Ventilation Lab #2

Airflow Quantity Measurements

January 27 & 29, 1999

Purpose

The purpose of this lab is to familiarize the students with the UMR Experimental Mine ventilation
facilities, to select stations for ventilation readings, to measure the cross-sectional area of the se-
lected stations, and to measure the distance between the selected stations. The second portion of
the lab is to familiarize the students with the common velocity measuring instruments, to utilize
these instruments in making an airflow survey and to determine airflow directions at measuring
stations throughout the Experimental Mine.

This lab is an introduction to the Experimental Mine's ventilation system and to gather prelimi-
nary data for future labs.

Procedure

1) Meet at mine classroom to discuss the lab.

2) Review the instruments to be used.
3) Tour the mine, noting the location of stoppings and shafts.
4) Select the stations.
5) Measure station cross-sections and separation distances.
6) Take velocity measurements at the ventilation stations.
7) Determine airflow through room-and-pillar area of the mine.

Laboratory Instructions

Locate ventilation stations away from intersections, areas of non-uniform cross-section and any
sudden changes in cross-section. These items tend to cause turbulent airflow which will reduce the
accuracy of readings.

It is also important that permanent ventilation stations be used. This will save time and give
continuity to the readings for the later laboratories.

The cross-sectional area of the drift will be calculated by measuring the height and the width at
three points and averaging the values. The points selected for measurement should be representa-
tive of the drift at that location.

Measuring stations will be marked with a 'V' on the wall of the drift with consecutive numbers
(for example, station 1 is V-1, station 2 is V-2 and so on). The distance between stations will be
measured from V-1 to V-2 to V-3 etc. The measurements will be made along the centerline of the
drift.
Min-218 Lab #2
Air Quantity Measurement

Vane anemometers, smoke tubes and a Kurtz hot wire anemometer will be used to make veloc-
ity measurements at the previously designated ventilation stations. The majority of the measure-
ments will be made with the vane anemometer utilizing a traverse method. At appropriate locations,
the hot wire anemometer and smoke tube will be used.

Instrument Used

Vane Anemometer: all stations

Hot Wire Anemometer: (demonstration only)
Smoke Tube: (demonstration only)

Report

The report will contain a map of the mine with stations, regulators and shafts clearly marked. A
table of results should be similar to:

Station # Sep. Distance Ave. Height Ave. Width Area

1 0.00 0.00 0.00
1-2 0.00
2 0.00 0.00 0.00
... ... ... ... ...

The report will also consist of calculations of air velocities and quantities at all measuring sta-
tions. A comparison should be made between the various measuring instruments where applica-
ble. Leakage through stoppings should also be estimated from the data where applicable.

The map should also include details of the airflow direction in the mine. Differences between
areas of high velocity and low velocity should be clearly marked. Furthermore, a clear indication of
the direction of leakage through all stoppings should be included.

All other data and results should be tabulated in a neat and concise format.

Information

Using the data from this lab the quantity of air movement at each station can be found.

Quantity = Velocity x Area

Q = VA

Stoppings (or anything used to direct air movement) can be made of various materials. In the
Experimental Mine, plastic, brattice cloth, and Kennedy stoppings are used. In other mines con-
crete blocks, wood, and/or metals have been used depending on the situation: cost, amount of ac-
tivity in the area, ventilation requirements, and others.

Air velocities are classified into three ranges: (1) low air velocity [less than 100 fpm], (2)
medium air velocity [between 100-750 fpm], and high air velocity [greater than 750 fpm]. Three
instruments are used in this lab to cover all three of these ranges.

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Air Quantity Measurement

1. Vane Anemometer (medium-high) is one of the most commonly used instruments. It has
good accuracy when used correctly.

2. Hot-wire Anemometer (low-high) is highly accurate and easy to use, but is more expensive
and requires more care.

3. Smoke Tube (low) is simple and easy to use but it is not very accurate. Mostly used to tell
general information about the air movement in an area. However, at rates of less than 50-
25 fpm it becomes a more important tool in measuring velocity.

These instruments are used in one of three ways:

1. Point Method is where the opening is divided into equal sections (such as 9 or 16), and
an instrument is placed in the center of each section for a measured time period or until the
instrument stabilizes. Then the readings are read directly (ft/min. or ft/s) and averaged or
the distance recorded (ft) on the instrument is divided by the time (sec) and then averaged.
The type of instrument used determines the calculations needed.

2. Continuous Traverse Method is most often associated with a vane anemometer. In

this method the instrument is moved across the entire opening in an up and down continu-
ous traverse. This traverse is timed, and by dividing the distance recorded (ft) by the time
(s) the velocity is found.

