BI OLOGY REVISION LECTURE NOTES

PAR T I CHAPTER NO2

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
LECTURE NO.1 TIME: 30 MIN.

TOPICS OF THE DAY

Biological Molecules in Protoplasm Name: _______________________
Importance of Water Roll No:______________________

Date: ________________________

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES IN PROTOPLASM

BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the science concerned with the various molecules that occur in living cells and
organisms and with their chemical reactions.

PROTOPLASM
Introduction
Cell consists of a homogeneous jelly, which they called protoplasm.
Parts of Protoplasm
Cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm.
Composition of Cytoplasm
Organelles
Cytosol

BIOELEMENTS
Definition
The elements found in living organisms are bioelements.
Examples
H, C, N, O, P, S, Na+ Mg+2 C1-, K+ Ca+2 Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, B, Al, Si, V, Mo and I.
Commonest Bioelements
6 99% - Oxygen 65%, carbon 18.5%, hydrogen 9.5%, nitrogen 3.3% calcium 1.5%, phosphorus
1%.
Natural elements 92
25 essential to life.
Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen = 96.3% of the human body.
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur and a few other = 3.5%.
Trace elements (less than 0.01%) Boron, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicone, tin, vanadium and zinc.

BIOCHEMICALS OF PROTOPLASM
70% water To maintains life
Electrolyte - to establish osmotic gradients, pH and membrane potential.
Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid, enzymes, hormones and metabolites.
Fundamental Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic acid

CONDENSATION & HYDROLYSIS

Polymer & Monomer
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 A macromolecule is a giant molecule made from many repeating units. Molecules built like this are
known as polymers.
The individual units are known as monomers.
Condensation
During condensation, when two monomers join, a hydroxyl (-0H) group is removed from one
monomer and a hydrogen (-H) is removed from the other.
Condensation involves a dehydration synthesis.
Proper enzyme is required.
Hydrolysis
Polymers are broken down by hydrolysis, which is essentially the reverse of condensation.
During hydration, an OH group from water is attached to the other monomer.
Hydration involves a hydrolysis reaction because water is used to break a bond.
Proper enzyme is required.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Introduction
Life originated in water. Water provides an environment for the organisms that live in it.
All living things - 60-95% of water.
Water is an inorganic substance as carbon is absent in H-O-H.
Properties of Water
High Polarity
Polar covalent bond.
Slightly negative charge on oxygen and slightly positive charge on hydrogen.
Hydrogen Bonding
Linkage between hydrogen and electronegative element.
Represented as dotted lines.
Make water liquid at temperature suitable for life.
High Specific Heat
Definition
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by loC.
Reason
High specific heat because much energy is needed to break hydrogen bond.
Significance
Water protects organisms from rapid temperature changes and helps them to maintain
their normal internal temperature.
High Heat of Vapourization
Introduction
The high heat of vapourization means that water has a high boiling point.
Significance
Helps to moderate the Earth's temperature.
Gives animals an efficient way to release excess body heat.
Cohesion
Force whereby individual molecules stick together.
Hydrophobic Interactions
Nonionized and nonpolar molecules are said to be hydrophobic.
Such hydrophobic (water hating) interactions are important in the formation of membranes.
Ionization
When water ionizes, it releases an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ion:

H O H H+ + OH
This reaction is reversible but equilibrium is maintained at 25oC.
The H+ and OH- ions affect and take part in many of the reactions that occur in cells, e.g., it helps to
maintain or change the pH of the medium.
Lower Density of Ice
Water expands when solidifies.
Water molecules are densest at 4C but they are still moving about.
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 This means that water expands as it freezes.
It also means that ice is less dense than liquid water and therefore ice floats on liquid water.

