The general principles and theories of science can embrace such a vast array of objects and phenomena only at a

certain cost: these deal more with increasingly abstract

concepts and operations than with actual objects and phenomena of daily life. For
example, Newtonian mechanics deals with point-objects (particles), forces, momenta,
etc., which are all considerably abstract. Quantum mechanics, which covers even
wider ground, involves much more abstract entities like wave-functions. In Biology,
classification of forms of life becomes an exercise in abstraction if it is to cover all forms,
not only those of direct interest to a given community at a given time. The difficulty of
students and common people in interacting with science is to be viewed in this light.
Conventional science has been sub-divided into disciplines and sub-disciplines, of
which Physics, Chemistry and Biology are usually taught in general education. It is
interesting to note that these sciences differ from one another not only in content and
terminology but also in methods employed. For example, in Atmospheric Science and
Cosmology, hardly any experiment can be done. Biology does not follow the hypotheticodeductive method
followed in much of Physics. It may also be noted that there is no
unique basis for the division of science into branches: it is quite dependent on need.
An important aspect of scienceimportant from the point of view of general education
is phenomenology. It may be noted that a given body of phenomena may be understood
and discussed at various levels of abstraction or, we may say, various levels of phenomenology. At the lowest
level is that description which may be obtained by a direct
and simple observation with the bare senses. Above that, successively higher levels
of phenomenology and phenomenological theory can be conceived of. For example, the
rising and setting of the sun, the moon and the stars may be observed directly. The
monthly or annual variations in their timings may be tabulated systematically. The
same may be done with the phases of the moon. All these phenomena (plus eclipses) are
readily explained by a geocentric phenomenological theory in which the sun, the moon
and the stars revolve around the earth with various periods. The heliocentric (suncentred) theory represents a
higher level of phenomenology which explains even more
phenomena like the planetary motions and the stellar aberration. Still higher levels
of phenomenology can encompass terrestrial motions too, albeit in a more abstract and
mathematical way. It would be nave and short-sighted to claim that one particular
level of phenomenology (say, heliocentric) was the truth or science and another level
(say, geocentric) was a false notion or not science.

2.2 Common Mans Science

By the term common man we do not mean a particular class of people, but refer to
the common denominator of lives of all people in a community. Thus, even a scientist
is a common man when not working as a specialist. Common Mans Science (CMS) is
that part of science which is relevant to life and problems of the common man. Just
as science curricula can have different contents and levels of treatment for various
purposes, say science for physicians or science for painters, CMS is to be considered
as that part of the totality of science which is (i) of use to the common man, and
(ii) accessible to him, i.e. the level of phenomenology is such that the common man
may understand and work with it. The science of food, water, human body, motions of objects including
vehicles, housing, weather, life of common plants and animals,
celestial objects and calendars, various consumer goods, etc. such are the topics which
make up the subject matter of CMS. But subject headings alone do not make CMS. In
order to distinguish CMS from the science of the above subjects taught conventionally
in schools, three important points may be noted.
First, CMS treats these subjects at an appropriate level of phenomenology. As
we have already discussed, taking up any aspect of nature at the level of general
principles or theories or high levels of abstraction means going far away from the actual
phenomena of concern to the common man. For example, in discussing food, a chemist
may be interested in different chemical constituents of food items and their various
reactions in the human body mediated by various enzymes. The common man is not
interested in details of these reactions. He is interested in the various practical characteristics of whole food
items, e.g. their digestibility, their mutual complementarity
or incompatibility, the energy and other benefits given by each, etc. He is interested
broadly in the general process of digestion and particularly in how this process is
helped or hindered by various spices, the state of the body and the state of the mind.
He is also interested in correlations like that of eating carrots with prevention and cure
of night-blindness.
Second, CMS does include the understanding of nature acquired by communities
over the ages, e.g. compatibility of specific spices with particular foods. Whether such
understanding is considered a part of science or pre-scientific is a matter of definition.
Either way, it can hardly be denied that much of this understanding of nature and
knowledge of its phenomena is useful and readily accessible to the common man. Parts
of it have been subjected to scientific investigation and validated, e.g. breast-feeding
being the best for babies and useful for mothers. Other parts may be at various stages
of investigation; yet others may not have been investigated yet. Certain pieces of such
traditional understanding have been further generalized by scientific researches and
made more abstract, without affecting the validity of the earlier understanding in its
limited domain. The geocentric understanding of the commonly observed motions of
celestial bodies is an example. Such understanding is a part of CMS unless proved
wrong by systematic investigation.
Third, the practice of CMS is integrated and practical rather than disciplinary. The
emphasis is on dealing with common phenomena of life in more and more systematic,
analytical and creative ways, not on delving into one particular narrow aspect of a phenomenon to the exclusion
of all others. Organization of the subject matter of CMS will,
therefore, be done largely in terms of departments of life, not in terms of conventional
scientific disciplines. Of course, this is not to rule out the inclusion of topics, theories
and principles of conventional disciplines needed for a practical understanding of life
phenomena.

