g., meteoric
V3 (V2) N5SF817P158,852 Quartz 81
V3 N5SF817P278,88 Quartz 43 water), which is corroborated by the low salinities detected
V3 N5SF817P320,90 Quartz 3 for inclusions in V5 quartz-microplaty hematite vein breccia
of the proximal alteration zone.
1 Presence of CH4? Fluid inclusions of vein breccias from mafic wall rocks have
2 Sample too small (not shown) higher Br/Cl ratios compared to samples hosted in jaspilite-
derived ores (Fig. 11C). However, these data are not conclu-
Fluid inclusions: The high- and low-salinity fluid inclusion sive because both Br and Cl may have been leached from the
data (Figs. 9, 10) are compatible with different fluid sources, surrounding host rock (cf. Bhlke and Irwin, 1992).
such as magmatic fluids, basinal brines, and meteoric waters, Data from fluid inclusions of hematite ores from the
respectively. Temperatures of high- and low-salinity fluid in- Hamersley province (Thorne et al., 2009a) are represented by
clusions display a well-constrained range. The high-salinity the gray fields of Figure 11A, B, which these authors inter-
fluid inclusions of the distal alteration zone may represent ei- preted as representative of basinal brines. The Carajs data
ther low-temperature magmatic fluid or basinal brine. On the follow two distinct trends toward higher Cl/Br ratios (Fig.
other hand, the low-salinity fluid inclusions of the proximal al- 11A, B). In Figure 11B, the oblique trend, within the field en-
teration zone have temperatures (Fig. 9C) that are higher circled in blue, encompasses values obtained for quartz char-
than expected for meteoric water, such as those documented acteristic of both distal and intermediate alteration zones, and
in an epizonal enviroment (e.g., epithermal gold deposits; those are interpreted to reflect a possible magmatic-meta-
Cooke and Simmons, 2000). These fluid inclusions are, there- morphic fluid source. The field encircled in red with a near-
fore, interpreted to be derived from modified, heated mete- vertical trend represents fluids from inclusions in hematite of
oric water that was warmed while penetrating the crust. the proximal alteration zone, i.e., high-grade ores, and may
The Br/Cl ratios of fluid inclusions from V1 and V2-V3 identify a meteoric water component. This interpretation is
veins, and from the majority of martite-hematite ores (Fig. corroborated by the low-salinity values obtained for fluid
11C) are compatible with both magmatic and metamorphic inclusions trapped in quartz, in textural equilibrium with

20
SMOW
0
Meteoric
water line
-20
Metamorphic waters

-40
D fluid

-60
Magmatic
waters Serra Norte Carajs Qtz veins
-80 V1a
V2b
V3
-100
Tom Price -
Southern Ridge Qtz veins
-120
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
O fluid
18

FIG. 17. Diagram displaying calculated 18Ofluid and D isotope value for quartz and fluid inclusions, respectively, from
the Serra Norte iron deposits. Also shown are data from the Southern Ridge deposit at Tom Price in the Hamersley province
of Western Australia (Thorne et al., in prep.). The meteoric water line (Craig, 1961), and fields of typical magmatic waters
(Ohmoto, 1986) and metamorphic waters as defined by Taylor (1974).

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 TABLE 10. Carbon, Oxygen, and Strontium Isotope Values in Carbonate Samples from Distal and Proximal Alteration Zones

Sample no. Carbonate species Vein type/alteration zone 87Sr/86Sr 13CPDB 18OSMOW Temperature Fractionation1 13Ccalculated Fractionation1 18Ocalculated

N4EF703P77.60 Calcite Veins (V1)/Distal - 2.9 9.3 255 1.39 1.5 7.08 2.2
N4EF703P77.60B Calcite Veins (V1)/Distal 0.74094 2.4 11.6 255 1.39 1.0 7.08 4.6
N4EF703P98.35 Calcite (Dolomite) Veins (V1)/Distal 0.74602 5.5 10.4 255 1.39 4.1 7.08 3.3
N5SF825P235.25 Kutnahorite Vein w/ Qtz (V1)/Distal 0.72477 8.2 13.6 255(inf) 1.77 6.5 9.47 3.8

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
N5SF825P276.40 Kutnahorite Brecciated (V1)/Distal 0.72318 4.8 11.7 255 1.77 3.0 9.47 2.3
JP-mafic contact
N4EF703P123.90 Kutnahorite Vein (V1)/Distal 0.72260 4.9 15.5 245 0.37 4.6 9.92 5.5
N4E2A2B(C) Jaspilite Calcite Veinlets (V1)/Distal 0.71646 4.7 9.1 255(inf) 1.39 3.3 7.08 2.1
N4E2A/B - B1 Calcite Veinlets (V1)/Distal - 3.3 11.2 255(inf) 1.39 1.9 7.08 4.2
N4E2A/B - C1 Calcite Veinlets (V1)/Distal - 3.8 10.6 255(inf) 1.39 2.4 7.08 3.6
N4E/F603/P38.60 Kutnahorite Veins and along bedding - 4.2 16.8 265 0.76 3.4 10.15
(V4)/Proximal
N4EF603P43.40 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal 0.71365 5.0 17.2 265 0.76 4.2 10.15 7.1
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A0-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.1 16.9 265 0.76 3.4 10.15 6.8
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A0-2 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.2 16.9 265 0.76 3.5 10.15 6.7
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A1-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.3 16.0 265 0.76 3.5 10.15 5.9
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A1-2 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.1 16.0 265 0.76 3.4 10.15 5.9
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A2-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.4 21.8 265 0.76 3.7 10.15 11.7
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A2-2 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.2 15.2 265 0.76 3.4 10.15 5.1
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A3-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.2 17.2 265 0.76 3.4 10.15 7.0
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A4-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.2 16.9 265 0.76 3.4 10.15 6.8
N4E/F603/P43.40 - A7-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.0 16.8 265 0.76 3.2 10.15 6.7

767
N4EF603SN - SN0-1 Kutnahorite Veins and along bedding - 4.1 16.1 265(inf) 0.76 3.4 10.15 6.0
(V4)/Proximal
N4EF603SN - SN1-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.1 16.2 265(inf) 0.76 3.3 10.15 6.0
N4EF603SN - SN2-1 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 4.1 15.1 265(inf) 0.76 3.4 10.15 4.9
N4EF603P53.50 Kutnahorite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal 0.71157 4.8 17.5 265 0.76 4.0 9.05 8.4
N5E439P247 Dolomite Veins and along bedding 0.71578 3.9 15.7 235 0.15 3.7 10.39 5.3
(V4)/Proximal
N5E/F439/P249.8 - B2 Dolomite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 3.4 19.2 235(inf) 0.15 3.3 10.39 8.8
N5E/F439/P249.8 - B3 Dolomite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 3.8 17.8 235(inf) 0.15 3.7 10.39 7.4
N5E/F439/P249.8 - B4 Dolomite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 3.8 17.6 235(inf) 0.15 3.6 10.39 7.2
N5E/F439/P249.8 - B5 Dolomite Veins-breccia (V4)/Proximal - 5.1 20.0 235(inf) 0.15 5.0 10.39 9.6