NOTE: Answer the following short questions and long questions in the space provided,
neatly and clearly. Encircle the correct choice in the given MCQs
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.No.1
(i) The sum of all chemical reactions taking place within a cell is called:
(a) Thermoregulation (b) Osmoregulation
(c) Isomerism (d) Metabolism
(ii) The chemistry of living organisms is called:
(a) Molecular biology (b) Microbiology
(c) Biochemistry (d) Stieochiochemistry
(iii) The most abundant compound in mammalian cells is:
(a) Water (b) Proteins
(c) DNA (d) RNA
(iv) Which is not the function of water in cell?
(a) Medium for catalytic activity (b) Thermal stability
(c) Energy storage (d) Protection
(v) Most abundant element in human body is:
(a) Carbon (b) Oxygen
(c) Nitrogen (d) Hydrogen
(vi) Density of water is maximum at:
(a) 0C (b) 4C
(c) -4C (d) 100C
(vii) Dehydration synthesis is:
(a) Hydrolysis (b) Oxidation
(c) Reduction (d) Condensation
SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.No.2
(i) What is the chemical composition of protoplasm?

(ii) A) When hydrogen gas combines with oxygen gas to form water, is the hydrogen reduced or

oxidized?

B) Why ice covers more area than the same amount of water?

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(iii) Define (a) Protoplasm (b) Cohesion (c) Specific heat capacity

EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS
Q.No.3
Discuss role of water in maintenance of life.

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 BI OLOGY REVISION LECTURE NOTES
PAR T I
CHAPTER NO2
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
LECTURE NO.2 TIME: 30 MIN.

TOPICS OF THE DAY

Name: _______________________
Carbohydrates
Roll No:______________________

Date: ________________________

CARBOHYDRATES
Introduction
The word carbohydrate means hydrated carbon.
They are composed of C, H and O in the ratio of 1:2:1.
Their general formula is Cx (H2O)y where x is the whole number from three to many thousand.
Definition
Chemically carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or complex substances,
which on hydrolysis yield polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone sub units.

CLASSIFICATION AND ROLE OF CARBOHYDRATES

MONOSACCHARIDES
Introduction
These are simple sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed into further simple units.
Features
General formula Cn(H2O)n.
Sweet in taste and easily soluble in water.
Reducing sugar.
Crystalline.
Polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones.
All carbon atoms in a monosaccharide except one have a hydroxyl group.
Aldo sugar & keto sugars
Classification of Monosaccharides
They are classified depending upon the number of carbon. In nature monosaccharides with 3-7
carbon atoms are found. Their name always ends in -ose.
Forms and Functions
1) Trioses C3H6O3
Examples: Glyceraldehydes, dihydroxyacetone.
Function: Intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis
2) Pentoses C5H10O5
Examples: Ribose, deoxyribose, ribulose.
Function: Formation of DNA, RNA, ATP, NAD, NADP, RuBP
3) Hexoses C5H12O6
Example: Glucose, fructose, galactose
Function: Source of energy, Formation of disaccharides and polysaccharides
Open Chain and Ring Form
In the ring structure, the carbon atoms are numbered clockwise from one to six, e.g., glucose and
one to five in ribose.
Isomers
Molecules that have identical molecular formulas, but they are different molecules because the
atoms in each are arranged differently.
Isomers of Glucose
For example glucose can exist in two possible ring forms, known as the alpha () and
beta () forms.
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Structural Isomers
Glucose and fructose are structural isomers.
Stereoisomers
Stereoisomers are molecules containing the same atoms bonded identically but the
bonded atoms are oriented differently in space.
Glucose exists in several different structures e.g. D-glucose and L-Glucose.
Enantiomers
Enantiomers are a class of stereoisomers related like an object and its mirror image.
Enantiomers differ in their "handedness" as the left hand and right hand are related.

DISACCHARIDES
Introduction
Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. It is a kind of oligosaccharides.
Features
Less sweet in taste and less soluble in water.
Can be hydrolyzed to give monosaccharides.
General formula C12 H22 O11
Examples
Maltose, lactose, sucrose.
Functions
Maltose: Breakdown product during digestion
Lactose: Milk sugar
Sucrose: Cane sugar, Most abundant, Transport form of sugar
Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars
Reducing sugars have ability to cause reduction e.g.g maltose and lactose.
Non-reducing sugars do not have this ability e.g. sucrose.
Glucoside Linkage
The bond formed between two monosaccharides is called glucoside linkage.
Water is removed during formation of this linkage:
(a) Maltose (1,4, glucoside linkage)
(b) Sucrose (1,2 glucoside linkage)

POLYSACCHARIDES
Introduction
Many monosaccharides monomers linked by glycoside bonds.
Features
Usually branched and are sparingly soluble or insoluble in water.
General formula Cx (H2O)y.
Non-reducing, non-crystalline, white solids.
Neither sweet nor chemically very reactive.
Function
Food and energy stores, e.g., starch, glycogen
Structural material, e.g., cellulose and chitin.