2.3 Some Clarifications

Let us point out that CMS is to be distinguished from traditional sciences and folk
sciences. It is, of course, true that CMS bears a close relationship with these, is
community-specific in content and emphasizes continuity with earlier knowledge. However, the term
traditional sciences usually refers to closed systems belonging to past
ages, whereas CMS is very much contemporary and open. Also, CMS is not bound
by any theoretical basis these sciences may have in ancient philosophies but utilizes
their phenomenology. Thus, for example, empirical facts of Ayurveda like properties of
various plant-products, in terms of their effects on the human body, are useful parts of
CMS, but not necessarily the underlying notions like the five elements (mahabhutas).
The overlap of CMS with folk sciences is obvious, but the former does not share the
superstitions and witch-craft which go with the latter. Besides, CMS freely draws from
the modern sciences where appropriate and useful. For example, knowledge about and
correct use of a modern drug like paracetamol can be a part of CMS. Results of the latest
investigations into sleep can be a part of CMS. Also, CMS seeks to utilize elements of
the method of science (e.g. experiment) within the common mans environment.
It may also be noted here that CMS is not just a collection of facts. It can enable one
to understand nature, to make simple calculations where the parameters are quantifiable, to experiment, to
discover and to invent.
Some popularizers of science refuse, in the name of oneness or unity of science,
to recognize the distinct identity of CMS.3 One must ask what meaning they attach
to unity. If they simply mean that science encompasses all cognitively meaningful
statements about nature and its phenomena, then surely this unity does not preclude
partitioning of the one science into various sciences for purposes of convenience. Nor
can it prevent the common man from parameterising a given situation differently
from the conventional scientist. If unity means reducibility of all objects of nature
to elementary particles and all phenomena to a few fundamental laws, this reducibility
can be admitted, if at all, in principle only. Even when such reducibility is fully realized
in highly abstract terms, phenomenology will retain its importance in practice. After
all, dont biologists treat life in terms of cells and even whole organisms, and not
necessarily in terms of atoms of which these are made? Similarly, the common man
can understand nature at a level of phenomenology suited to his purposes.
Another objection may be raised by those who consider science to have a beginning
(a few centuries ago) and do not recognize the existence of any science outside the
particular system that was born then. They may object to the inclusion of any other
system like folk sciences into CMS. We would like to point out that whatever point of
time may be considered as the beginning of science, it must be admitted that some
knowledge and understanding of nature existed among various communities prior to
that. Not only that, a method of exploring nature existed. That understanding and that
method may be useful to the common man even today, depending upon circumstances.
A substantial part of folk knowledge may not have been scientifically validated yet,
but where a certain item has been strongly believed over many generations, and has
not been scientifically invalidated, it makes sense to consider it provisionally a part of
science. In conclusion, we may say that such knowledge may either be considered apart of science or, if it is
considered pre-scientific, it should be integrated into science
education. It would be irrational to let this philosophical issue stand in the way of the
common man benefiting from past experience.

