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Lifelong exposure to raised concentrations of LDL cholesterol increases cardiovascular event rates, and the use of Lancet 2014; 384: 60717
statin therapy as an adjunct to diet, exercise, and smoking cessation has proven highly eective in reducing the This the rst in a Series of three
population burden associated with hyperlipidaemia. Yet, despite consistent biological, genetic, and epidemiological papers about lipids and
cardiovascular disease
data, and evidence from randomised trials, there is controversy among national guidelines and clinical practice with
Harvard Medical School, Center
regard to LDL cholesterol, its measurement, the usefulness of population-based screening, the net benet-to-risk
for Cardiovascular Disease
ratio for dierent LDL-lowering drugs, the benet of treatment targets, and whether aggressive lowering of LDL is Prevention, Brigham and
safe. Several novel therapies have been introduced for the treatment of people with genetic defects that result in loss Womens Hospital Boston, MA,
of function within the LDL receptor, a major determinant of inherited hyperlipidaemias. Moreover, the usefulness of USA (Prof P M Ridker MD)
monoclonal antibodies that extend the LDL-receptor lifecycle (and thus result in substantial lowering of LDL Correspondence to:
cholesterol below the levels achieved with statins alone) is being assessed in phase 3 trials that will enrol more than Dr Paul M Ridker, Center for
Cardiovascular Disease
60 000 at-risk patients worldwide. These trials represent an exceptionally rapid translation of genetic observations into Prevention, Brigham and
clinical practice and will address core questions of how low LDL cholesterol can be safely reduced, whether the Womens Hospital, Boston,
mechanism of LDL-cholesterol lowering matters, and whether ever more aggressive lipid-lowering provides a safe, MA 02215, USA
pridker@partners.org
long-term mechanism to prevent atherothrombotic complications.
A B
Apolipoprotein Chylomicron
095
VLDL
Density (g/mL)
Phospholipid 101
Triglyceride IDL
102
Cholesterol Chylomicron
LDL remnant
106
HDL2
Cholesteryl ester 110
HDL3
120
5 10 20 40 60 80 1000
Diameter (nm)
Figure 1: The structural components of lipoproteins (A) and their relation to diameter and density (B)
Adopted from Genest J, Libby P. Lipoprotein Disorders and Cardiovascular Disease. Braunwalds Heart Disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine, ninth edition.
Elsevier 2012, pp: 97595. IDL=intermediate-density lipoprotein.
than, the study median for these two lipid markers). How eective is LDL-cholesterol for identication
One in ve were discordant between LDL-cholesterol of those who will benet from statin therapy?
and apolipoprotein B, and one in ten were discordant Statin therapy is highly eective at reducing vascular
between LDL-cholesterol and non-HDL-cholesterol.27 event rates. In results from a comprehensive
For these discordant individuals, vascular risk diered meta-analysis from the Cholesterol Treatment Trialists
substantially when calculated on the basis of either non- Collaboration of 27 randomised trials,8,9 statins reduced
HDL-cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, or the number of the risk of major coronary events by 24% for each
LDL particles instead of LDLcholesterol concentrations 1 mmol/L reduction in LDL cholesterol (95% CI
(gure 4).27 073079), stroke by 15% (080089), and coronary
Many of the limitations associated with measurement revascularisation by 24% (073079).8,9 The magnitude
of LDL can be avoided with use of non-HDL-cholesterol of these benets is similar between women and men,
concentrations for screening purposes and for smokers and non-smokers, in elderly and young people,
on-treatment assessment.25 Non-HDL-cholesterol does and across all levels of obesity, blood pressure, and
not depend on VLDL estimation, consists of a simple glucose. Moreover, the benets of statin therapy accrue
measure of all cholesterol carried by the atherogenic with no evidence of an increased risk of incident cancer
apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins, and reduces (hazard ratio 100, 95% CI 096104) or cancer mortality
the discordance diculty discussed earlier. Moreover, (099, 093106). Although individual randomised
because non-HDL cholesterol can be directly calculated trials28 and meta-analyses have shown a small increase in