Starch
Polymer of alpha glucose in plants.
Amylose (unbranched, 1,4 linkage), Amylopectin (branched, 1,6 linkage)
Glycogen
Storage polysaccharide of the animal body and fungi.
Animal starch stored chiefly in the liver and muscles.
Very similar in structure to amylopectin but shows more branching.
Cellulose
About 50% carbon found in plants is in cellulose.
Long chains of glucose residues (1,4 linkages)
An important food source for some animals, bacteria and fungi.
Chitin
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 Found in the exoskeleton of crustaceans, insects and fungi.
Structurally it is identical to cellulose except that the hydroxyl (-0H) group at carbon
atom 2 is replaced by -NH.CO.CH3.

NOTE: Answer the following short questions and long questions in the space provided,
neatly and clearly. Encircle the correct choice in the given MCQs

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.No.1
(i) The compounds which have similar molecular formula, but different structural
formula are called:
(a) Isomers (b) Isobars
(c) Isotopes (d) None of these
(ii) Animals obtain carbohydrates mainly from:
(a) Glucose (b) Starch
(c) Sucrose (d) Glycogen
(iii) Which one of the following is not an aldo sugar?:
(a) Glucose (b) Fructose
(c) Galactose (d) Glyceraldehyde
(iv) In sucrose, the glycosidic linkage found is:
(a) 1,4 (b) 1,6
(c) 1,3 (d) 1,2
(v) C3H6O3 is formula of:
(a) Monosaccharide (b) Glyceraldehyde
(c) Dihydroxyacetone (d) All of a, b & c
(vi) __________ are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones:
(a) Hydrocarbons (b) Hydrates of carbon
(c) Waxes (d) Lipids
(vii) ATP contains:
(a) Glucose (b) Ribose
(c) Fructose (d) Deoxyribose
SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.No.2
(i) Can you compare the structural isomers and stereoisomers of glucose?

(ii) (A) Define reducing sugars. (B) What are reducing disaccharides?

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(iii) How cellulose is different from starch and chitin?

EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS
Q.No.3
(a) Describe the structures and roles of plant cell wall.
(b) How does the plasma membrane regulate cells interaction with its environment?
(c) Explain chemical composition and fluid mosaic model of cell membrane.

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 BI OLOGY REVISION LECTURE NOTES
PAR T I
CHAPTER NO2
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
LECTURE NO.3 TIME: 30 MIN.

TOPICS OF THE DAY

Proteins Name: _______________________
Lipids Roll No:______________________

Date: ________________________

PROTEINS
Main structural components of the cell.
C, H, O and N, while some contains P, S. Few have Fe, I and Mg.
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Amino Acids
Building blocks of proteins.
20 are commonly found in proteins.
Each contains a carbon atom. It is called a (alpha) carbon to this a hydrogen atom, an
amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a variable group known as -R group
are attached.
The R group has a different structure in each of the 20 biologically important amino acids
and determines their individual chemical properties.
Peptide Bond
The bond formed to unite two amino acids is called peptide bond.
It is between amino group of one amino acid and carboxyl group of another amino acid.
Water is removed in this process.
The chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds is called a polypeptide chain.
Amino Acid Sequence
A protein molecule may have 51 to 3000 amino acids. All the amino acids must be in
proper position in the polypeptide chain. If the proper site of even a single amino acid is
changed the normal structure and function of the protein is changed. Protein consists of
chain of amino acids arranged in definite order.
Sickle Cell Haemoglobin
Vernon Ingram - structural difference between normal haemoglobin (HbN) and sickle cell
haemoglobin (HbS).
In sickle cell Hb, Glutamate is replaced by valine at position 6 of beta chain.
Red blood cells are sickle shaped, due to crystallization of haemoglobin.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
A) Fibrous Proteins
These have secondary structures.
Insoluble in water.
B) Globular Proteins
Spherical shape, having tertiary structure.
Easily soluble.
C) Intermediate Proteins
Intermediate in shape
Are soluble.