3 CMS curricula in general education

3.1 The General Scheme

Before going into the curricula, it is pertinent to consider briefly the purpose of the
science part of general education. The main purpose, in our view, is (a) to develop a
scientific outlook and scientific appreciation of nature among all citizens, (b) to enable
them to solve their own day-to-day problems in a scientific manner, and (c) to be
generally aware of the emerging science and technology scenario, whether beneficial
or detrimental, and to be able to make personal and social decisions where necessary.
It may be noted here that a learning of the general principles and theories well
known to scientists, key concepts of physicists, etc. is not necessarily needed to accomplish (a), (b) or (c). And
certainly it is not sufficient. Therefore, we do not agree
with decision-makers who insist on making the learning of key concepts, principles
and theories a major objective of general science education; this objective should apply
only to specialized education in conventional sciences.
Instead, the above purposes can be eminently served by making CMS an integral
part of general education at all stages. We have seen in the last section that phenomenology relating to any topic
(e.g. food) can be obtained at many different levels.
It follows that CMS relating to any topic of interest to the common man can be treated
at many different levels of sophistication. Hence, it is possible to design CMS courses
from the lowest to the highest stages of education.
In particular, the science part of primary and secondary education should be completely re-organized along the
lines of CMS. This will mean allowing all children to
observe, understand and manipulate nature at a level of phenomenology naturally
suited to them and will ensure full scope for a flowering of their scientific creativity. In
secondary classes, attention may be focussed on phenomenology of practical subjects
like health, environment, mensuration and technology. Some rudiments of physical,
chemical and biological sciences, e.g., velocity, acceleration due to gravity, atoms and
molecules, micro-organisms, etc., will be needed in CMS, but in a phenomenological
way. Hypothetico-deductive systems like Newtonian mechanics and conventional electrostatics, which can
neither be directly verified by simple experiments, nor are of
practical use to the common man, may be left out.
At the senior secondary and tertiary levels, a separate stream may specialize in
conventional sciences as at present, but it would be desirable to continue CMS at a
suitably higher level for all students. It is suggested that CMS be taught at these
levels in two ways: (a) as general science which will enable all people to solve their own
problems related to health, environment, etc., and to understand community, national
and international issues, e.g., big dams and missile proliferation, besides familiarizing
them with the latest developments, e.g., laser-based communication systems, and (b) as
professional CMS courses which would prepare science teachers, science popularizers and researchers tackling
community-level science-related problems. In recent years,
some eminent scientists have called for school and college students devoting their
attention to certain problems at the phenomenological level, e.g., surveying the flora
and fauna in every corner of the country. In our view, such an activity would fit CMS
curricula in a natural way.
We now spell out detailed outlines for CMS curricula at the primary and secondary
stages of education. This exercise is only illustrative and is intended to give concrete
shape to the concept of general science education indicated above. No attempt has been
made here to prepare class-wise syllabi, nor to chalk out in detail the breadth and depth
at which the given topics are to be treated, partly because such details are location- and
community-specific. Such syllabi can be prepared, once the idea is accepted in principle.
It may be noted that the CMS curricula outlined below are meant for all students. It is
not our contention that some students should learn CMS and some others should learn
conventional sciences.