Mafic wall rock

N5SF817P96.34 Calcite Fracture fill/Distal zone 0.72597 3.2 11.5 280 1.77 1.5 6.20 5.3
N5SF817P146.40 Calcite Fracture fill/Distal zone 0.71446 0.7 12.1 280 1.77 1.1 6.20 5.9
N5EF360P245.00 Calcite Fracture fill/Distal zone 0.71670 4.0 8.7 255(inf) 1.39 2.7 7.08 1.6
N4EF707P20.41 Calcite Amygdale/Distal zone 0.72539 0.2 10.0 260 1.47 1.7 6.89 3.1
N5SF825P293.10 Kutnahorite (Cal) Breccia/Distal zone 0.71689 1.3 17.5 255(inf) 0.58 0.7 9.47 8.0
N5SF837P294.20 Calcite Fracture fill/Distal zone 0.72184 3.5 10.1 255 1.39 2.2 7.08 3.0
SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL

Note: - = Not analyzed

2 2
1 Equations for oxygen: Cal-H O at 255C = 7.08; at 280C = 6.20 (ONeil et al., 1969); Dol-H O at 255C = 2.40; at 280C = 2.26 (Northrop and Clayton, 1966 and ONeil et al., 1969); according

to Nick Oliver; equations for carbon: Cal-CO2 at 255C = 1.39; at 260C = 1.47; at 280C = 1.77; Dol-CO2 at 235C = 0.15; at 245C = 0.37; at 255C = 0.58; at 260C = 1.01; at 265C = 0.76
(Ohmoto and Rye, 1979)
767
768 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.

2
A

Distal
C PDB -2

Estrela Proximal
IOCG
13

-4 deposit

-6

Cristalino
IOCG deposit
-8

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
18
O SMOW

2
B
0
Calcite amygdales (hydrothermally
basaltic wall rocks)
-2
C fluid

Calcite veins (hydrothermally

basaltic wall rocks)
-4
13

Calcite V1 vein-breccia
(distal alteration zone)
Kutnahorite V1 vein-breccia
-6
Magmatic (distal alteration zone)
Kutnahorite V4 vein-breccia
-8 (proximal alteration zone)
Dolomite V4 vein-breccia
(proximal alteration zone)
-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
18O fluid
FIG. 18. A. Carbon and oxygen isotopes compositions of carbonates in calcite amygdale from the hydrothermally basaltic
wall rock; calcite veins from distal alteration zone of basaltic wall rocks; calcite and kutnahorite from V1b vein breccia in dis-
tal alteration zone in altered jaspilites, and dolomite and kutnahorite from V4 vein breccia in proximal alteration zone. The
two circles correspond to distal and proximal alteration zones, respectively. Also shown are fields of oxygen and carbon iso-
tope composition of calcite from the Paleoproterozoic Cu (Mo-Au-Sn) Estrela deposit (Lindenmayer et al., 2005; box in
gray), and the Archean Cu(Au) Cristalino deposit (Ribeiro et al., 2007; empty box). B. Diagram showing calculated carbon
and oxygen fluid values based on trapping temperatures based on fluid inclusions studies. Symbols for Figure 18A are shown
in Figure 18B. See Table 10 for fractionation values and equations. Magmatic field according to Kyser and Kerrich (1990).

hematite, and in microplaty hematite (Rios et al., 2004; Lo-
bato et al., 2005b) from high-grade hematite ore samples.
The spread of values along the near-vertical trend may be ex-
plained by mixing of magmatic-metamorphic fluid and mete-
oric water.
Ratios for Cl/Br from the IOCG Sossego deposit, in Cara-
js, obtained for fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz and
calcite veins, range from 742 to 1,786, and together with 37Cl
and Sr isotope values are interpreted as magmatic in origin,
although a contribution of basinal brines cannot be excluded
(cf. Chiaradia et al., 2006). In contrast, similar Cl/Br ratios in
combination with B isotope data for tourmaline from some
Cu-Au deposits in the Carajs mineral province are inter-
preted by Xavier et al. (2008) as basinal brines. However, by
comparing the Carajs iron ore Cl/Br, Na/Cl, and Na/Br ratios
(Fig. 11) with those of the basin-hosted Hamersley iron ore
deposits (Thorne et al., 2009a), it is clear that the ion ratios
are incompatible with basinal brines.

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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 769

Cal-Kut V1 vein type

Kut-Dol V4 vein type

0.76

0.75

0.74
Sr/ 86 Sr

0.73
87

0.72

0.71 Seawater

0.70
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (Ga)
FIG. 19. Radiogenic strontium isotope compositions of calcite-kutnahorite samples from V1b veins located in the distal
alteration zone, kutnahorite-dolomite from V4 breccia from the proximal alteration zone, and calcite from hydrothermally al-
tered basalt (distal zone) from Serra Norte Carajs iron ore deposits (at age of 1.8 Ga; Lobato et al., 2008); carbonate veins
from the Cu-Au Igarap Bahia deposit (data from Tallarico et al., 2005); and calcite-tourmaline veins from Salobo deposit
(Tassinari et al., 2003).

