JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE TEACHING VOL. 53, NO. 4, PP.

598619 (2016)

Research Article

Understanding the Influence of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors on

Inquiry-Based Science Education at Township Schools in South Africa
Umesh Ramnarain

Department of Science and Technology Education, University of Johannesburg, Kingway Avenue,

Auckland Park, Johannesburg, Gauteng 2006, South Africa

Received 3 March 2014; Accepted 26 December 2015

Abstract: This mixed-methods research investigated teachers perceptions of intrinsic factors (personal
attributes of the teacher) and extrinsic factors (environmental) influencing the implementation of inquiry-
based science learning at township (underdeveloped urban area) high schools in South Africa. Quantitative
data were collected by means of an adapted version of the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire
(SCIQ) (Lewthwaite, 2001). The adapted version was renamed the Scientific Inquiry Implementation
Questionnaire (SIIQ) and was administered to 186 science teachers at township schools in South Africa. The
teachers at a township school were then interviewed in order to solicit in-depth information on the findings
that emerged from the questionnaire analysis. The findings highlight a lack of professional science
knowledge (content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of
students, educational contexts, curricular knowledge, and educational purposes) that contributes toward
teachers uncertainty in inquiry-based teaching. Also, extrinsic factors such as school ethos, professional
support, resource adequacy, and time serve as significant constraints in the implementation of inquiry-based
education at the school. The data collected from SIIQ provides a foundation for understanding at a high
school level how factors influence the delivery of a curriculum underpinned by inquiry. # 2016 Wiley
Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 53: 598619, 2016
Keywords: inquiry-based learning; science curriculum delivery; environmental factors

One of the key imperatives in the transformation of education in South Africa is the need to
provide quality education for all (Department of Education, 2001). The issues of equity and
redress were foremost in transformation of the segregated education system, and the accompa-
nying curriculum reform. The previous Apartheid education system was comprised of separate
education departments for Blacks, Whites, Coloreds, and Indians, with inequitable distribution of
resources for the races. Apartheid education was characterized by gross inequalities in the
financing of education. Although this was reflected in all areas of school funding, the legacy of
these policies is most visible in school infrastructure. A study by the Foundation for Research
Development (1993) showed that the per capita expenditure for a White student was five times that
for a Black students. A legacy of the apartheid policies is therefore the enormous diversity of
schools in terms of the availability of physical resources. This diversity is further exacerbated by

Contract grant sponsor: National Research Foundation.

Correspondence to: U. Ramnarain; E-mail: uramnarain@uj.ac.za
DOI 10.1002/tea.21315
Published online 5 February 2016 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com).

# 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 599

the quality of science education for Black students who have been taught by under-qualified
science teachers with less than 20% of them having a formal science qualification (Murphy, 1992).
In the mid-1980s, only 16% of Black students passed science, compared to approximately 80% of
Colored, Indian, and White students (Naidoo & Lewin, 1998). The intersecting socio-economic
divide and the quality of education is revealed in the location of schools attended by the population
groups. Black students predominantly attend township schools and White students go to schools
in suburbs. In South Africa, the term township usually refers to underdeveloped urban areas
that, from the late 19th century until the end of apartheid, were set aside for non-whites
(Chisholm & Sujee, 2006). Although there have been incremental improvements since the advent
of democracy in 1994, these have been insufficient to address the huge backlogs that continue to
exist. Township schools remain poorly resourced and have scant facilities for practical work in
science. In contrast, suburban schools historically reserved for White students, and which now
accept all students, generally have better facilities and are located in communities with higher
socio-economic status (Department of Basic Education, 2014).
A framework for transformation of the education system is the Department of National
Educations White Paper 1 on Education and Training (1994), that articulates the main thrust for
science education in this document, namely the improvement in the quality of school science for
Black students. A strong force giving impetus to change in science education is the assertion that
the previous curriculum was both inaccessible and irrelevant to Black students (Naidoo & Lewin,
1998). Inquiry-based science education has been posited as means by which these dual challenges
can be negotiated (Department of Basic Education, 2011).
Scientific inquiry has been advocated as a common curriculum goal in school science
education in South Africa, and also throughout the world. Curriculum documents advocate that
teachers use strategies that involve children in asking scientifically valid questions, setting up
investigations, collecting and analyzing data, and coming to some conclusion based on the data
collected (Crawford, 2014, p. 515). In South Africa, this imperative is expressed in the new
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) document where Specific Aim One states
that the purpose of Physical Sciences is to make learners aware of their environment and to equip
learners with investigating skills relating to physical and chemical phenomena (Department of
Basic Education, 2011, p. 8). A similar curriculum goal is expressed in the Natural and Life
Sciences CAPS documents.
Although inquiry has a long history in science education reform, there is much disagreement
about what inquiry learning and teaching entails, thus leaving many teacher educator, and
teachers, as well as researcher, in quandary (Crawford, 2014, p. 516). Crawford states that one of
the most misguided notions of inquiry is that to many teachers it means exactly the same as
students having hand-on experiences. Capps, Crawford, and Constas (2012) state that teachers
who have had limited experience with inquiry tend to equate inquiry with similar teaching
approaches, such as hands-on learning or learning by doing. Crawford (2014) maintains that
although hands-on experience is important, the developing knowledge of science concepts and
nature of science are important outcomes of inquiry learning. Anderson (2007) describes inquiry
learning as synonymous with constructivist learning where students construct meaning for
themselves, such meanings are dependent upon prior constructions, the understandings, the
understandings are context dependent, and they are socially constructed (p. 821). According to
Anderson, a teacher in planning constructivist activities will actively reflect upon such questions
as: Are the students actively constructing understandings rather than memorizing the construc-
tions of others? Do the students have the opportunity to design and direct some of their own
activities rather than following a script? To what extent are they interpreting and explaining
information that comes their way and developing hypotheses about relationships within data sets?
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
600 RAMNARAIN