LIPIDS
Definition
Organic compounds that are hydrophobic (water hating) and insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvent such as acetone, alcohol and ether etc.

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Characteristics
Lipids have a greasy or oily consistency.
Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They have relatively less oxygen in proportion to carbon and hydrogen than do
carbohydrates.
Oxygen atoms are characteristic of hydrophilic (water loving) functional group, so lipids
with little oxygen are much less soluble in water than most carbohydrates.
CLASSIFICATION AND ROLE OF LIPIDS
Heterogeneous substances and are not made up of one building block.
Lipids are therefore classified on the basis of solubility.
(a) acylglycerol
(b) phospholipids
(c) terpenes
(d) waxes.

A) Acylglycerol
The most abundant lipids in living things are the neutral fats or acylglycerol.
Definition
Esters of fatty acids and alcohol.
An ester is the compound produced as the result of a chemical reaction of an alcohol with
acid and a water molecule is released.

C2H5OH + HOOCCH3 C2H5OOCCH3 + H2O

Alcohol + acetic acid an ester + water
Composition
Glycerol
One, two or three fatty acids
Formation of Acylglycerols
Monoglycerol
Diglycerol
Triglycerol

Fatty Acids
30 different fatty acids
They have an even number of carbon atoms, e.g. butyric acid (4C) and oleic acid
(18C).
Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more pairs of carbon atoms joined by a double bond.
They therefore are not fully saturated with hydrogen. These are liquid at room
temperature.
Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are modified fatty acids, often derived from lipids in the plasma
membrane.

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 Functions: Some reduce blood pressure, Others raise it, Various help induce fever and
inflammation and also intensify the sensation of pain, Help regulate the aggregation of
platelets
Those synthesized in the temperature-regulating centre of the hypothalamus cause fever.
Infact, the ability of aspirin to reduce fever and decrease pain depends on the inhibition of
prostaglandin synthesis.

B) Phospholipids
Composition & Structure
Two fatty acids 9Neutral, Hydrophobic)
Phosphate groups at glycerols carbon 3 (Polar, Hydrophilic)
Function
Form lipid bilayer and biological membranes.

C) Terpenes
Synthesized from a five-carbon building block known as isoprene unit through
condensation
Examples
Monoterpene (2 isoprene units)e.g., menthol,
Diterpene (4 isoprene units) e.g., vitamin A
Triterpene (6 isoprene units) e.g., ambrein.
Polyterpene e.g. natural rubber.
Vitamin A and chlorophyll contain terpenoid alcohol called phytol.

Isoprene Unit

Steroids
Steroids are crystallizable lipids of high molecular weight.
A steroid consists of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four attached rings, three of the rings
contain six carbon atoms, and the fourth contains five.
These structures are synthesized from isoprene units.
Role of Cholesterol
Structural component of animal cell membrane and plant cell membrane contains
molecules similar to cholesterol.
Precursor of bile acids, male sex hormone testosterone, female sex hormone
progesterone and estrogen etc.

D) Waxes
Waxes are lipids having odd number of carbon atoms varying from C25 to C35.
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 These are chemically inert and resistant to atmospheric oxidation.
Composition
Long chain alkanes (CnH2n+2)
Alcohols (ROH)
Ketones (R-O-R)
Esters (R-CO-R) of long chain fatty acids.
Role
Waxes have protective functions in plants and animals.
Examples
Bee wax and lanolin (obtained from sheep wool).