from measures of total and HDL-cholesterol, this the risk of developing diabetes with statin therapy,29 the
approach is cost eective and avoids the need for benets of treatment in terms of vascular event reduction
advanced lipid testing. Movement towards non- outweigh this adverse eect in patients both at low and
HDL-cholesterol and away from LDL cholesterol will take high risk for diabetes. Indeed, statin therapy is the
substantial educational eorts but is likely to improve treatment of choice to prevent macrovascular events in
overall patient care.14 those with diabetes.30 Potent statins, now widely
recommended in US and European guidelines, result in
regression of coronary atherosclerosis in some patients.31
A Baseline estimated 5-year risk Although not often discussed, the relative risk
Events (% per annum) RR (95% Cl) per 10 mmol/L reductions observed in statin meta-analyses might be
reduction in LDL cholesterol greater in patients with lower absolute risk than in those
Statins/more Control/less
with higher absolute risk (gure 5).8,9 This is consistent
<5% 167 (038) 254 (056) 062 (047081)
with the biological view that inhibition of LDL
5<10% 604 (110) 847 (157) 069 (060079) Trend test
cholesterol synthesis earlier in the disease process is
10<20% 3614 (296) 4195 (350) 079 (074085) x21=429
20<30% 4108 (474) 4919 (580) 081 (077086) (p=004)
likely to confer more protection than delayed treatment.
30% 2787 (764) 3458 (982) 079 (074084) Indeed, the only statin trials that have not shown clear
Overall 11 280 (327) 13 673 (404) 079 (077081) event reduction were those initiated in the settings of
99% limits 95% limits p<00001 heart failure and end-stage renal failure for which
absolute risk is very high. Moreover, despite the
050 075 10 125 150
overwhelming evidence of ecacy associated with LDL
Favours statin Favours control cholesterol reduction after statin therapy, baseline LDL
cholesterol concentrations are not a particularly eective
B Baseline LDL cholesterol
marker to determine which patients might benet from
Events (% per annum) RR (95% Cl) per 10 mmol/L
reduction in LDL cholesterol treatment. In all major trials, the relative risk reductions
Statins/more Control/less from statin therapy are unrelated to baseline LDL
<2 mmol/L 910 (41) 1012 (46) 078 (061099) cholesterol concentrations (gure 5).8,9 This is an
2<25 mmol/L 1528 (36) 1729 (42) 077 (067089) Trend test important issue in understanding the discrepancy
25<30 mmol/L 1866 (33) 2225 (40) 077 (070085) x21=108 between LDL cholesterol as a biologically essential
30<35 mmol/L 2007 (32) 2454 (40) 076 (070082) (p=03) mediator of atherosclerosis on the one hand, and LDL
35 mmol/L 4508 (30) 5736 (39) 080 (076083)
cholesterol as a relatively modest biomarker of absolute
Overall 10 973 (32) 13 350 (40) 078 (076080)
risk on the other.
99% limits 95% limits
Although a trial-based approach to statin allocation
045 075 10 13 would ensure prescription for patients in whom evidence
Favours statin Favours control
is certain,32 global risk-prediction models that are based on
calculations of absolute risk remain the mainstay for both
Figure 5: Relative risk reductions with statin therapy US and European guidelines for the use of statin therapy.
Reductions are greater for patients at low levels of absolute vascular risk than for those at higher levels. p=004 for
This approach is based on the concept that higher absolute
heterogeneity (A). By contrast, relative risk reductions with statin therapy are not related to baseline levels of
LDL cholesterol; p=03 for heterogeneity (B). RR=relative risk. Adapted from Baigent and colleagues8 and risk usually (but not always) results in higher absolute risk
Mihaylova and colleagues.9 reductions. Thus, at least for patients without heart failure
or renal failure, the number of vascular events avoided that Current European and Canadian guidelines have chosen
were associated with reductions in LDL cholesterol with to maintain LDL targets. A discussion of dierences
statin therapy will be greater in those at sequentially between regional guidelines has recently been presented.38
greater levels of absolute risk (gure 6).9
Unfortunately, no global risk score has been used as an Are the anti-inammatory eects of
entry criterion in any statin trial. Furthermore, allocation lipid-lowering relevant for clinical practice?