Do they have the opportunity to develop defend conclusions they personally draw from the
information at hand?
In a recent publication of the National Research Council entitled A Framework for K-12
Science Education there is an emphasis on students experiencing inquiry-based practices and not
merely learning about them (National Research Council, 2012). Here the term practices is used
instead of skills to stress that engaging in inquiry requires the coordination of both knowledge
and skills simultaneously. The following practices are identified: asking questions (for science)
and defining problems (for engineering); developing and using models; planning and carrying out
investigations; analyzing and interpreting data; using mathematics and computational thinking;
constructing explanations (for science) and designing solutions (for engineering); engaging in
argument from evidence; and obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information (National
Research Council, 2012, p. 42). This is now reaffirmed in the Next Generation Science Standards
(NGSS; NGSS Lead States, 2013) where scientific inquiry is now synonymous with a vision of
scientific literacy that encompasses skills and knowledge related to Scientific and Engineering
Practices (Bartos & Lederman, 2014).
Despite some skepticism about the learning gains of inquiry (Kirschner, Sweller &
Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004) empirical evidence points to some key benefits of using inquiry
in the science classroom. Scientific inquiry is a means to motivate students in the learning
of science. Evidence of this is shown in studies where students doing inquiry had
developed an improved attitude towards science. Harlen, Black, and Johnson (1981)
reporting on a study involving 11-year-olds found that they showed a high level of interest
and enthusiasm when doing inquiry. A similar finding was made by Piburn and Baker (as
cited in Chin & Kayalvizhi, 2002) and Osborne (2010) who found that doing inquiry
provided opportunities to work with other students and this was highly motivating. The
development of conceptual understanding in science is another outcome which may be
realized when students do inquiry (Leonor, 2015). When engaging in inquiry, students
describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations
against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. In this way,
they actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge
with reasoning and thinking skills (National Research Council, 1996). Scientific inquiry
may lead to the development of higher-order thinking skills (Conklin, 2012). Higher-order
thinking is defined as non-algorithmic; complex; amenable to multiple solutions;
involving nuanced judgement; imposing meaning; and effortful (Resnick, 1987, p. 3).
Doing inquiry stimulates students to think critically about the data and evidence
accumulated during the inquiry. Students also analyze and synthesize the data, and make
judgements and evaluations about the results and conclusions (Llewellyn, 2011). Inquiry is
also an important means to understanding the nature of science (Abd-El-Khalick et al.,
2004; Gaigher, Lederman, & Lederman, 2014; Lederman & Lederman, 2012). Further-
more, for someone to be scientifically literate, an understanding of scientific inquiry is
fundamental. This entails an understanding of how scientific knowledge about the world is
generated through processes of scientific investigation (Lederman et al., 2014).
Diverse South African Educational Landscape and Inquiry Practice
It has been pointed out that a legacy of the Apartheid policy has been the diverse educational
landscape. According to Rogan and Grayson (2003), failure to take such diversity into account has
also contributed to curriculum reform implementation problems, with disadvantaged township
schools in particular being discriminated against. They maintain that the process of change is
context specific and will play out differently in each and every school (p. 1,176). A study by
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 601

Rogan (2004) on the analysis of eighteen video-taped science lessons from nine disadvantaged
high schools found that students had very limited exposure to doing practical work. In other
research, a qualitative case study of two teachers on their implementation of scientific inquiry at
two schools, one a township school, previously designated for Black children, and the other a
suburban school, previously reserved for White children revealed how the availability of physical
resources was critical in how curriculum reform was responded to (Ramnarain, 2011). At the
township school, practical work rarely took place and when it did the teacher used demonstrations.
The students at the suburban schools participated in a guided inquiry, where they were responsible
for planning and conducting the investigation. A further study by the Ramnarain and Schuster
(2014) showed remarkable differences between the orientations of teachers at disadvantaged
township schools and teachers at more privileged suburban schools. It was found that teachers at
township schools have a strong active direct teaching orientation overall, involving direct
exposition of the science followed by confirmatory practical work, while teachers at suburban
schools exhibit a guided inquiry orientation, with concepts being developed via a guided
exploration phase. A study by Dudu and Vhurumuku (2012) also alluded to the practice of teachers
at township schools doing demonstrations of practical work. In view of the priority that is now
given to redress historical educational inequalities, especially in the provision of science
education at township schools, this study informs on the implementation of inquiry-based science
education at a township school. The implementation of inquiry teaching and learning is inherently
and inextricably context-dependent, and such implementation interacts in significant ways with
national educational policy, science teachers education, background, beliefs and attitudes,
professional development, school culture, school governance, funding, and resources, among a
number of other factors. In South Africa, the unique historical and political context of education
call for a closer examination of how such realities interact with the enactment of inquiry-based
science education.
It is envisaged that a holistic understanding of curriculum implementation can be achieved by
investigating the intrinsic and extrinsic contextual factors in which this innovation occurs.
Furthermore, as claimed by Crawford (2007), research does not provide a picture of the dilemmas
that exist in how to enact teaching science as inquiry in the realities of practice. This understanding
is achieved by collecting reliable data that can provide insight into the forces that impede or
contribute to curriculum implementation at a school. This information according to Stewart and
Prebble (1993) then becomes the foundation from which discussion and reflection takes place, so
that deliberate focused change can begin. Against this background, the following research
questions were formulated:

1. What are the perceptions of science teachers at a South African township school on
intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing the implementation of inquiry-based learning?
2. How do teachers at a South African township school explain the influence of intrinsic
and extrinsic factors on the implementation of inquiry-based learning?