3.2 CMS curricula for the primary level (Age 6-11, Class I-V)
At the primary level, apart from the general considerations relating to CMS, we must
keep in mind the age-related needs of children. The general science curricula at this
stage should consist mostly of (a) inculcation of healthy habits, and (b) development
of elementary scientific skills of observation, experimentation, reasoning, classification
and manipulation. Observation starts in the earliest classes and slowly progresses to
involve other skills. Illustrative lists of topics are given below.
Inculcation of healthy habits : This is not something to cram but to do regularly.
Some discussion may be necessary.
Maintaining personal cleanlinesswashing the face and eyes, cleaning the
teeth, taking bath, wearing clean clothes, combing the hair, washing the
hands with soap and water after defecation and before meals.
Keeping surroundings clean; disposing of garbage properly.
Eating, sleeping and waking at the proper times. Playing.
Eating healthy foods and avoiding unhealthy ones (even if attractively packed
and aggressively advertised). Caution against junk foods and drinks.
Eating in the proper way: eating enough but not too much, washing up and
settling down (possibly with a small prayer) before eating, proper chewing,
washing up afterwards, etc.
Not suppressing bodily urges as for urination, defecation, sneezing, etc.
Keeping the correct posture, keeping eyes at sufficient distance from book,
notebook or TV.
Not handling electricity (A.C.), moving machines or medicines.
Development of scientific skills : This development takes place informally and in
an elementary way. For example, experiments for younger children (upto age 8) are merely activities and
demonstrations. In later classes, children start controlling particular parameters consciously. In any case, there is
more of doing and
observing than of describing in scientific terms. Here is an illustrative list of
items.
(i) Observing the environment keenly and carefully, e.g.,
Trees, bushes, herbs, creepers in the environment; parts of a plant;
leaves of various trees (observing and copying the shapes);
animals, birds and insects; their various organs;
 parts of the human body (those which can be seen and felt);
demands of the body (hunger, thirst, activity, rest and waste expulsion);
water bodies/water supply: where water comes from;
common machines/accessories and their functions, means of transport;
clothes and their materials, relation with season;
common cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, edible leaves and their respective
plants;
rising and setting of the sun, phases of the moon; recognizing a few stars,
planets and constellations; clouds.
(ii) Manipulation and experimentation, e.g.,
making various objects and geometrical shapes with clay;
making designs and toys with paper, plant parts and waste materials;
planting and growing useful plants; observing growth;
use of simple tools, e.g. spade, screw-driver;
experimenting with air, water, sunlight and shadows, magnet, lenses, mirrors, electric cells and lamp, etc.;
experimenting with sense-perception, e.g., binocular vision, visual illusions,
directionality of hearing.
(iii) Reasoning and classification, e.g.,
classification of things into living and non-living; animals and plants; animals, birds and insects; domestic and
wild, etc.;
classification of water bodies into stagnant and flowing;
classification of foods according to solid/liquid state and according to taste;
understanding the reasons behind rules of hygiene;
classification of vehicles driven by muscle-power and by various fuels and
electricity; hence various forms of energy.