approaches that are based on epidemiological modelling Inammation has a fundamental role in all stages of the
invariably lead to recommendations to treat many when atherothrombotic process. Statins, in addition to reducing
trial data do not exist or when absolute risk is driven almost LDL cholesterol, also have anti-inammatory properties.39
entirely by older age, even in the absence of other vascular The ability of statins to reduce hsCRP concentrations
risk factors.10,33 Investigators of the largest, contemporary, represents the clinical expression of these anti-
primary prevention trial addressing statin therapy allocated inammatory eects. In most40 but not all41 statin trials in
treatment to patients with raised concentrations of high- which hsCRP concentrations were systematically assessed
sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), not elevated LDL before and after therapy, participants with the largest
cholesterol concentrations.34 For these reasons, several reductions had the lowest residual risks for recurrent
alternative approaches to statin allocation are being vascular events. In two statin trials that measured
investigated, including the use of individualised prediction atheroma progression by serial intravascular
of treatment eects. Among such emerging methods is ultrasound,42,43 progression was reduced in those with both
the individualised number needed-to-treat (iNNT) that lowered hsCRP and LDL cholesterol. The primary
seeks to balance the known benets of therapy with prevention JUPITER trial showed that statin therapy
potential weighted risks for individuals rather than reduced myocardial infarction, stroke, and all-cause
populations.35 At the other end of the range is the approach mortality in patients with elevated hsCRP concentrations
of treating all individuals who are older than a xed age who would not otherwise qualify for treatment because of
threshold, such as those older than 55 years.36 Thoughtful their already-low concentrations of LDL cholesterol.34 As
outcomes research is needed to address these approaches in the secondary prevention trials, primary prevention
because they lead to markedly dierent numbers of participants in JUPITER who achieved lower on-
individuals recommended for therapy. treatment hsCRP concentrations had better clinical
outcomes than those who did not reduce hsCRP. Imaging
Are the LDL-cholesterol targets achieved after studies further show that intensive statin therapy reduces
statin therapy relevant for clinical practice? atherosclerotic inammation.44 By contrast, not all statin
Until quite recently, physicians in the USA were strongly trials have shown that on-treatment hsCRP strongly
recommended to treat-to-targets with regard to LDL
cholesterol reduction, an approach that remains the
mainstay for most other nations. This recommendation
was made on the basis of post-hoc analyses suggesting
160
greater event reductions in those with LDL cholesterol 142
predicts residual risk41 and CRP itself is a biomarker of although subgroup analyses suggest ecacy in those
systemic inammation, not a causal agent. Furthermore, with elevated triglycerides and reduced HDLCa
although raised remnant cholesterol concentrations seem hypothesis that requires direct testing. The VA-HIT53
to be related to both low-grade inammation and vascular study of gembrozil did show a reduction in vascular
events, marked increases in LDL cholesterol seem to be events but this eect was not clearly related to LDL
associated with vascular events without the need for overt reduction. Furthermore, gembrozil increases the risk
inammation.45,46 of side-eects with statin therapy, and is generally not
Although current US and Canadian guidelines endorse recommended in combination with statins. With
the use of hsCRP screening in situations in which risk regards to omega-3 fatty acid supplements,
assessment is uncertain, the clinical usefulness of contemporary trial data are highly con icting.54 57
inammation assessment after initiation of statin Finally, the ENHANCE trial of ezetimibe did not show
therapy remains controversial. So far, the only evidence- a reduction in the surrogate endpoint of carotid intimal
based response to persistently elevated hsCRP despite medial thickness despite a reduction in LDL
statin therapy would be to increase the dose of the cholesterol,58 and there is little evidence so far to
current statin, or to select a more potent one. suggest that this agent improves outcomes compared
with statins alone. The ongoing IMPROVE-IT59 trial is
Should non-statin approaches continue to be nearing completion and will provide important data in
used for LDL reduction? this regard. In the SHARP60 trial of individuals with
In view of the robust trial evidence showing safety and chronic renal failure, the combination of statin and
event reduction, statin therapy is appropriately ezetimibe reduced event rates, but ezetimibe alone was
emphasised in current US and European guidelines as not investigated. Thus, use of these non-statin agents
the main treatment to reduce LDL cholesterol. Statins, in most general practice settings should be restricted.