Factors Affecting Curriculum Change

Fullan (1992) affirms that in order to effect curriculum implementation and improvement
efforts, a multi-faceted approach needs to be followed, whereby the influence of several factors
should be considered. Bronfenbrenners ecological theory of development (1979) does provide a
theoretical underpinning by which the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be
understood. Bronfenbrenner sees the ecological environment as a system of five nested structures.
The innermost structure represents the individual, and associated personal attribute factors.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
602 RAMNARAIN

Within the context of science curriculum implementation, the innermost structure represents the
intrinsic factors related to the teacher such as science teaching efficacy, professional science
knowledge, science teaching interest, and motivation (Lewthwaite, 2006).
Self-efficacy concerns ones perception of capability of achieving a certain level of
performance in a particular situation (assessment of teaching competence). Teaching efficacy is a
complex construct influenced by a number of variables. Jones and Carter (2007) provide a
thorough review of research on science teacher self-efficacy and this is now invoked. DeSouza,
Boone, and Yilmaz (2003) who assessed 300 teachers from India found a higher teaching self-
efficacy for teachers who hold a science degree, and who spent time teaching science each week.
There is research evidence that teachers who lack confidence about teaching a subject will give it
minimal emphasis within the curriculum. For example, Jones and Levin (1994) found that there
was a positive relationship between the number of science courses teachers had completed and
their attitude about teaching science. Furthermore, Cakiroglu and Boone (2000) who explored the
relationship between elementary preservice teachers self-efficacy and their conceptions of
photosynthesis and inheritance found that teachers who had relatively high personal science
teaching efficacy held fewer alternative conceptions related to photosynthesis. For teachers to
believe that changes in instruction will make a difference, Bandura (1986) suggested that teachers
need to have feedback, experience success, observe models of success that are credible, and be
persuaded that the concerns can be overcome with positive benefits.
The interest in researching teachers attitude is based on the underlying premise that attitudes
could be used to predict teaching behavior, and that changes in attitude would result in changes in
behavior (Jones & Carter, 2007). Stewart and Prebble (1993) state that at the heart of change is
attitude and interest, and reluctance to change is a critical impediment to improving practice.
Fullan (1992) asserted that staff motivation and receptiveness are crucial ingredients for
curriculum change. For teachers to implement an innovation in their teaching practice, they need
to be convinced of the value and importance of such an innovation.
Teacher knowledge has assumed a number of meanings in educational research over the past
50 years. Shulmans theoretical model has been used prominently as an organizational basis in
understanding the professional knowledge teachers should possess. In order for teachers to be
effective in the classroom, they need to have a well-developed knowledge base. Shulman proposed
seven categories of teacher professional knowledge. Two of these are content-related (i.e., content
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge) and the other five categories refer to general
pedagogy, knowledge of students, educational contexts, curricular knowledge, and educational
purposes (Shulman, 1987, p. 7). Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), has captured the greatest
interest because it situates teacher knowledge and practice within the teaching of a specific
discipline (Gardner & Gess-Newsome, 2011). PCK represent the blending of content and
pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized,
represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of the students, and presented for
instruction (Shulman, 1987, p. 8). Research conducted by Ramnarain and Fortus (2013) in South
Africa shows that although teachers at township schools have a positive perception of the new
topics introduced into a revised science curriculum, they expressed uncertainly in their content
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of the new topics.
According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), the other four structures in the environment
encompasses the physical, social, and cultural features of immediate settings in which
people live. Lewthwaite (2006) aligns these external structures with extrinsic or
environmental factors of curriculum implementation. Although the teacher lies at the
center of effective science curriculum delivery, the environment in which a teacher works
is also significant. Extrinsic or environmental factors are identified equally as critical
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 603

elements to the effective delivery of science programs in schools (Lewthwaite, Stableford,

& Fisher, 2001). A commonly cited list of environmental factors includes resource
adequacy, time, school ethos, and professional support (Lewthwaite, 2001). Often the
success of curriculum reform such as inquiry-based education is fostered or impeded by
the availability of instructional materials, as well as equipment (Lewthwaite, 2001; Rogan
& Grayson, 2003). Widespread change towards inquiry is not possible without appropriate
and high quality resources (Anderson, 2007). Time is a factor known to influence the
success of curriculum reform efforts. The availability of time is critical in the teaching of
inquiry because inquiry takes more time, and the teacher wanting to give more emphasis
to inquiry faces a dilemma of significant proportions (Anderson, 2007, p. 816).
The success of any science program is also strongly influenced by the school culture or ethos.
Although there is no single universally accepted definition of school culture, there is general
agreement according to Deal and Peterson (1990) that it involves deep patterns of values, beliefs,
and traditions that have formed over the course of (the schools) history (p. 218). Many studies
(e.g., Feiman-Nemser, 2003; Kriek, 2005; Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles, 1998) have
shown that the availability of professional support is a major factor in the implementation of
curriculum reform. This professional support includes support from within the school, as well as
support from outside agencies. Within the school, teachers must experience the active, concerned
support of their colleagues and be given the opportunity to negotiate their involvement in
curriculum innovation (Stewart & Prebble, 1993). Professional learning communities as a model
for teacher learning are increasing gaining traction in teacher professional development and
research (Brodie & Shalem, 2011; Katz & Earl, 2010). According to Luft and Hewson (2014)
when teachers work collaboratively with colleagues in a professional learning community, they
reinforce, build, expand, and challenge their notions about teaching science (p. 892). Rogan and
Grayson (2003) refer to outside agencies as organizations outside the school, including
departments of education that interact with a school in order to facilitate innovation (p. 1,191).
Method
This study adopted a sequential explanatory mixed methods design (Creswell, 2002). This
design enabled the researcher to collect both quantitative and qualitative data, merge the data,
and use the results to best understand a research problem (Creswell, 2002, p. 564).
Philosophically, mixed method research is informed by the pragmatic system of philosophy.
Pragmatism is offered as a philosophy which can help to build bridges between the conflicting
philosophies of positivism and interpretivism which underpin the quantitative and qualitative
research methods, respectively (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The value of pragmatism is that
it concerns multiple perceptions about a single, reality (Healy & Perry, 2000). Its epistemological
contribution is to describe, explain and thereby improve and guide practice (Krauss, 2005).
According to Krauss (2005), pragmatism offer a middle ground between the conflicting
philosophies of positivism and interpretivism. Methodologically this implies that mixed methods
research is an inclusive, pluralistic, and complementary. According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie
(2004) the mode of inquiry which informs mixed methods research is both deductive (confirming
what you expect a priori) and inductive (explaining of patterns). This mixed methods approach
was apt for this research where both confirmatory and exploratory questions are posed. A
questionnaire distributed to township schools within a district elicited quantitative data from
which perceptions of science teachers on intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing the
implementation of inquiry-based learning were deduced. The next phase of the research was
explanatory and provided a more in-depth explanation of some of the findings which emerged
from the questionnaire survey. In this phase, a school from the larger sample of schools within a
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
604 RAMNARAIN