The LA-ICPMS data on fluid inclusions from the Serra
Norte iron deposits show a significant decrease in all ele-
ments from the distal V1 to the proximal V5 veins (Fig. 12).
The early (distal) and intermediate stages V1, V2, and V3
quartz veins are characterized by relatively high Fe contents
compared to those of the late, proximal V5 veins. A decrease
in Fe in the fluid is consistent with extensive hematite pre-
cipitation in the proximal alteration zone, which is compatible
with iron having been extracted from the fluid to form
hematite (Fig. 12I). The overall decrease in all elements ana-
lyzed in V5 veins, in conjunction with the decrease in total
fluid salinity (Fig. 10C), suggest a significant influx of mete-
oric water causing dilution of the original fluid present in the
high-grade ore zone.
Calcite is widely distributed in V1 veins, mainly in the N4E
deposit, but is not present in V2. This pattern supports the as-
sertion that the high contents of Ca, as shown in Figure 12A
and E, must reflect the relatively high Ca concentration in the
fluids, suggesting an original Ca-rich fluid, in accordance with
the low eutectic temperature of 50C.
Of note is the high amount of Li, for example, from 224 to
767 ppm in quartz from V1a veins, distal alteration zone,
which is consistent with a magmatic component in the hydro-
thermal fluids (e.g., Garret, 2004; Cern and Ercit, 2005).
The high amount of base metals Cu-Pb-Zn in fluid inclu-
sions, mainly Cu (up to 2,000 ppm), and Zn (up to 4,000) in
quartz from V1 veins, distal alteration zone, is compatible with
a magmatic fluid. The lower concentration of these metals in
the proximal V5 veins, compared to all other veins, corrobo-
rates the LA-ICP-MS analyses on paragenetically different
hematite types from high-grade iron ore, which contain prin-
cipally Zn, and also Pb and Cu (Figueiredo e Silva et al.,
2009). The gradual dilution of the base metal signature in
fluid inclusions from early- to late-stage veins and breccias
also serves to support the model involving influx of surface
water into the high-grade ore zone.
Relative to the distal and proximal alteration zones, the LA-
ICP-MS data of the intermediate-stage V2-V3 veins (Fig.
12C, E, G) display oscillating distribution patterns of most
elements in which concentrations cover a much wider range
than those elements observed for fluid inclusions from the
distal alteration zone (Fig. 12A). Furthermore, other charac-
teristics of the intermediate alteration zone, encompassing
mineral assemblages, microthermometric fluid inclusion data
including low- to high-salinity values, and variation of eutec-
tic temperatures, together strongly suggest mixing of mag-
matic fluid and meteoric water. This results in the dilution of
fluid composition, including the magmatic trace element Li.
Some of the more abundant elements (chiefly Na, K, Ca, Fe,
Mg) maintain their initial concentration in the fluid, as they
likely were transported through the vein and breccias system
without significant mass transfer via fluid-rock reactions or
mineral precipitation.
Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes: Calculated 18Ofluid values
of quartz from V1, V2, and V5 veins overlap those of typical
magmatic fluid values (Taylor, 1997), as shown in Figure 13B.