(iv) Concept formation: this should proceed informally and in relation with
phenomena observed, e.g.,
temperature (related to weather and fevers);
energy (related to various kinds of vehicles and equipment);
density (related to floats and sinks, rate of fall);
micro-organisms (related to curds-formation and infectious diseases);
oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen (related to air and plant and animal life);
cause and effect (related to fuel and motion, fall and injury, etc.).
It may be noticed that many of the topics given in the above list are common with
the existing curricula. However, the emphasis in the CMS scheme proposed here is
different. For example, in classifying objects into living and non-living, our emphasis is
not on memorization of the points of contrast but on observation, preferably carried out
during outings into a rich environment, e.g. forest or garden, and on identifying classes
of objects, their behaviours and sequences of events. There should be no hurry to
jump to pre-determined conclusions or to dip into abstract analyses. Demonstrations of
various spectacular behaviours of air, water, etc. should be aimed at arousing childrens
curiosity rather than at proving some principles.
There is no room for formal definitions of work, energy, etc. and their relations with
force at this stage. It is abstract and useless. Nor are details of internal anatomy and
physiology included in the CMS curricula.
3.3 Curricula for the Secondary Level (Age 11-15, Class VI-X)
The CMS curricula at the beginning of the secondary stage have a significant overlap
with those at the late primary stage in terms of topics but there is a difference in the
level of treatment. Thus, while general observation is to be continued, the emphasis
is to shift gradually to a systematic study of phenomena. Observation is not the sole
source of information at this stage; knowledge is provided from textbooks too, but it is
still related to daily life for the most part.
The CMS curricula at this stage consist of matters of direct concern to the common
man, viz. (a) health, (b) environment, (c) mensuration and analytical aspects, and (d)
agricultural or industrial technology. In middle classes (VI-VIII) these subjects may
be treated mostly in terms of traditional parameters. However, as further details are
taken up, it will become necessary to bring in technical terms. Elements of physical
and biological sciences will, therefore, have to be taught, though in a phenomenological
way.
3.3.1 Health Science
In CMS, health science begins with understanding the importance of health and relating it to parameters under
the direct control of the common man, e.g. food, sleep, work, exercise, cleanliness, state of mind, etc. Children
need not be burdened with unnecessary details of human anatomy and physiology or of cell structure or of
pathological
tests. They should be made familiar with the phenomenology of health and disease,
and enabled to take elementary care of their health themselves.
It should also be noticed that, in health education under CMS, the inner observation
of the state of the body also plays an important role. For example, the natural rhythms
of the body are to be observed in this way. This inner observation, though alien to
conventional sciences, is an elementary skill for the common child. Given below is an
illustrative list of topics.
Holistic definition and supreme importance of health.
Pillars of health: balanced food and water, fresh air, balanced activity and rest,
right expulsion of wastes, right state of mind, cleanliness, being free from addictions, vaccination.
Symptoms of health: appetite for good food, thirst, deep sleep, proper expulsion
of wastes, cheerful mind, desire for right activity and right relationships with
others.
Physical and mental hygiene.
Human body and its systems (broad idea).
Natural rhythms and balance of the body.
Natural capacity of the body to correct internal imbalances and deal with external
invasions (injuries, infections, etc.)
Signals and warnings given by the body and their significance, e.g. heaviness of
the stomach means a meal or snack should be skipped. Various possible causes of
headache, fever, etc. Preventing diseases by heeding warnings and taking timely
corrective measures.
Disease: breakdown of the first line of defence.
Exercises, play-activity, yoga and their importance.
How to eat.
Balanced food in terms of cereals, pulses, vegetables, etc.
Constituents of foodstuffs: proteins, energy-giving matters, vitamins and minerals. Implications for diet.
Processed, refined and preserved foods: need to avoid highly refined foods and
those containing added chemicals, junk foods and drinks.
Effects of different foodstuffs and spices on our bodies.