township district was selected for closer scrutiny. The science teachers at this school were
interviewed on some of the trends revealed through the questionnaire survey. In this way the
quantitative survey data and qualitative interview data were merged in order to best understand
the research problem (Creswell, 2002, p. 564).
Data Collection and Analysis
Quantitative data were collected by means of an adapted version of the Science
Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ) (Lewthwaite, 2001). The adapted
version of SCIQ is now referred to as the Scientific Inquiry Implementation Questionnaire
(SIIQ). The SCIQ was used in the evaluation of factors influencing science program
delivery at schools in New Zealand, Canada, and Australia, and has been the foundation
for data collection in numerous research publications (e.g., Lewthwaite, 2004, 2005). SCIQ
is a forty-nine-item questionnaire that provides accurate information concerning environ-
mental and intrinsic (teacher attribute) factors influencing science program delivery at the
classroom and school level. The items are statements to which teachers respond on a five-
point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Each item
was studied with a view to adapting the item to measure the influence of a factor on the
implementation of inquiry-based teaching. For example the item The school is well
resourced for the teaching of science in the scale Resource Adequacy was changed to
The school is well resourced for inquiry-based education. Similarly, all other items in
SCIQ were adapted. The content validity of this questionnaire in terms of which items
related to each of the seven intrinsic and environmental factors was established by having
it reviewed by three researchers in science education at three South African universities.
The instrument was then field-tested with a group of 25 sciences teachers. They were
asked to identify and comment on items which were considered unclear or not readable.
As a result of this feedback, 10 items in the questionnaire were reworded. It was also
decided to include an introduction section to the questionnaire in order to give the
respondents some background information to underline the place of scientific inquiry in
the South African school science curriculum. The introduction also identified the stages of
the scientific inquiry described in the literature. This was done so that all respondents had
a common understanding of the terminology used in the questionnaire. SIIQ (Appendix A)
was administered to a sample of 186 teachers from 30 schools within a district in a
township.
The internal reliabilities of the constructs to which items were evaluated by calculating
Cronbachs alpha for each scale. The Cronbach alpha of the scales ranged from 0.72 to 0.86, and
this indicated strong internal reliability within each scale. A description of each of the scales in the
new SIIQ (Appendix A) and Cronbachs alpha for each scale is provided in Table 1.
The questionnaire data were analyzed by computing scores on the above constructs (scales).
The normality in the distribution of scores was confirmed by calculating the Kolmogorov
Smirnov statistic. A significance level greater than 0.05 suggested the assumption of normality.
Mean (average) calculations were performed to identify general trends in perceptions for each of
the scales and items, and standard deviations were calculated to determine the degree of
consistency among respondents for each scale.
After the data collected through the questionnaire had been analyzed, a school from within
the same sample of township schools was purposefully selected for in-depth study. The school was
typical of other township schools from this district and the questions responses of teachers from
this schools cohered well with the trends revealed from the questionnaire analysis of the larger
sample of schools surveyed. The researcher arranged individual interviews with the science
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
 Table 1
Scales and sample items from the scientific inquiry implementation questionnaire

Scale Description of Scale Items Per Scale Cronbachs Alpha Sample Item
Teaching efficacy Teacher perceptions of their own 5;17;34;38 0.72 Teachers at this school are confident at
ability and competence to teach teaching inquiry.
inquiry.
Professional science Teacher perceptions of the knowledge 2;9;16;23;40 0.83 Teachers at this school have a good
knowledge and understandings teachers possess understanding of science process
towards inquiry teaching. skills associated with inquiry.
Professional attitude Teacher perceptions of the attitudes 19;22;25;28;32;37 0.79 Teachers have a positive attitude to the
and interest and interest held towards the teaching of scientific inquiry.
teaching of inquiry.
Resource adequacy Teacher perceptions of the adequacy of 4;7;12;21;31 0.86 Teachers at this school have ready
equipment, facilities and general access to resources and materials for
resources required for teaching of inquiry-based education.
inquiry.
Time Teacher perceptions of time 3;8;13;18;29;33;36 0.84 There is enough time in the school
availability for preparing and program to teach inquiry.
delivering the inquiry-based
requirements of science curriculum.
Professional support Teacher perceptions of the support 6;11;15;26;30;39 0.75 Teachers at this school have the
INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION

available for teachers in inquiry- opportunity to receive ongoing

based teaching from both in school science curriculum professional
and external sources. support in inquiry.
School ethos The status of inquiry-based education 1;10;14;20;24;27;35 0.73 The school management recognises the
as acknowledged by staff, school importance of inquiry as a science
administration and community. curriculum goal in the overall school
curriculum.
605

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606 RAMNARAIN

teachers. Through these interviews, the researcher solicited in-depth explanations of some of the
findings which emerged from the quantitative survey. The interviews were unstructured and
comprised of open-ended questions so that the participant can best voice their experiences
unconstrained by any perspective of the researcher (Creswell, 2005, p. 214). The interviews were
initiated through the question, What is your view of the status of inquiry learning at this school?
Based on the manner in which the teacher responded to this question, the researcher asked follow-
up questions to seek clarity when necessary and also to probe teachers on the views they were
expressing. The teachers were also asked to describe the influence of the environmental factors
upon their practice of inquiry teaching. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using
computer-aided qualitative data software, Atlas.ti (Cologne, Germany). Data were then coded and
classified (Mouton, 2001) through a process guided by the trends and patterns which had emerged
from the analysis of the questionnaire data in relation to the factors on inquiry implementation
being investigated.
The findings from the analysis of the questionnaire survey were integrated with the findings
from the teacher interviews into a coherent whole. The interview data explained some of the
findings which emerged from the questionnaire analysis. This integration of quantitative and
qualitative data supported the production of assertions (Gallagher & Tobin, 1991) on the teacher
perceptions of intrinsic and environmental factors in the implementation of inquiry-based
education at their school. These assertions are presented in the results section.
The School
Advance High School (a pseudonym) is situated in a densely populated township in South
Africa. The school is similar to other schools that are situated in disadvantaged communities, in
terms of the availability of resources, the social, economic, and cultural background of learners.
The location of the school was convenient as it was accessible to in terms of traveling distance.
The township residents belong mainly to a low income group, and there is a high rate of
unemployment. The school has 1,200 Black learners. The school pass rate for the Grade 12
national exit examination in the previous year was 45%. In comparison the national pass rate was
76%. The school fee was R1,000, with a 60% collection rate. The average class size is 41. The
school has six science teachers who teach either Natural Sciences, Life Sciences, or Physical
Sciences, or a combination of these subjects. All six teachers formed the focus of this phase of the
research. Table 2 provides a demographic description of the teachers in this sample.