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770 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.
The magmatic nature of at least some of these fluids is cor-
roborated in part by the presence of high-salinity fluid inclu-
sions in those samples that display a magmatic oxygen iso-
tope signature. The 18O values of oxides and quartz are also
compatible with whole-rock oxygen isotope data on the Serra
dos Carajs granite (Fig. 1; DallAgnol et al. 2005), which
range from 6.6 to 10.1, with most values between 7.8 and
9.0, one analysis of quartz from this granite yields a value
of 7.1 (Rios et al., 1995).
The systematic decrease in 18O values of oxides from early
to late paragenetic stages indicates a progressive increase in
the influx of isotopically light, meteoric waters with time and
proximity to the high-grade, hard-iron orebodies. Previous
oxygen isotope studies on BIF iron ore have been used to
constrain the genesis of high-grade hematite ores and, in gen-
eral, a similar depletion in 18O of about 5 in high-grade
ores has been reported (Powell et al., 1999; Gutzmer et al.,
2006; Cope et al., 2008; Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2008;
Thorne et al., 2009b). For example, in the case of the Pic de
Fon BIF-hosted deposit in the Simandou Range, Guinea,
high-grade iron ore displays low 18O values for hematite rel-
ative to low-grade iron ore (Cope et al., 2008). These authors
argued that the shift to lower values can be explained by ex-
tensive interaction with isotopically light, evolved meteoric
waters in a shallow crustal hydrothermal system (cf. Powell et
al., 1999; Rosire and Rios, 2004). For the Carajs iron ore
deposits, few oxygen isotope analyses are available for vein
quartz associated with the distal and intermediate alteration
zones. Because the calculated quartz-water oxygen isotope
signature overlaps those of magmatic fluids (Fig. 13), meta-
morphic fluids (Fig. 17), and basinal brines (Ohmoto, 1986),
these data are inconclusive.
Figure 17 displays 18Ofluid versus D isotope values for
quartz and fluid inclusions, respectively (Table 9). Some data
points from the Serra Norte iron ore deposits fall within the
field of primary magmatic fluids (Taylor, 1974), with two
samples that shifted the isotopic values toward lighter 18O
and heavier D compared to those that characterize average
magmatic fluid. This shift may indicate an uncertain amount
of meteoric water influx into the mineral system and subse-
quent fluid-rock reactions. Figure 17 also shows values of
quartz samples from the Southern Ridge iron deposit in the
Hamersley province in Western Australia, which clearly dis-
plays different populations in D and 18Ofluid space relative
to Carajs, suggesting different fluid sources and/or fluid-rock
reactions for these two datasets. Whereas most of the Carajs
data points fall within the magmatic/metamorphic water
boxes, the majority of the Southern Ridge data plot outside
these boxes. The lack of lower 18O values toward the meteoric
water line in the Carajs samples could be explained by the
absence of data from V5 quartz veins (proximal alteration
zone), which better reflect the influx of meteoric water.
With respect to the hydrogen isotope values of the early
stage, data for quartz overlaps both the magmatic and meta-
morphic fluid boxes and are thus nondiagnostic. The hydro-
gen data do not display a trend toward the seawater value, nor
to meteoric water (Fig. 17), which is typical of the advanced
alteration stage based on fluid inclusion and oxygen isotope
studies. Distribution of the data suggests a deep hydro-
thermal fluid, which could be of metamorphic, magmatic, or
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 770
mantle derivation. Interestingly, the Carajs hydrogen data
set is more restricted than that for the Hamersley iron de-
posits (Hagemann et al., 1999) if the lightest value (104;
Table 9) is excluded, suggesting that basinal brines were not
involved (Figueiredo et al., 2008).
Sulfur isotopes: Sulfur isotope values of 2.7 to 10.8
(Table 8), for sulfides in V1b veins of the distal zone of the
Serra Norte altered jaspilites are compatible with magmatic
values of granitic rocks, using the reservoir definition of
Hoefs (2007; Fig. 16). Pyrite in Late Archean oxide facies, Al-
goma-type BIF, in the Abitibi subprovince of Ontario (Bowins
and Crocket, 1994) have an average 34S of 1.9 1.5.
These authors suggested that sulfur of both volcanic and ma-
rine sulfate origin was incorporated in the pyrite. Whitehouse
and Kamber (2005) found similarly low sulfur isotope values
of 0.4 to +2.2 in pyrite from BIF in the Early Archean
Isua greenstone belt, Greenland. Values from the present
study are significantly higher (i.e., 10) than these Archean
BIF, and broader than primary sulfides in basalt, which have
34S values near 0 1 (Ohmoto, 1992). Secondary pyrites
related to seafloor alteration of submarine basalts also dis-
plays a large spread, from 20 to +10, which may be at-
tained by low-temperature alteration (Alt, 1995). Variable
fluid mixing of isotopically light isotopic sulfur, leached from
the Carajs basalts, with heavier sulfur originating from sul-
fides (i.e., pyrite) of the jaspilite, alternatively may account for
the spread of the sulfur isotope data.
The 34S values for the Carajs hydrothermally altered
basalt better constrain juvenile magmatic sulfur (i.e., Hoefs,
2007). Sulfides in the distal alteration zone (Fig. 16; Zuc-
chetti, 2007) have 34S between 4.3 and +3.4, excluding
two slightly higher 34S (up to 5.7) data points. These lat-
ter values may be the result of exchange or mixing reactions
between the magmatic sulfur and an additional external sul-
fur source, such as seawater sulfate. On the other hand, oxy-
gen (Fig. 13), strontium isotope (Fig. 19), and halogen (Fig.
11) values argue against a seawater contribution during
hydrothermal evolution of the Serra Norte iron orebodies.
Because significant isotopic evidence exists for meteoric
water infiltration, in the advanced hydrothermal alteration
stages (e.g., Fig. 13; Lobato et al., 2005b; Figueiredo e Silva
et al., 2007a, b, 2008), interaction with higher fO2 meteoric
water may have caused exchange reactions resulting in
slightly higher 34S values. Alternatively, variations of fO2 and
pH conditions during the early hydrothermal alteration stage
may have caused the sulfur isotope shift from 4.3 to +3.4.
The 34S values for sulfides in other Carajs ore deposits in-
clude those of the Archean Igarap Bahia IOCG deposit that
range from 1.1 to +5.6 (chalcopyrite) with an outlier at
10.8 (Dreher et al., 2008; Figs. 1, 16). These authors sug-
gested that most of the sulfur in the Igarap Bahia deposit is
magmatic or was leached from magmatic rocks. The same ori-
gin is indicated by isotopic values for chalcopyrite and pyrite
of 0.1 to 4.1 for the Paleoproterozoic Cu (Mo-Au-Sn) Es-
trela deposit (Lindenmayer et al., 2005; Figs. 1, 16). Data
from the Archean Sossego IOCG deposit (Fig. 16; Monteiro
et al., 2008) are similar to those for the iron deposits reported
here and are interpreted to record a combination of hot,