however, should be an adjunct rather than a substitute for
strong dietary and lifestyle interventions, which on their What pharmacological strategies for LDL
own can substantially reduce cholesterol in compliant reduction beyond statins are emerging?
individuals. Nonetheless, not all patients can tolerate Although statins are highly eective for reducing
statins, and statins are contraindicated in pregnancy. vascular events, not all LDL-lowering agents benecially
Physicians might also wish to add a second, non-statin, reduce rates of myocardial infarction, stroke, and
lipid-lowering agent to further reduce LDL when treating vascular death. Examples of agents that reduce LDL
patients with familial hyperlipidaemias. cholesterol but in clinical trials did not reduce vascular
In the pre-statin era, surgical approaches to hyper- event rates include post-menopausal hormone-replace-
lipidaemia such as partial ileal bypass were shown to lower ment therapy (HRT) and the CETP inhibitors torcetrapib
LDL cholesterol. More recently, gastric bypass surgery has and dalcetrapib.61,62 Whether the success of statins and the
proven eective at reducing vascular event rates in obese failure of HRT and the two CETP inhibitors in reduction
patients, although this benet is more closely linked to of vascular events is because statins have additional anti-
improved glucose control than lipid changes.47,48 inammatory properties, but the other agents do not, is
Approved non-statin agents for LDL reduction hypothetical. Dierent agents within the same class
include bile acid-binding resins (colestipol, might have dierential clinical benets; with regard to
cholestyramine, and colesevelam), which have the CETP inhibition, two other agents, anacetrapib and
advantage of not being absorbed systemically and thus evacetrapib (which both lower LDL cholesterol and raise
can be used in pregnancy; brates (fenobrate, HDL-cholesterol) are in phase 3 assessment and other
bezabrate, and gembrozil) which mainly decrease CETP inhibitors are in earlier stages of development.63
triglycerides and increase HDL cholesterol; niacin The mechanism by which LDL cholesterol is lowered
which slightly decreases LDL cholesterol and could matter for event reduction, therefore each new
triglycerides while increasing HDL cholesterol; LDL-cholesterol lowering agent should be assessed in
the cholesterol-absorption inhibitor ezetimibe; outcome trials.
and omega-3 fatty acid supplements. Although these Several new approaches to LDL reduction are under
agents can clearly improve lipid pro les in many aggressive clinical investigation, and two new agents were
patients, contemporary event reduction trials have approved in 2013 as orphan drugs by the US Food and
shown little evidence to support their use either as Drug Administration to treat patients with homozygous
monotherapy or as an adjunct to statins in the general familial hypercholesterolaemia, a rare autosomal
population. As prominent examples, neither the dominant condition that typically results from an
AIM-HIGH49 nor HPS-2-THRIVE50 trials showed inheritance from both parents of mutations in the LDL
ecacy for niacin in reduction of vascular event rates, receptor. These new drugs are important clinical advances
yet both trials showed hazards for gastrointestinal because individuals with homozygous familial
events and infection. Similarly, in the FIELD51 and hypercholesterolaemia (estimated prevalence rate one
ACCORD52 trials fenobrate did not show ecacy, case per 500 000 people to one case per 1 million) will
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Lipoprotein particle proles by nuclear magnetic resonance 43 Puri R, Nissen SE, Libby P, et al. C-reactive protein, but not
compared with standard lipids and apolipoproteins in predicting low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, associate with coronary
incident cardiovascular disease in women. Circulation 2009; atheroma regression and cardiovascular events after maximally
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