Table 2
Demographic description of teachers

Science Teaching
Teacher Male/Female Age Diploma/Degree Experience (Years) Teaching Subjects
Teacher 1 Female 46 T 18 Physical sciences and
natural sciences
Teacher 2 Female 44 T 14 Life sciences
Teacher 3 Female 29 E 4 Natural sciences
Teacher 4 Male 37 T and E 15 Life sciences
Teacher 5 Male 45 E 16 Life science and natural
sciences
Teacher 6 Male 34 E 8 Physical science and
natural sciences
T, teaching diploma; E, education degree.

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 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 607

Results
The statistical results from the SIIQ questionnaire are presented in Table 3 below. This
statistical data together with the interview data collected from the teachers at Advance High
School was invoked in generating the assertions that are presented below.
Assertion 1: The teachers perceive a deficit in their professional knowledge competency and
accordingly express the need for more professional support in inquiry teaching, especially from
outside agencies such as tertiary institutions.
A perceived deficit in teacher professional science knowledge is evidenced through the low
mean score of 2.2 for this scale. The low standard deviation of 0.4 reflects a consistency in in their
responses. In particular teachers indicated a lack of competence in applying science process skills
associated with inquiry-based education (item 2, X
1:7). At the interviews teachers at Advance
High School expressed their insecurity when having to teach inquiry-based lessons:

I feel very insecure when I try teaching using an inquiry approach. Although I went to
university I cannot say that I had an experience of doing inquiry and the skills that go with it.
Sure we learned about pedagogy but it was mainly about how manage to a class and maintain
discipline. Now we are being plunged into the deep end. I try to do as much reading on it as I
can but it is all superficial to me. (Teacher 6)

The teachers themselves will have to be exposed to this type of teaching. Its like coming to
class and telling the students go and do this and that while myself I have never experienced
inquiry. I have never done any research. So as teachers we need to be upgraded and
introduced to inquiry-based education. Variable and hypothesis was a little foreign for me
and I am still trying to get around this. (Teacher 2)

The teachers also feel the need to develop a wider repertoire of pedagogical strategies in
supporting learners doing inquiry (item 9, X
2:2; item 16, X
2:4). A teacher elaborated upon
this at the interview:

Yes, I find it quite difficult making the adjustment to an inquiry set-up. I am used to directing
them, but now I got to take that step back and facilitate. I know cannot stand in front and do a
show and tell scenario. (Teacher 3)

The uncertainty in teachers professional science knowledge is also reflected in the results for
teaching efficacy (X
2:5; SD 0.7).
The analysis of item responses showed that there is a strong, positive correlation between
professional science knowledge and professional support (r 0.75, p < 0.05). The SIIQ results

Table 3
Scale statistics for SIIQ

Scale Name Scale Mean Scale Standard Deviation

Teaching efficacy 2.5 0.7
Professional science knowledge 2.2 0.4
Professional attitude and interest 4.3 0.5
Resource adequacy 1.7 0.4
Time 1.6 0.6
Professional support 1.8 0.6
School ethos 2.0 0.7

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608 RAMNARAIN

suggest that teachers consider the professional support received in inquiry teaching to be weak
(X
1:6). There was consistency in this perception of teachers (SD 0.6). Responses to item 26
The curriculum leadership in science foster capabilities in those who require support in teaching
inquiry and item 39 Teachers at this school have the opportunity to undertake professional
development in inquiry from outside agencies (items means of 1.4 and 1.3, respectively) indicate
that teachers are not satisfied with the professional support both from within the school and outside
agencies.
The interviews with the teachers confirmed this finding. The excerpts below illustrate the
frustration teachers feel in not receiving the necessary professional support in developing their
science professional knowledge in inquiry.

We were not ready for the many curriculum changes. Inquiry is something quite foreign to
me. I know the requirements from CAPS, but the problem is that we do not have a guideline
on how this must happen. I wish the education department could plan some development for
us on it. (Teacher 2)

We sometimes get the examples of activities from the education department, but we then
have to figure it out on our own. I can say that the question of variables and hypothesis still
confuses me. Where is the support we are always told about? (Teacher 6)

However in responding to item 39 Teachers at this school have the opportunity to undertake
professional development in inquiry from outside agencies teacher 4 agreed with this statement.
At the interview he explained that had just enrolled for his Masters degree in Education degree at
a university. He elected to do modules in inquiry-based science education, and regarded this as an
opportunity that teachers could consider when seeking empowerment in their professional
competence.
In the interviews, the teachers also explained that they had not directly experienced inquiry in
their teacher education programs, and this contributes to their lack of confidence in teaching
inquiry. This is evident below:

When I was trained more than 10 years ago we did not even hear about inquiry. Sometimes
we handled apparatus, but what I did not learn is about how to get the students to be
investigating something. (Teacher 1)

I went to a college many years ago, and there was hardly anything on practicals let alone
inquiry. Now we are told you must teach it this way and I know it is problem for me.
(Teacher 5)

From the teacher responses it also became clear that teachers at this school felt the need for
support that recognized the context in which they taught. In this regard they also condemned the so
called one-shot workshops that were offered by the national Department of Basic Education,
and considered this training to be irrelevant and removed from their classroom realities. This is
encapsulated well in the response by teacher 4 who stated that I wanted something that was going
to look at my own situation and then move me forward.
When teachers were asked who should provide this support, they indicated that outside
agencies such as universities should play a greater role in their professional development through
short learning programs. In this regard they also believed that their subject advisors did not have
much expertise in inquiry, and hence were not in a position to support them. The following
interview excepts attest to this.