deep-seated hydrothermal fluids from volcanic and intrusive
rocks and externally derived, modified meteoric water.
 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL
Carbonate carbon, oxygen, and strontium isotopes: Among
the three groups of 13C and 18O values, Group 3 shows the
highest 13C value of 0.24, obtained from calcite in
basalt amygdules, which are compatible with seawater values
(Rollinson, 1993) and may reflect early seafloor alteration at
the seawater-mafic magma interface. On the other hand, the
restricted range of 13C values (5.5 to 2.4 ; Fig. 18A) for isotope signature of the hydrothermal carbonates and tour-
calcite and dolomite, in both the early-stage hydrothermal al-
teration V1 veins and proximal alteration V4 veins, suggests
that carbon could have been derived from the same source,
potentially magmatic in nature (Faure, 1977; Rollinson, 1993;
Faure and Mensing, 2005; Hoefs, 2007), as suggested previ-
ously by Lobato et al. (2005b). However, as pointed out, for
example, by Kyser and Kerrich (1990), 13C values of ca.
5 are difficult to interpret in terms of the source of car-
bon, because the 13C ranges for mantle CO2, igneous, sedi-
mentary, and metamorphic carbon overlap (ranges in Hoefs,
2007). Note that the carbon isotope values of marine
dolomite in dolomitic itabirites of the Cau Formation,
Quadriltero Ferrfero, show a restricted range from 2.5 to
0.8 (Spier et al., 2007), and these are quite different from
hydrothermal dolomite from the Carajs iron ores (Fig. 18A).
The wider range of 18O values in the V4 veins (Fig. 18A),
compared to V1 carbonates, suggests variable oxygen sources,
possibly due to interaction with more than one type of hydro-
thermal fluid. Alternatively, this constrast could be explained
by significant changes in fluid/rock ratios during interaction
with a fluid that contained heavy 18O. The relatively heavier
18O values, cf. the 6 to 8 difference, in dolomite veins
from the high-grade ore compared to 18O values of calcite
veins (911) within jaspilites, may also be related to nor-
mal fractionation between these carbonates if it is assumed
that they precipitated from the same fluid source (cf. Boni et
al., 2007).
Carbon isotope analyses of hydrothermal calcites from the
Cu (Mo-Au-Sn) Paleoproterozoic Estrela deposit in the Cara-
js mineral province (Lindenmayer et al., 2005) show a simi-
lar restricted range (3.2 to 4.8) of 13C values relative to ids of iron ore deposits in the Hamersley basin, which are in-
13C values for the Serra Norte iron ore deposits (Fig. 18A).
In conjunction with other data, these authors suggest a mag-
matic fluid source for the carbon in carbonates and the ore
fluids. Carbon isotope data for the Cu(Au) Cristalino deposits
in the Carajs mineral province vary from 7.2 to 4.4 and lack of an igneous body emplaced contemporaneously with
these are also interpreted by Ribeiro et al. (2007) as magmatic
(Fig. 18A).
Figure 18B presents the calculated 13Cfluid and 18Ofluid
values for carbonate using fluid inclusion trapping tempera-
tures from 235 to 280C (Table 10) and the equations of
state of Northrop and Clayton (1966), ONeil et al. (1969),
and Ohmoto and Rye (1976). The 18Ofluid data (Fig. 18B) are
shifted to lower values compared to data in Figure 18A. The
fluid data overlap several fluid sources for carbon, namely
magmatic and metamorphic. As a result, no single carbon
source can be documented.
Regarding carbonate 87Sr/86Sr results, these are highly radi-
ogenic (Fig. 19). Extremely radiogenic values (0.7409 and
0.7460) belong to early-stage carbonates, suggesting a possible
different strontium source for these, relative to the source(s)
for late-stage carbonates. Elsewhere in the Carajs district,
similar radiogenic 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios were determined for
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771
hydrothermal calcite and tourmaline from the Salobo IOCG
deposit (Tassinari et al., 2003), and calcite and siderite from
the 2.5 Ga Igarap Bahia IOCG deposit (Tallarico et al.,
2005), which are shown in Figure 19. These authors proposed
multiple crustal sources, consistent with an epigenetic mag-
matic-hydrothermal fluid as the main cause for the radiogenic
malines in those deposits.
DallAgnol et al. (1994) presented an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of
0.7158 0.0027 for the Serra dos Carajs granite, which is
compatible with the results from the present study. Together
with petrographic and geochemical data, DallAgnol et al.
(1994) regarded the Sr isotope composition of the granite as
indicative of crustal sources, or at least a contribution by the
Serra dos Carajs granite magma. On the other hand, initial
87Sr/86Sr ratios of metavolcanic rocks of the Gro Par Group
(0.7057 0.0010; Gibbs et al., 1986), and two data points
from the present study, viz. 0.7036 and 0.7038 (Fig. 19), are
incompatible with ratios obtained for hydrothermal carbonate
vein breccia from distal and proximal alteration zones in the
Serra Norte iron ore deposits. These data indicate that Sr in
the hydrothermal fluids that interacted with jaspilites to form
the high-grade iron ore originated from an external Sr source
and/or assimilated crustal material resulting in higher initial
ratios (e.g., Faure and Powell, 1972).
The magmatic fluid controversy: Considering the fluid in-
clusion and stable isotope data on the Serra Norte iron
hematite ores together, it is clear that the high-grade orebod-
ies were dominated by large amounts of descending meteoric
water. The trapping temperatures of 245 to 295C suggest
that the meteoric water was heated during descent. The
source of the early-stage, ascending fluid remains uncertain,
as the fluid inclusion and stable isotope data can be inter-
preted as reflecting either magmatic fluids or basinal brines.
Evidence for a contribution from modified magmatic fluids
includes the high Cl/Br (up to 3,000) and Na/Cl ratios of fluid
inclusion leachates. Also, a comparison of data from ore flu-
terpreted to be of basinal brine origin, shows that these differ
significantly, mainly in having higher Cl/Br ratios for Carajs
FIs in oxide minerals (Fig. 11).
Arguments against magmatic fluids include the apparent
the proposed ages of high-grade iron ore mineralization at
1717 12 and 1613 21 Ma (Santos et al., 2010). Despite
dating various exposed intrusions in the Carajs mineral
province, no single intrusion has an age similar to those re-
ported for hydrothermal iron mineralization. All studied in-
trusions are much older (1865, 2525 Ma) than the high-grade
iron ores. A small intrusion of leucogranite (<50 m diam at
the surface) is described by Pimentel et al. (2003) in the
Gameleira Cu-Au deposit and dated at 1583 Ma, indicating
that granitic magmatism slightly postdates the two ages ob-
tained for the hydrothermal iron mineralization. Pimentel et
al. (2003) also constrained hydrothermal alteration in the
Gameleira deposit to 1700 31 Ma based on an Sm-Nd
isochron, and 1734 8 Ma by biotite Ar-Ar analyses. Even
though the two iron mineralization ages are different, they do