NOTE: Answer the following short questions and long questions in the space provided,
neatly and clearly. Encircle the correct choice in the given MCQs
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.No.1
(i) The steroids are placed under:
(a) Carbohydrates (b) Proteins
(c) Lipids (d) Nucleic acids
(ii) Glycerol is backbone molecule for:
(a) Disaccharide (b) Triglyceride
(c) ATP (d) DNA
(iii) In phospholipids molecule, which part forms tail:
(a) Polar (b) Hydrophobic
(c) Phosphate (d) Hydrophilic
(iv) How many fatty acids are normally present in a phospholipids molecule?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
(v) Haemoglobin is ______________ protein:
(a) Contractile (b) Functional
(c) Structural (d) Regulating
(vi) Most of the proteins are made up of how many amino acids:
(a) 170 (b) 25
(c) 20 (d) 1000
(vii) A peptide bond is formed between:
(a) An aldehyde group & an amino group (b) An aldehyde group & a cargoxyl group
(c) An aldehyde group & an ester (d) A carboxyl group & an amino group
SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.No.2
(i) How do amino acids fit together?

(ii) What is the significance of amino acid sequence?

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(iii) Relate the role of prostaglandin in inflammation with the inhibition of prostaglandin

synthesis through aspirin.

EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS
Q.No.3
(a) What are lipids? Explain acylglycerols in detail.
(b) Discuss in detail composition, role and classification of proteins.

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 BI OLOGY REVISION LECTURE NOTES
PAR T I CHAPTER NO2
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
LECTURE NO.4 TIME: 30 MIN.

TOPICS OF THE DAY

Name: _______________________
Nucleic Acids
Conjugated Molecules Roll No:______________________

Date: ________________________

NUCLEIC ACID
Discovery
Friederic Miescher isolated nuclein in the nucleus of the fish sperm cells.
Nuclein was later on called nucleic acid, as it is acidic.
Composition
Linear unbranched polymer of nucleotide.

STRUCTURE AND ROLE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

Composition
In 1920 the basic structure of nucleic acids was determined by P. A. Levene.
He found that nucleic acids are made of repeating units called nucleotides.
Nucleotide
Each nucleotide consists of:
Pentose sugar
A phosphate
Nitrogenous base in ring
1) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
It gives nucleic acid their acid characteristics
Forms ester linkage with -OH group of a pentose sugar.
Base plus sugar is called nucleoside, and when a phosphate is added to a nucleoside it
becomes a nucleotide.
Nitrogen base is attached to carbon number 1 of a pentose sugar and a phosphate group is
attached to carbon number 5 of the sugar. In addition a free hydroxyl (OH) group is
attached to 3-carbon atom.
2) Nitrogenous Bases
Purines Double ring(adenine, guanine)
Pyrimidine Single ring (cytosine, thymine, uracil)

Mononucleotide
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide.
ATP has three parts, connected by covalent bonds:
(a) adenine, a nitrogen base
(b) ribose, a five carbon sugar
(c) three phosphates.
The two covalent bonds linking the three phosphates together are high-energy bonds.
ATP is known as the energy currency of cells. ATP is made from the oxidation of organic
molecules through oxidative phosphorylation.
Most of the ATP in the cell is made in mitochondria. The actual amount of ATP in the cell
at any time is small.
Dinucleotide
NAD
FAD

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Polynucleotide
Phosphate groups link nucleotide together through sugar at carbon 3 and 5.
Reaction forms phosphodiester linkage with elimination of water.

CLASSIFICATION OF NUCLEIC ACID

DNA
RNA

WATSON AND CRICK MODEL OF DNA

Introduction
Ladder model of DNA made by James Watson and Francis Crick.
Points
i) Two polynucleotide strands" running in opposite directions and winding out each other in
a form of double helix.
ii) The double helix looks like a ladder.
iii) The sugar and phosphate part of the nucleotide makes the upright part of ladder.
iv) Complementary arrangement of bases.
v) Hydrogen bonds between AT and CG.
vi) Diameter of helix is 2nm. Length of one full, spiral turn is 3.4nm. The distance between
two base pairs is 0.34nm.
vii) There are two grooves a major groove and a minor groove.
viii) The sequence of nucleotides is specific for different species, organisms and even
individuals.

Gene
Piece of DNA sequence coding for a special polypeptide chain.
Gene is a sequence of nucleotides as part of DNA, which codes for the formation of a
polypeptide.