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 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 609

I have spoken to the SES (senior education specialist) about practical work and about how
he can help us. It was disappointing to learn this person may know less than me. You know
the universities have lots of knowledge and they must offer some programs on it. I heard
about one university that does short courses. If I can find the funds I will go for it. (Teacher 2)

I can now only see the professors from the universities like you to be helping us. You must be
supporting people like us who are now teaching, and not just the young ones starting out.
(Teacher 6)

Assertion 2: The school has inadequate physical resources and student support materials for
inquiry-based teaching and learning, and teachers are now starting to use improvised resources.
The relatively low mean score of 1.7 on the resource adequacy scale of SIIQ shows that the
teachers believe that their school is inadequately resourced for inquiry-based teaching and
learning. The standard deviation of 0.4 suggests that the teachers are quite consistent in this
perception. In the interviews, teachers elaborated upon the lack of resources for inquiry teaching.
The following excerpts from the interviews are presented in this regard:

At this school we do not have resources for learners to do inquiry. The cupboards are
empty. We have asked many times for apparatus and chemicals, but we have been
ignored. (Teacher 3)

We are being frustrated by not having the correct stuff (resources) all the time. I spoke to my
facilitator on this and he always promises we will get some equipment. (Teacher 4)

I can see why the students need to do inquiries, but the materials are not there. It is a big
challenge for us here. (Teacher 5)

The interviews also revealed that against the lack of traditional resources for practical work,
teachers were using improvised low cost resources that were being sourced from the home. In the
interview, teacher 2 explained how she used improvised resources in supporting inquiry-based
learning in their classrooms. An excerpt from this interview is presented below:

I do not want to deny the students an opportunity to do inquiry. I started to try out, as a
substitute, things that they can bring from their homes. When on acids and teaching about
testing for acids, I know that students can do inquiry by using the household acids and we
can also make our own indicators. They were really excited when I asked them to bring
things like lemon juice and vinegar. I bought a red cabbage and made some indicator from
this. It worked excellently when they had to investigate what things were acid and what was
alkaline. (Teacher 2)

In addition to the lack of physical resources, teachers also remarked that the textbooks that
they were using did not facilitate the inquiry-based approach to learning. They found the textbooks
to be too didactic and less learner-centred, and this impeded inquiry learning. They indicated the
need for more supplementary materials such as activity worksheets.
Assertion 3: There is insufficient time for planning inquiry lessons and inquiry teaching, and
this results in the inquiry-based approach being underplayed.
The results from the SIIQ survey revealed that time availability was perceived to be a factor
that impeded the implementation of inquiry-based education (X
1:6). There was a high degree
of consistency in the manner in which teachers perceived time to be a factor inhibiting the
implementation of inquiry-based learning (SD 0.6). Time features twofold as a factor in
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610 RAMNARAIN

inquiry-based education. Firstly, teachers maintained that there was not sufficient time for them to
implement the inquiry-based approach in their class. This is evidenced in their response to item 18
There is not enough time in the school program to fit inquiry teaching in properly where the
mean score was 4.3. In the interviews, the teachers elaborated on this dimension of time
availability as follows:

I struggle to include inquiry in my lessons. It takes time because the students need to do so
much on their own. It is no longer me telling them about something, but they must investigate
on their own. (Teacher 1)

Inquiry is demanding on time. The curriculum is loaded with content. I cannot get through if
learners are going to learn everything by inquiry. I will be in trouble with my head of
department if I do not cover all topics. (Teacher 5)

When teachers were asked how this lack of inquiry teaching time could be addressed, they
stated the need for more science teaching time, and suggested this could be achieved by increasing
the length of the academic school day. They also suggested that assessments be more weighted in
favor of inquiry tasks that students should perform on their own at home.
Secondly, teachers indicated that inquiry required much lesson preparation, and they felt they
did not have enough time for this. The teacher either disagreed or strongly disagreed when
responding to item 29 Teachers have the time to prepare for inquiry teaching requirements of the
national science curriculum. This is reflected in the mean score of 1.7 for this item. The interview
data re-affirmed this perception. The teachers commented as follows on the lack of preparation
time for inquiry lessons. These comments referred to the greater demands of planning an inquiry
lesson compared to other lessons.

Inquiry takes a lot of planning. I have got to think about what they will be inquiring on. There
is the question of materials. If I do not have this, then I must go to another school and make
an arrangement to get it here. I must think about how the class will be organized for it. Who is
going to be in what group and so on? (Teacher 2)

The inquiry teaching is not the same like teaching lesson on the chalkboard. You must plan a
lot of things for the class. It is about preparing well for a successful lesson. I start by asking
what do I want them to learn? Can they learn it by inquiry and what experience must they
have? So you plan not for what you will do but what the student does. The most time-
consuming is to design a worksheet for them to fill in while they do it. (Teacher 4)

Assertion 4: The school management does not recognize the importance of inquiry as a
science curriculum goal in the overall school curriculum.
The low mean (X
2) for the school ethos factor suggests that teachers do not perceive their
school to recognize the status of inquiry in the science curriculum. The low standard deviation
(SD 0.7) showed that there was a high consistency in this perception. In responding to item 1
(The school management recognizes the importance of inquiry as a science curriculum goal in the
overall school curriculum), a mean score of 1.5 was achieved. This reflects quite decisively, based
on teacher perception that the school management does not as yet view inquiry to be of much
importance in the teaching of science. When teachers at Advance High School were asked to
explain this finding, they referred to the management being fixated with the summative results of
students and not too concerned with quality of learning experience and the pedagogical approach
adopted by teachers. This is evidenced in the interview excerpts below:

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 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 611

I sometimes speak to the principal, Mr Dhlomo (pseudonym) about what I want to achieve in
science and how we must give the learners a quality experience. I will also bring up inquiry
learning because the advisor spoke about it. He just says make them pass and this will make
everybody happy. (Teacher 1)