suggest that magmatic activity occurred in the Carajs min-
eral province during the time postulated for hydrothermal
772 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.
iron mineralization. The interpretation of the origin of the
CaCl2-rich fluid inclusions (up to 30% in V1 vein type) is con-
tentious, because Ca-rich fluids are related to both sedimen-
tary basin (e.g., Xu, 2000; Hunt et al., 2005) and magmatism
(e.g., Kwak and Hing Tan, 1981; Samson and Sinclair, 1992;
Xu, 2000). For example, Haynes and Kesler (1988) described
systematic variations in NaCl/KCl/CaCl2 ratios in fluid inclu-
sions from different skarns, which reflect differences in the
fluid source and the extent of mixing of magmatic, connate,
and meteoric fluids. According to these authors, magmatic
fluids generally have KCl > CaCl2, whereas high CaCl2 fluids
appear to record interaction with sedimentary wall rocks. In
the case of Carajs, CaCl2-rich fluids may have evolved due to
interaction of the hydrothermal fluids with metabasaltic wall
rocks that show calcium loss during iron enrichment and
hematite formation (Zuccheti, 2007). That study showed that
CaO is strongly dispersed as result of its mobility during
hydrothermal alteration; hydrothermally altered metabasaltic
wall rocks are strongly depleted in this component, and in
some samples, Ca was nearly completely leached.
The main argument against basinal brines being the
source of the Ca is the lack of geologic evidence for basin-
related sedimentary rocks in the stratigraphy underlying the
Gro Par Group sequence; metasedimentary rocks in the
guas Claras formation are located above the iron ore-bear-
ing formation. Metamorphic fluids also can be discounted as
metamorphism is only recorded in the Carajs mineral
province during the Archean (e.g., Lindenmayer et al.,
2001). Boron isotopes of tourmaline from the Salobo IOCG
deposit show that components of the B were derived from
marine evaporites (Xavier et al., 2008). Note, however, that
this source region is not directly applicable to the Carajs
iron ore deposits.
That chemical components from wall rocks contaminated dif-
ferent stages of evolved fluids is clearly inferred by the Sr/Sri
systematics. Additionally, one cannot refute the concept that
iron was at least in part incorporated from the protore jaspilites.
Paleohydrothermal Model for Iron Ore Formation
in the Serra Norte Deposits
Based on geologic investigations documented in Fi-
gueiredo e Silva et al. (2008) and detailed fluid inclusion, and
stable and radiogenic isotope data reported here, a multistage
paleohydrothermal fluid model for the formation of the Serra
Norte jaspilite-hosted high-grade iron orebodies is proposed
(Fig. 20). The chronologic steps of the paleohydrothermal
evolution are based on the distinct mineralogy and parage-
netic stages illustrated in Figure 3I.
Deposition of jaspilite and mafic rocks in a back-arc tec-
tonic setting during the Archean is proposed here, based on
geochemical data and the geochemical interpretation of the
Gro Par mafic rocks by Zucchetti (2007). An inherited Late
Archean/Early Proterozoic structural framework prepared
the Serra Norte terrane for the mineralizing hydrothermal
fluids, as the hard iron orebodies formed mainly in the hinge
zone (e.g., the N5E deposit) of large folds and are associated
with interpreted splays from mapped existing shear zones
(Lobato et al., 2005b; Rosire et al., 2006).
In order to propose a unified genetic model for the Serra
Norte iron ore deposits it is important to recognize that the
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
different open pits contain diverse iron ore types and styles of
mineralization. This diversity reflects different evolutionary
stages in the complex paragenesis of protolith BIF to high-
grade hematite ores. For example, the N4E open pit has mostly
martite ore (of the intermediate alteration stage) with only
minor areas containing late-stage, hematite-rich iron ore. In
contrast, the N5E open pit has predominant hematite and local
late-stage magnetite ores. Carbonate alteration, widely re-
ported in the Hamersley iron orebodies (e.g., Thorne et al.,
2008), is restricted temporally and spatially in the Carajs Serra
Norte iron ore deposits. The only location where carbonate is
well developed is in the N4E open pit. Due to this hetero-
geneity in the distribution of iron ore types in the different
open pits of the Serra Norte deposits, the proposed genetic
model, and accompanying block models, show the sequence
of events for the N4W, N4E, N5E, and N5S open pits.
For the proposed fluid model, outlined below, it is sug-
gested that the ascending hydrothermal fluid was largely
magmatic-hydrothermal in nature. The lack of a magmatic in-
trusion cogenetic with the hydrothermal iron mineralization
may only reflect the relative scarcity of geochronological data
in the Carajs mineral province and/or the fact that an ig-
neous body that may be buried at depth has not yet been
detected and geochronologically constrained. However, it is
acknowledged that the exact source of the ascending hydro-
thermal fluids presently remains unknown. Therefore, the
arrows that show ascending magmatic fluids in the block
models are speculative (Fig. 20).
Proposed fluid model
Early hydrothermal alteration stage: In the early hydro-
thermal stage (Fig. 20A), the loss of silica in jaspilite is ac-
companied by precipitation of calcite, quartz, magnetite, and
sulfide in V1a vein breccias (characteristic of the N4E de-
posit; Figs. 2, 20A, panel C-D), and quartz-sulfide V1b vein
breccias, mainly present at the N4W deposit (Fig. 2).
Medium- to high-salinity fluids (10.230.1 equiv wt % CaCl2)
contain Ca in addition to Na, K, and Mg and metals such as
Fe, Cu, Zn, and Pb (Table 6; Fig. 12). Trapping temperatures
of fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite vary from 223 to
324C. Calculated carbon and oxygen isotopes and strontium
isotope ratios in carbonate minerals, i.e., calcite and kutna-
horite, are 13CPDB = 5.5 to 2.4, 18O = 9.3 to 20, and
Sr/Sri = 0.7116 to 0.7460, respectively (Fig. 20A). Magnetite
is the earliest hydrothermal oxide, being present in veins and
overgrowing microcrystalline hematite bands in jaspilite (Fig.
3), and has oxygen isotope values of 0 to +4. Subsequently,
magnetite is incipiently oxidized to form martite, leaving re-
licts of kenomagnetite. Sulfides in hydrothermal veins of the
mafic wall rock have 34S values of 0.7 to 5.7 (Zucchetti,
2007), suggesting a magmatic fluid contribution.
The early hydrothermal alteration of the jaspilites and in-
troduction of V1 veins is interpreted to have been caused by
hydrothermally modified magmatic fluids (Fig. 20A), based
on relatively high salinity fluid inclusions, mainly trapped in
carbonate (~2030 equiv wt % CaCl2); and carbon, oxygen,
and strontium isotope ratios in carbonate minerals, oxygen
isotope ratios in magnetite, and sulfur isotope ratios in sul-
fides, which are all compatible with the involvement of mag-
matic fluids.
772
 A. Early stage B. Intermediate stage C. Advanced stage