Broad idea of the process of digestion of food: various stages, time taken, involvement of various
chemicals (names of individual enzymes not necessary) and the
brain.
Importance of drinking water; how to keep water clean.
Importance of adequate and deep sleep. The sleep cycle. How to sleep.
Managing constipation and diarrhea. Self-examination of the stool.
Care of the eyes, ears, teeth, hair and skin.
For girls: menstrual cycle, its significance and related hygiene.
Common diseases, their causes, prevention and home remedies.
First aid; care of the sick, the young and the old.
Measuring body temperature and pulse rate: normal values.
Science and technology: helping and hindering mans health.
Different systems of medicine and the systems to be preferred in various conditions.
Selecting and reporting to a doctor. Pathological tests.
Story of eradication of smallpox; attempts at eradicating/controlling malaria and
polio.
3.3.2 Environmental Science
At the secondary stage, a broad awareness of the abiotic and biotic factors of the
environment and their relationship with the common mans life is necessary. This
naturally brings in some chemistry and biology. It is recommended that the treatment
of environment in terms of technical parameters be taken up only after class VII or
VIII. An illustrative list of topics is given below.
Five basic constituents of non-living nature: air, water, soil, sunlight, and space.
Their importance for all life, their pollution and protection.
Air: importance, constituents, role of green plants in purification, pollution by
vehicles, industrial wastes, etc.
Water: importance, sources and cycle, pollution, purification and conservation,
drainage and soak-pit. Water-management.
Soil: formation, various types, pollution, erosion and protection.
Suns radiation: its energy being stored in plants and ultimately providing food to
every living being and most energy sources. Various colours and photon energies.
Space: pollution due to crowding, noise and radiation.
Forest: importance, how to reap resources, conservation and planting.
Foodstuffs: how to recognize pure/fresh/ripe/juicy fruits and vegetables. Common
adulterants and surface contaminants. Need to wash fruits, vegetables.
Clothing: various natural and artificial fibres; relation with season, health and
convenience.
Housing: materials and designs; elementary map- making.
Earthquakes, cyclones, floods and droughts. Their causes.
Various kinds of energy and sources, renewable and non-renewable. Need for
conservation. Tapping Suns energy.
Biosphere: variety of flora and fauna; friends and foes of man. Caution against
snakes, scorpions, flies, mosquitoes, etc.
Micro-organisms: friends and foes. Sterilization.
Simple experiments with air, water, soil, sun-light, plants and photo-synthesis.
Exploratory and constructive projects as per local conditions. (Examples: exploration of tunnels and
living places of rats, colonies of ants, etc.; making soak-pits,
tree-planting, preventing soil erosion.)
Natural resources: need for conservation. Mans survival needs versus secondary
ones.
Sanitation: importance and practical arrangements.
3.3.3 Mensuration and Analytical Sciences
The mensuration part of the proposed curricula will be found to have a considerable
overlap with conventional curricula. In the CMS scheme, however, the interface with
the common mans life is to be kept up. For example, in weights and measures, the
local units must also be taught and related to the standard units. Secondly, there is to
be a lot of emphasis on doing (making measurements, estimating by feeling and then
verifying by actual measurement).
The essential elements of the Gregorian, the Vikrami and other locally prevalent
calendars must form a part of studies. Their dependence on the motions of celestial
objects (as seen from the earth) should be explained and these matters demystified.
Watching of the night-sky and identifying its salient features should be an important
part of education at this stage. This should set the stage for critically examining many
superstitions and beliefs prevalent in the society.
A discussion of elementary Chemistry, Physics and Biology is inescapable in contemporary CMS.
However, the criteria of accessibility to and usefulness for the common man must be kept in mind.
Thus, for example, there is no need of going over the entire
periodic table; mention of 20-30 elements should be enough. An illustrative list of
topics is given below.
Units of length, mass (weight), time, area and volume: quasi-quantitative, local
as well as standard.
Practice of making correct measurement. Rough-and-ready assessment.
 Idea of extremely small objects (upto nuclei) and very large ones (galaxies).
The suns revolution as seen from the earth. The solar (Gregorian and Saka)
calendars.
The phases of the moon. The moons revolution around the earth. The lunar Hijri
and the luni-solar Vikrami calendars.
The shape and rotation of the earth. Day and night. The seasons.
Solar and lunar eclipses: description and explanation. Rahu and Ketu. Watching
an eclipse safely.
Sky-watching: recognizing the planets, some prominent stars and constellations.
The nature of stars, planets and comets.
Pressure: atmospheric and hydrostatic.
Mixtures, compounds and elements. Chemical reactions. Organic and inorganic
compounds. Common examples from environment and human physiology.
Metals and non-metals. Conductors, insulators and semi-conductors.
Horizontal motions of objects. Speed and velocity. Friction: sliding and rolling.
Acceleration. Vertical motion and acceleration due to gravity. Motion of projectiles. Periodic motion.
Sound: wave-motion. Loudness and pitch. Decibel. Echo and reverberation.
Heat, heat transfer and relation with temperature. Thermal expansion and conductivity.
Elements of electricity. Charge and current. Attraction and repulsion between
charges and between currents. The electric circuit. A.C. and D.C. voltages. Ohms
Law. Power and its calculation.
Attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles. Electro-magnets.
Behaviours of mirrors and lenses (broad idea).
The atomic nature of matter. Atoms and molecules. Parts of the atom: the
electron, the nucleus. Protons and neutrons.
X-rays and other radioactive radiations. Their effects on body tissues and genes.
Units of energy and power: Joule, calorie, Watt. Examples in mechanical, thermal, electric areas.
Calorific values of a few common foodstuffs and fuels.
Cell: smallest living part of the body. Different kinds.
Elements of genetics: how information about characteristics is written into each
cell and how these are transferred to offspring. Genes and DNA (elementary
ideas).
Things which can be quantified and those which cannot (at present).
Prevalent superstitions and their analyses. Reasons behind social customs.