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

RNA is a polymer of nucleotide.
It consists of sugar ribose and the base adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil.
RNA is singly stranded and does not form a double helix in the same manner as DNA.

There are three major classes of RNA each with a special function in protein synthesis. These
RNA are transcribed from DNA template.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
A mRNA consists of a singly strand of variable length.
Length depends upon the size of the gene, as well as the protein.
mRNA is about 3 to 4% of the total RNA in the cell.
mRNA takes the genetic message from the nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm to
form particular protein.
It is transcribed from DNA template
It becomes attached to the ribosome. At ribosome, amino acids are attached one by one to
form a polypeptide chain as per base sequence of mRNA. This process is known as
translation.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Ribosome consists of rRNA and protein.
rRNA is transcribed by the genes present on the DNA of the several chromosomes.
It is called rRNA because it eventually becomes part of ribosome.
The base sequence of rRNA is similar from bacteria to higher plants and animals.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
It is the smallest of the RNA molecule.
A tRNA is a single stranded nucleic acid and folds double on itself to create region where
complementary bases are bonded to one another.
The structure of a tRNA molecule is generally known as a flat cloverleaf.
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 The whole molecule consists of 80 nucleotides but only 20 show the complementary base
pairing. There are at least one tRNA molecule for each of the 20 amino acids found in
proteins.
Sixty tRNA have been identified. Human cells contain about 45 different kinds of tRNA
molecules.
The 5' end, ends in Guanine base while the 3' end always is the base sequence of ACC.
The nucleotide sequence of the rest of the molecule is variable.
tRNA has three loops. The middle loop in all the tRNA is composed of 7 bases, the
middle three of which form the anticodon, it is complementary to specific codon of
mRNA. For example, a tRNA that has anticodon GAA binds to the codon CUU and
carries amino acid Leucine. The D loop recognizes the activation enzyme. Theta ()
loop recognizes the specific place on the ribosome for binding during protein synthesis.

CONJUGATED MOLECUELS
Definition
Molecules when joined by other kinds of molecules are called conjugated molecules.
Examples
The examples are glyocolipids, glycoproteins, lipoproteins and nucleoproteins.
Glycolipids: In white matter of brain, myelin sheath of nerve fibres, chloroplast
membrane.
Glycoproteins: Function as enzymes, hormones, transport proteins, structured proteins
and receptors. Antifreeze glycoproteins and blood group antigens are glycoproteins.
Lipoproteins: In plant and animal material, in milk, blood, cell nucleus, egg yolk
membrane and chloroplasts of plants, in bacterial antigens and viruses, Cutin and ruberin.
Nucleoproteins: Nuclear material

NOTE: Answer the following short questions and long questions in the space provided,
neatly and clearly. Encircle the correct choice in the given MCQs
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.No.1
(i) Adenine & guanine are _________ ringed structure:
(a) Single (b) Double
(c) Triple (d) Poly
(ii) The formation of RNA from DNA is called:
(a) Translation (b) Transcription
(c) Reverse transcription (d) Replication
(iii) The most important RNA from genetic point of view:
(a) mRNA (b) tRNA
(c) rRNA (d) none
(iv) Ribose sugar + adenine + phosphate + phosphate:
(a) ATP (b) ADP
(c) AMP (d) None of these
(v) An example of dinucleotide is:
(a) NAD (b) FAD
(c) ADP (d) Both a and b
(vi) Most of the cellular secretions are:
(a) Glycoproteins (b) Glycolipids
(c) Lipoproteins (d) Nucleoproteins

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(vii) Which is not a conjugated molecule?
(a) Glycoproteins (b) Glycolipids
(c) Nucleoproteins (d) Nucleic acid
SHORT QUESTIONS
Q.No.2
(i) What are the bases found in nucleic acids?

(ii) What does phosphate have to do with energy?

(iii) What is a gene?

EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS
Q.No.3

(a) Explain in detail the structure and formation of nucleic acids.

(b) Differentiate DNA from RNA

(c) What are conjugated molecules? Discuss their few examples with functions.

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