N4E Paleosurface
C D C N4E D
Open pit C N4E D
Paleosurface
F603
B F703
F703 'Soft ore'
Open pit

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
(1)
(2)

V1a
Mt
Vla Mt
Martite (Mt)
Mag
Qtz-hem MpHem
veins V5
Py+ccp
V4
V2
100m
Vlb
Vlb ??
MpHem Qtz

N5E
N5S
N5S E F Legend

773
F825 Paleosurface
G H Paleosurface Soft ore
F817
G H Hard ore
F439
'Soft ore' Carbonate
alteration
jaspilite
Carbonate
(1) alteration
(2)
(2) mafic rock
(1)
Jaspilite
Mafic rock
0 50 150 250
Vlb
Vla Interpreted
V5 AHem fault zone
Fracture Meteoric water
fill
Ascending fluids
(magmatic and/or
basinal brines?)
V3 V2b V4 THem
Qtz-sulfide breccia Drill hole
SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL

FIG. 20. Hydrothermal fluid model. A. Early alteration stage (distal zone) with distribution of the jaspilite unit and detailed sketches of the V1a and V1b vein gener-
ations. Magnetite (white crystals in blow up sketches) interpreted to be introduced by magmatic hydrothermal fluids (see text for details) from likely modified magmatic
hydrothermal fluids. Mag = magnetite. B. Intermediate alteration stage: Martititization and introduction of microplaty hematite in V2b veins and on margins of martite
grains (see blow up sketches). V3 veins contain platy hematite with magnetite relics indicating that an oxidizing fluid was involved. Fluids were ascending magmatic or
basinal brines and a contribution from descending relatively heated meteoric water. C. Advanced alteration stage (proximal zone) characterized by dolomitic V4 veins
and V5 quartz-hematite veins (see blow up sketches) with advanced martitization producing anhedral hematite in banded and brecciated ores mainly through circula-
tion of meteoric water. Schematic cross sections are modified from Vale data and their location is display in Figure 2. The scale shown in the N5E deposit is relevant for
all other cross sections.
773
774 FIGUEIREDO E SILVA ET AL.
The source of the ascending fluids remains elusive. Lobato
et al. (2005b) and Figueiredo e Silva et al. (2008, 2009) pro-
posed that the oxidized, magnetite series, rapakivi A-type
Paleoproterozoic granites (DallAgnol and de Oliveira, 2007),
which intruded the Carajs mineral province at relatively
shallow crustal conditions, may have been the source of these
fluids. For the Serra dos Carajs granite, fluid inclusion data
(NaCl-CaCl2-MgCl2-H2O system at low temperatures) ob-
tained from hydrothermal quartz-calcite-sulfide-bearing vein,
derived from this magma (Rios et al., 1995), are very similar
to the salinity and trapping temperatures reported here.
However, Ca-rich fluid inclusions in the Serra Norte iron ore
deposits (Table 4) appear to be incompatible with unmodified
A-type granite magmas (DallAgnoll and de Oliveira, 2007),
but may have been acquired from an external source such as
metabasaltic wall rocks, which show clear evidence for Ca de-
pletion during hydrothermal alteration (Zucchetti, 2007).
Intermediate hydrothermal alteration stage: The interme-
diate alteration stage (Fig. 20B) is typified by intense desilifi-
cation, leaving porous jasper bands, and dissolution of hydro-
thermal carbonate, which precipitated during the early stages
of alteration. Microplaty hematite precipitated in vuggy
quartz-hematite V2, and hematite-quartz V3 veins, and in
open spaces in the wall rock (Fig. 20B); it also nucleated on
martite borders or martite nuclei. In V3 veins, platy hematite
crystals may contain magnetite relicts or inclusions indicating
that a relatively oxidizing fluid interacted with the jaspilite se-
quence during this alteration stage. The V2 and V3 veins con-
tain high-salinity, Na-Fe-Mg-rich fluid inclusions (up to 24
equiv wt % CaCl2) with trapping temperatures of 210 to
290C, suggesting a magmatic fluid and/or basinal brine con-
tribution. In addition, low- to medium-salinity Ca-Mg-Fe-
rich fluid inclusions (<2 to >25 equiv wt % NaCl) with trap-
ping temperatures of 250 to 280C are observed locally. The
low-salinity fluid inclusions, paired with the low oxygen iso-
tope values of hematite (~4.0), suggest that, in addition to
ascending magmatic fluids/basinal brines, the influx of mete-
oric water took place during this alteration stage (Fig. 20B).
The relatively high temperature inferred for the meteoric
water may be the result of a steep geothermal gradient that
caused the descending water to be heated.
Advanced hydrothermal alteration stage: The advanced al-
teration stage (Fig. 20C) is characterized by V4 ore breccias
cemented by carbonate, mainly Mn-rich dolomite in the N4E
deposit and dolomite in the N5E deposit, and portions of V5
quartz-hematite veins that are preserved in high-grade hard
ores (Fig. 4). Within the V5 veins, fluid inclusions in quartz in
textural equilibrium with microplaty hematite display low-
salinity Na-K-Mg fluids trapped between 245 and 295C. Lo-
cally, clusters of primary carbonate in V4 breccia contain Ca-
rich fluid inclusions trapped at about 235 to 285C (Fig.
20C). Fluid inclusions trapped in quartz from V5 veins, in tex-
tural equilibrium with microplaty hematite in high-grade ore,
show both low (<5.8 wt % NaCl; Na-rich) and high (11.824.5
wt % CaCl2; Ca-rich) salinity, trapped from 240 to 290C.
The progressive martitization formed aggregates of an-
hedral hematite crystals (Fig. 3G), which may be present as
eye-shaped portions in banded or brecciated ores, character-
istic of the N5E deposit (Fig. 2). Tabular hematite crystals
(Fig. 3H) correspond to the paragenetically latest stage of
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 774
oxide mineralization and precipitated mainly along discordant
V5 veins where quartz is absent. These two hematite types
have the lightest oxygen isotope values of all oxide minerals
(Table 7; Fig. 13), recording the influx of substantial amounts
of meteoric water into the high-grade iron orebodies during
the advanced alteration stage (Fig. 20C).
Iron enrichment: The question of whether iron was intro-
duced from an external source, or leached from the local BIF
sequences, is open to discussion (e.g., Webb et al., 2003;
Gutzmer et al., 2006). Geochemical and mineralogical trans-
formations from jaspilite to high-grade iron ores, including
the detection of Fe in fluid inclusions from the Serra Norte
orebodies, suggest that not only was silica leaching of jaspilite
responsible for the iron mineralization, but also and impor-
tantly, relative enrichment of iron came from an external
hydrothermal source. In Carajs, stockwork-style hematite
veins and open-space filling, in addition to comb-textured
hematite in the waning stages of alteration, suggest that ex-
ternal iron may have been introduced at least during the in-
termediate, and certainly, in the advanced stage of alteration.
Also, LA-ICP-MS analyses of fluid inclusions point to the
presence of iron in fluids in equilibrium with hematite
(Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2007a). However, the possibility
that this iron is merely remobilized from the iron-rich wall
rocks cannot be ruled out.
The Serra dos Carajs Paleoproterozoic rapakivi-type gran-
ites are oxidized (DallAgnol and de Oliveira, 2007) and could
have transported iron in solution. In magmatic systems, the
concentration of Fe in chloride solutions or complexes coex-
isting with magnetite or biotite is extremely high (Whitney et
al., 1985). This high solubility may explain the large quantities
of iron typically deposited in skarns and mineralized granitic
systems. For example, studies by Kwak et al. (1986) suggested
that the highly saline, Fe-bearing solutions present in the
cores of porphyry systems and other near-granite contact de-
posits are not a result of increased salinity of hydrothermal
fluids due to boiling of meteoric waters but rather to a mag-
matic fluid source.
Experiments by Zeng et al. (1989) concluded that the solu-
bility of the buffer assemblage magnetite-hematite in 3.00
mol/kg NaCl hydrothermal solutions is strongly dependent on
the pH of the solutions and appears to have no explicit rela-
tionship to NaCl molality, especially at lower pH values (~12).
Under conditions similar to those proposed for the iron min-
eralization at Carajs (at ~300C and ~1.5 kbars), the hydroxyl
complex FeOH+ may have played an important role in the
transport of Fe in acidic hydrothermal NaCl fluids. Relatively
acidic conditions may be inferred by the absence of carbon-
ate in the intermediate to advanced alteration zones. The im-
portance of Fe(OH)3Cl and Fe(OH)3 increases at higher and
lower NaCl molalities, respectively, as the solutions become
more basic. Zeng et al. (1989) suggested that pH changes of
ore-forming solutions caused by wall-rock alteration, mixing
with meteoric water, or boiling, may have a major effect on
the transport and deposition of Fe in hydrothermal systems.
Supergene enrichment
Rezende and Barbosa (1972), Beisegel et al. (1973), Beisegel
(1982), and Ladeira and Cordeiro (1988) classified and de-
scribed the supergene ores of the Serra Norte deposits. The
 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL
most voluminous ore mined in these deposits consists of soft
hematite ore with lenses of hard ore. According to Rosire and
Chemale (2000), the soft hematite ores are the product of pro-
gressive weathering and SiO2 leaching that may reach a depth
of 250 m (Tolbert et al., 1971) and represent the main source
of the iron ore reserves in the Carajs mineral province.
The Serra Norte deposits were originally present in flat
portions of plateaus having a recent thin (<30 m) goethite-
martite hardcap and goethitic canga, as shown in Figures 1
and 2. Canga describes loose detrital material, cemented by
hydrated iron oxides and minor clay, magnetite, jaspilite, and
pebbles of older canga. In Serra Norte, canga varies from a
hematite-rich variety on the flanks of hills to progressively
more hydrated types (goethitic) near the plateau borders
(Tolbert et al., 1971). The hardcap and canga may derive from
goethite replacement of gangue minerals in BIF or by super-
gene ore formation during recent weathering. Canga is be-
lieved to have formed by mechanical and chemical decompo-
sition of bedrock, and replacement of rock fragments, or of
previously deposited magnetite and hematite, by hydrated
iron oxides (Tolbert et al., 1971).
The origin of the soft ore is currently under debate as re-
searchers have explained this iron ore type by both hypogene
and supergene processes. Gruner (1937) and Mann (1953)
suggested the possibility of a hypogene origin for soft hematite
ores in the Marquette and Gogebic ranges of the Lake Supe-
rior region. At Carajs, Lobato et al. (2008) proposed that a
nonweathered, porous hard to soft, but relatively cohesive
hematite ore, is also of hypogene origin having evolved as a
result of porosity enhancement and leaching of quartz and
chert.
Outlook
The present study of the jaspilite-hosted Serra Norte
hematite iron ore deposits has focused on the formation of
the hard, high-grade ores. The majority of the geochemical
(Figueiredo e Silva et al., 2008), fluid inclusion, and isotopic
data obtained to date show similarities to numerous Cu-Au
magmatic hydrothermal deposits (including IOCG deposits)
in the Carajs mineral province, suggesting a possible genetic
link, as previously suggested by Lobato et al. (2005b). Al-
though the iron enrichment events are consistent with a
Paleoproterozoic age, and thus possibly related to magmatic
events of this geologic period, the IOCG and Cu-Au deposits
in the Carajs mineral province are related to Archean and
Paleoproterozoic mineralizing events, respectively (Grainger
et al., 2008). The question of whether the Serra Norte iron
ore deposits are linked to a giant Paleoproterozoic magmatic-
hydrothermal system (Lobato et al., 2005a) that acted as an
enormous engine for several significant mineral systems, or
whether they relate to a buried sedimentary basin and the
magmatic system merely liberated brines out of the basin or
basinal rocks, remains open for debate.
Acknowledgments
This paper presents results of a Ph.D. thesis by the first au-
thor at the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil, and
in part at the University of Western Australia in Perth, under
the sponsorship of Vale and scholarship of Coordenao de
Aperfeioamento de Pessoal de Nvel Superior-CAPES. The
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 775
775
authors wish to acknowledge Vale for their technical, logisti-
cal, and financial support. Our special thanks to all techni-
cians, helpers, and geologists who throughout the years made
this work possible. LML is grateful to the Conselho Nacional
de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico-CNPq for con-
tinuing financial support. Thanks are due to the research staff
and support of the various isotopic laboratories at Centre for
Exploration Targeting-CET, University of Western Australia;
Centro de Pesquisas Prof. Manoel Teixeira da Costa-CPMTC
and Laboratrio de Microanlises (LMA) at the Universidade
Federal de Minas Gerais; Institute of Mineralogy and Geo-
chemistry, University of Lausanne; School of Earth and Envi-
ronment, University of Leeds; and ACR for Ore Deposits
(CODES COE), University of Tasmania, namely from tech-
nicians and geologists, especially Zsofia Waczek. We also wish
to thank Franciscus Jacobus Baars for detailed revisions of an
earlier version of the manuscript and Mrcia Zucchetti for as-
sisting in the stable isotope and fluid inclusion investigations.
We also thank the Economic Geology reviewers, who pro-
vided very extensive and detailed comments.
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 SERRA NORTE JASPILITE-HOSTED IRON ORE DEPOSITS, CARAJS MINERAL PROVINCE, BRAZIL 779