You know this inquiry is an unknown to everybody. I wish we can all sit together and talk
about how we are teaching. My school management sees this as a luxury. I asked my deputy
principal once about us buying some batteries for an electricity practical. He made me to feel
that I was being unrealistic. This tells he is not concerned about the quality of learning and
how they must learn, but only on the final result. (Teacher 3)

Assertion 5: Teachers maintain a positive attitude and interest in the teaching of inquiry,
despite the presence of environmental factors and their own professional deficits that hinder its
implementation.
The relatively high mean of 4.3 on the professional attitude and interest construct reflect that
the teachers are well motivated in trying to infuse inquiry into their teaching practice. They are
quite consistent in this perception and this is shown in the low standard deviation of 0.5. The
teachers when interviewed recounted some of the benefits that accrue to students when doing
inquiry. These benefits include an improvement in the understanding of concepts, and students
showing a keener interest during the science lesson. The following interview excerpts show the
positive attitude of teachers towards inquiry-based science education, and their experiences of the
positive influence it has had on their students.

Inquiry is maybe the answer to the disinterest shown by students. It is something that grips
their attention, they can focus on. I believe in it but I also told you the problems like resource
issues we are faced with. (Teacher 4)

By doing and investigating themselves, the students become closer to the concept, and we
can see that there is understanding. Let me tell you about something that happened one day. I
was explaining Newtons second law of motion, and I used many examples to try an illustrate
this. Try as I may, but they simply did not catch on. In the next lesson I decided on another
approach using inquiry. I provided them with apparatus such as trolleys, loads and force
bands and asked them to explore for themselves. It took some time, but eventually with my
guidance they caught onto the law. (Teacher 5)

A strong negative correlation between professional attitude and interest, and resource
adequacy (r 0.75, p < 0.05) shows that despite teachers maintaining the poor resource
adequacy at their school, this does not detract from the favorable professional attitude and interest
adopted by teachers toward inquiry.
It was also evident from the strong negative correlation between professional attitude and
interest, and professional science knowledge (r 0.73, p < 0.05) that although teachers
perceive that they lack sufficient competence in inquiry, they still maintain a positive attitude
towards it.

Discussion
This study used an adapted version of the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire
(SCIQ), now referred to as Scientific Inquiry Implementation Questionnaire (SIIQ) to quantify
data on intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing the implementation of scientific inquiry at
schools in a township district in South Africa.

Journal of Research in Science Teaching

612 RAMNARAIN

Intrinsically, teachers experience uncertainly due to a perceived deficit in their professional

knowledge competency. The teachers expressed the need for more involvement from tertiary
institutions such as universities in their development. Resource adequacy, availability of time, and
school ethos were extrinsic factors that impede the implementation of inquiry at this school. It is
inferred from the correlation analyses that despite factors such as resource adequacy and the
professional science knowledge of the teachers impeding the implementation of an inquiry-based
pedagogy, teachers remain upbeat, and maintain a positive professional attitude and interest. The
interview data reaffirmed this perception of teachers and also provided an in-depth understanding
of teachers experiences in contending with these factors. It became evident from the interviews
that teachers believe in the value of students doing inquiry, and they are prepared to persevere
against hindrances in providing such opportunities for their students. This finding is support by
research conducted by the author with teachers at similar schools in South Africa where a
quantitative survey revealed that the perceived benefits of inquiry learning are that it is
motivational, it facilitates conceptual understanding, and it leads to the development of scientific
skills (Ramnarain, 2014).
The findings of this study resonate well with other studies both locally and internationally.
General literature on education reform reports that educational change will be stifled without
professional support for teachers (Fullan, 2001). The findings of this study confirm this assertion.
The teachers strongly made the point that the anticipated support in inquiry-based teaching was
not forthcoming, and that the support from the Department of Basic Education was inadequate. In
planning professional support for teachers, two guiding principles need to be adhered to. Firstly, it
needs to be contextual, and secondly it needs to be sustainable. Anderson (2007) decisively makes
the point that There is no gold-standard, all-purpose way of providing systemic support for
changing towards inquiry-oriented education and that it must be designed for a given situation
and for the people and place at hand (p. 827).
The factor of resource adequacy in constraining science curriculum reform has been
evident in other studies in this country. South African studies point to the implementation
of inquiry being constrained by classroom realities such as the lack of resources
(Muwange-Zake, 2004; Onwu & Stoffels, 2005; Ramnarain & Schuster, 2014). Despite
attempts by the post-Apartheid government to redress the historical imbalances, these
township schools remain poorly resourced (Magopeni & Tshiwula, 2010). It is quite
probable that this scenario of schools in disadvantaged communities will persist, and
therefore other alternatives need to be sought. An option that should be exploited more
extensively is the use of low-cost improvised materials (Ramnarain, 2011). This is
supported by Poppe, Markic, and Eilks (2010) who maintain that locally available
resources can be used for creative inquiry activities. It is further argued that by learners
using the resources common to them and from their homes, they will operate within their
zone of comfort, and thereby overcome some of the abstractness often associated with
science learning (The Commonwealth of Learning, 2001).
The issue of time has been flagged in other studies as a dilemma teachers who are attempting
to move towards to an inquiry-oriented science education encounter (Anderson, 2007). According
to Capps et al. (2012) most teachers in the US do not routinely use an inquiry-based pedagogy due
to time constraints that rise as a result of high stakes testing. A similar finding was revealed in this
research where teachers spoke of a content laden curriculum where the first priority was to cover
topics for assessment purposes. The pressure to cover topics in the syllabus and the lack of school
time for scientific inquiry impinge upon the implementation of this approach. Research, however,
shows that the time spent developing inquiry investigations can lead to more in-depth student
comprehension of science principles (Schmidt, 2003, p. 30). The National Research Council
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 613