APPENDIX 1

Methods separated from the O2 produced by conversion to Cl2 using

Microthermometric measurements (heating and freezing
experiments) were conducted at the Centre for Exploration
Targeting, University of Western Australia, on double-pol-
ished thin sections using a fully automated Linkham THMSG
600 heating and freezing stage. The stage was calibrated be-
tween 56.6 and 374.1C with synthetic fluid inclusion stan- isotope analyses of the standards used (NBS-28 quartz and
dards (pure H2O and mixed H2O-CO2). The accuracy of the
freezing measurement runs is about 0.1C and for heating
runs 1C between 200 and 500C. commonly better than 0.2 compared to accepted 18O val-
Fluid inclusions were analyzed at the University of Leeds,
using a bulk crush-leach method (Banks et al., 2000). Samples
between 0.5 and 1 g were crushed to a grain size of 1 to 2 mm
and cleaned by repeated boiling and rinsing in 18.2 M milli
Q water, dried, and crushed to a fine powder in an agate pes-
tle and mortar. The powder was transferred to a sample con-
tainer and approximately 5 ml of 18.2 M milli Q water was
added to redissolve the dried salts. The solution was filtered
through a 0.2-m pore size nylon filter prior to analysis. The
leachates were analyzed for Cl, Br, F and SO2 and dried at 110C, after solvent treatment to remove glue
4 using ion
chromatography, and Na+, K+, and Li+ by atomic absorption.
Detection limits for Cl, Br, SO4, Na, K, and Li were 10, 0.2,
10, 30, 30, and 0.1 ppb, respectively (Heijlen et al., 2003).
The composition of individual fluid inclusions, trapped in
quartz and carbonate crystals was determined by laser abla-
tion-ICP-MS analysis at the University of Leeds. Standards
(NIST) and fluid inclusions were ablated with a GeoLas Q
Plus excimer laser (ArF, 193 nm, Microlas, Gttingen, Ger-
many). The optical system used is described in detail in Gn-
ther et al. (1997), and permits visual observation of the abla-
tion process through a built-in LED source and CCD
camera. About 500 fluid inclusions were ablated. The mater-
ial liberated during the ablation is carried by helium, purging
the ablation cell, into the Agilent 7500 quadrupole mass spec-
trometer. An octopole reaction cell was used for analyses of
40Ca and 56Fe. Further information about method and valida-
tion of the procedure can be found in Allan et al. (2005).
The oxygen isotope compositions (16O, 17O, 18O) of quartz
and oxide samples were measured at the University of Lau-
sanne, using a method similar to that described by Sharp
(1990) and Rumble and Hoering (1994). The method is de-
scribed in detailed by Kasemann et al. (2001). Between 0.5 to
2 mg of sample was loaded onto a small Pt sample holder and
pumped out to a vacuum of about 106 mbar. After preflouri-
nation of the sample chamber overnight, the samples were
heated with a CO2 laser in 50 mbars of pure F2. Excess F2 is
KCl held at 150C. The extracted O2 is collected on a molec-
ular sieve (5A) and subsequently expanded into the inlet of a
Finnigan MAT 253 isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Oxygen
isotope compositions are given in the standard -notation, ex-
pressed relative to VSMOW in per mil (). Replicate oxygen
UWG-2 garnet; Valley et al., 1995) generally have an average
precision of 0.1 for 18O. The accuracy of 18O values is
ues for NBS-28 of 9.64 and UWG-2 of 5.8. In samples
where carbonate is present, HCl acid was used to dissolve this
mineral phase prior to fluorination analyses.
Sulfur isotope analyses of sulfides were conducted using a
Nd:YAG laser ablation and analyzed in a VG Micromass 602D
spectrometer at the Stable Isotope Laboratory of the Central
Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, under the super-
vision of Keith Harris. Ten polished sections of about 200 m
thick were removed from glass slides by soaking overnight,
residues. Huston et al. (1995) describe the analytical proce-
dure of the dynamic collection technique employed for SO2
extraction. The ablation occurs in an O2 atmosphere, followed
by the extraction of SO2 gas (Robinson and Kusabe, 1975).
Sphalerite standards were used and also a SO2 gas measured
as reference. The reported precision, 1 , for laser ablation sul-
fur isotope analyses is 0.4 to 0.5 (Huston et al., 1995).
The following analytical conditions were used: pressure 250
torr; current 38 to 40 amperes; hole size 150 to 300 m; laser
duration of 1 shot 2 s up to 7 shots 2 s, for small crystals.
Hydrogen isotope compositions of fluid inclusions trapped
in quartz were also obtained at the University of Lausanne, in
collaboration with Tjerk Heijboer, using the Zn reduction
method described by Vennemann and ONeil (1993).
Strontium analyses of carbonates were run on a Nu Plasma
MC-ICPMS at the School of Earth Sciences of the University
of Melbourne. All samples were digested using distilled HCl
in screw-cap Savillex beakers on a hotplate. Strontium was
purified by passing the solution over EICHROM Sr resin be-
fore analysis. 87Sr/86Sr values have been corrected for mass
bias by normalizing 87Sr/86Sr to 8.37521 and adjusted to a
value for SRM 987 of 0.710230. Internal precision is better
than 0.000020 for all samples and external precision approx-
imately twice this. For whole-rock samples, an equation is re-
quired to calculate the initial 87Sr/86Sr, based on the age of the
rock.

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