(NRC) of the United States (2005) offers block-scheduling as a means by which more time can be
made available in the school time-table for inquiry. In this approach classes meet every other day
for longer blocks of about 90100 minutes, instead of every day for 40 or 45 minutes.
The finding in relation to school ethos does suggest the need at a systemic level for
deliberations on the vision of science education held by not only science teachers, but also those
entrusted with decision-making powers. Lewthwaite (2004) identifies the instructional leadership
provided by a principal as a major factor influencing the effective delivery of the science
curriculum. Fullan (2002) asserts that principals are central agents in sustaining innovations and
achieving turnarounds, because it is they that carry the message as to whether some curriculum
innovation is to be taken seriously.
A possible limitation of the study was that the case study encompassed only one
school. As a result it was not possible to do a cross-case analysis of how teachers at
schools within a similar context explain the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in
the implementation of inquiry-based teaching. Furthermore, in the case study, classroom
observations were not conducted. Classroom observations would have provided perhaps a
more nuanced perspective on teacher experiences of implementing inquiry against their
encounters with intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
The data from SIIQ that was administered to a sample of science teachers from a township
district, allowed findings to be made on the extent to which teachers perceive intrinsic and extrinsic
factors impacting on their implementation of an inquiry-based pedagogy. The general trends that
were quantitatively established were validated and explicated by the subsequent qualitative phase
of the research where in-depth explanations were provided of these trends. The idea of combining
quantitative and qualitative approaches in a single study meant that greater credibility could be
placed in the findings that emerged. This foundation information enabled the researcher to
diagnose at the school level challenges teachers encounter in enacting an inquiry-based pedagogy.
It is maintained that such knowledge can be used by classroom teachers and school management
to collaboratively plan strategies that will address factors that impact negatively upon the
implementation of inquiry. Other studies on the uptake of curriculum reform have revealed that
school and classroom contexts are complex and diverse, with factors such resources, school
culture, teacher competency, and educational and cultural backgrounds of teachers and students
exerting an influence on the degree to which such reform is manifested (Howitt, 2007; Ryder &
Banner, 2013).
The findings of this study contribute to literature on the challenges in the implementation of
inquiry teaching and learning in high school science education around the world. It has been
pointed out inquiry teaching and learning is inextricably context-dependent and informed by
intrinsic and extrinsic factors that have been identified in the literature. The use of the SIIQ and the
follow-up interviews with teachers can be a means by which the context-specificity of curriculum
reform implementation at the school level can be better understood in terms of these factors. In
particular the data gleaned from the SIIQ can be used to inform guidelines for both pre-service and
in-service science teacher education and efforts to successfully enact inquiry teaching and
learning both in South Africa and other nations around the globe, especially in disadvantaged
schools.

This material is based upon work supported by the National Research Foundation. Any
opinions, findings, and conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Research
Foundation.

Journal of Research in Science Teaching

614 RAMNARAIN

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Appendix A. Scientific Inquiry Implementation Questionnaire

There are 40 items in this questionnaire. The statements are to be considered in the context in which you
teach.
Mark your response by placing a cross in the appropriate block.

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Uncertain Agree Agree
1 The school management recognizes the
importance of inquiry as a science curriculum
goal in the overall school curriculum.
2 Teachers at this school have a good
understanding of science process skills
associated with inquiry.
3 There is not enough time in the school program
to teach inquiry.
4 Teachers at this school have ready access to
resources and materials for inquiry-based
education.
5 Teachers at this school are confident at teaching
inquiry.
6 Teachers at this school have the opportunity to
undertake professional development in
inquiry.
7 The resources at this school are well organized
for inquiry-based education.
8 Lack of time is a major factor inhibiting the
implementation of inquiry at this school.
9 Teachers at this school have a sound knowledge
of strategies in supporting learners doing
inquiry.
10 Inquiry-based education has a high profile as a
science curriculum goal at this school.
11 Collegial support is a positive factor in fostering
the implementation of inquiry-based
education at this school.
12 The school-based system for managing of
science resources for inquiry-based education
is well maintained.
13 Teachers have the time to prepare for inquiry
teaching requirements of the national science
curriculum.
14 The school places a strong emphasis on inquiry-
based education in the science curriculum.
15 Teachers at this school are supported in their
efforts to teach inquiry.
continued

Journal of Research in Science Teaching

618 RAMNARAIN

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Uncertain Agree Agree
16 Teachers at this school have a sound
understanding of a variety of inquiry-based
approaches to support student learning.
17 Teachers possess the personal confidence, and
skills necessary to teach scientific inquiry
competently.
18 There is not enough time in the school program
to fit inquiry teaching in properly.
19 Teachers at this school realize the benefits of
inquiry-based science.
20 The senior management actively supports
inquiry as goal of the science curriculum.
21 The school is well resourced for inquiry-based
education.
22 Teachers at this school are reluctant to teach
scientific inquiry.
23 Teachers at this school have a deep
understanding of science concepts necessary
for inquiry-based teaching.
24 The schools ethos positively influences the
teaching of inquiry.
25 Teachers look forward to teaching inquiry in
science.
26 The curriculum leadership in science fosters
capabilities in those who require support in
teaching inquiry.
27 Inquiry-based education is valued at this school.
28 Teachers have a strong motivation to ensure
learners experience inquiry.
29 Teachers have the time to prepare for inquiry
teaching requirements of the national science
curriculum.
30 Colleagial support evident in this school is
important in fostering capabilities in teachers
who find inquiry difficult to teach.
31 The facilities at this school facilitate inquiry-
based education.
32 Teachers have a positive attitude to the teaching
of scientific inquiry.
33 Teachers believe there is adequate time in the
overall school program to teach inquiry.
34 Teachers at this school have positive
perceptions of their competence at teaching
inquiry.
35 Inquiry-based education has a high status as a
science curriculum goal at this school.
36 There is not enough time in the school week to
do an adequate job of meeting the
requirements of the national science
curriculum for inquiry-based education.
37 Teachers at this school have a positive attitude
to an inquiry-based science curriculum in the
overall school program.
continued

Journal of Research in Science Teaching

 INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION 619

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Uncertain Agree Agree
38 Teachers at this school are competent teachers
of inquiry.
39 Teachers at this school have the opportunity to
undertake professional development in
inquiry from outside agencies.
40 Teachers possess the necessary content
knowledge required to teach scientific
inquiry effectively.

Journal of Research in Science Teaching