3. Smoke Tube Method in this method a puff of smoke is released at one point and is
timed until it reaches another point. The smoke should be released where the velocity is the
highest in the opening (this is usually the center). With a time (s) and distance (ft) a velocity
can be figured. This velocity is for the highest rate of air movement in the opening. To
compensate for varying velocities across the opening the velocity found is multiplied by
0 . 8 . This new velocity is an approximate velocity and for more precise measurements an-
other method should be used, but for rough ideas of air movement it is simple and quick.

Notes

1. Give lengths in feet (5.55') not in inches when conducting calculations.

2. Use best judgment in measuring the opening. Do not measure the opening right next to the
back (roof) or floor. Break the opening into equal parts. Note which reading is which, the
right, center, left, top or bottom.

3. For table of results, use the example provided but sum the separation distances as you proceed.

Example

Station # Distance Cumulative Distance

1
2 21' 21'
3 44' 65'
4 29' 94'

4. When using a vane anemometer in a continuous traverse, use the extension rod. Make sure ev-
eryone else is down wind. The traverse should consist of about three downward passes and

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Min-218 Lab #2
Air Quantity Measurement

two upward passes for one minute. Speed of traversing depends on the velocity measured and
specific situations at measuring site. At least two passes should be made starting on opposite
sides of the opening.

5. With the point method, again make sure everyone is down wind. Divide the opening into nine
areas to take readings.

6. When using a smoke tube do not let anyone move for a short time before taking the reading, to
help cut down on turbulence. Release the puff of smoke perpendicular to the drift to prevent
any added velocity to the smoke. The time is counted from when the smoke is released until the
main body of smoke, reaches the second point.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON ACCURATE AIRFLOW MEASUREMENTS

1 . General

To ensure an effective, efficient, and economical mine ventilation system, reliable data must be
obtained on the various properties of mine air. Such data then form the basis for analysis, evalua-
tion, planning and subsequent recommendations for improvements or changes that may be re-
quired.

The most important properties of mine ventilation are air velocity and ventilation pressure.
When these properties are known at various strategic points in the mine, the overall quantity con-
trol problem can be resolved by utilizing analytical and/or numerical methods of fluid.

The accuracy of the air quantity measurement underground depends on many factors. The three
most important factors are accurate velocity and cross-sectional area measurements. Air quantities
are determined by cross-sectional area the air is passing through and the air velocity. Accurate and
representative areas can be obtained through diligent and careful practices using measuring tapes.
Air velocities are determined using anemometers, which are then used to determine air quantity.
Altimeters and barometers are used for pressure measurements.

2 . Air Quantity Measurements

Airflow quantity is calculated through the product of the average air velocity and the cross-sectional
area of the air passage. Typically, the mine ventilation engineer has obtained the average air veloc-
ity with a time integrating vane anemometer and a stopwatch. These are employed over a continu-
ous traverse method which includes a continuous sweep either horizontally or vertically (Figure 1).

Air velocity is measured using a vane anemometer. It utilizes the kinetic energy of an airstream
to drive its windmill like impeller. The rotation of the impeller blade is proportional to the air ve-
locity and translation of the impeller rotation speed will give a measure of the air velocity. They are
rugged, affordable, easy to use, and give fairly accurate and reliable results if precautions are taken
while making measurements.1 During the last two decades there have been various stages of de-

1 With suitable precautions, a vane anemometer can give repeat measurements with a precision of 2.5 percent
according to several studies.

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Min-218 Lab #2
Air Quantity Measurement

velopment each introducing the latest technology of the time up to the present day with the inclu-
sion of micro-electronics and processors.

Historically, this has been facilitated by a mechanical analog instrument that has either a counter
or set of dials that display the flow. Common instruments of this type are Davis', or Taylor's
Biram type anemometer, or Airflow Development's model AM5000. Both Taylor and Davis are
widely used in U.S. mining industry but unfortunately, Taylor is no longer available. Just like its
counterpart in U.S., AM5000, which is widely used in the Canadian mining industry, is also no
longer available.

End Start

Start End

Figure 1 Methods of measuring velocity in mine airways

Over the last two decades there have been numerous advances in the development of electronic
air velocity meters as well. Currently available units have the following features: (1) battery opera-
tion; (2) are compact and can be hand-held; (3) employ LCD's, and microelectronic circuitry; and
(4) provide a time integration for the duration of a traverse. These features make such instruments a
possible replacement to the analog units and stopwatch determinations.

3 . Making Accurate Air Velocity Measurement

Depending on the velocities measured, different types of anemometers are used. For measuring
velocities from 100 to 2,000 fpm, ordinary medium-velocity vane anemometers are usually the
most commonly used. To determine air velocities below 100 fpm, either a low-speed anemometer
or smoke tube can be used. For high air velocities, special high-speed anemometers (usually
equipped with half as many vanes as the standard type to avoid bearing cracking) or pitot tubes can
be used. We will be emphasizing the anemometers since most air velocities underground fall be-
tween 100 to 2,000 fpm range. Please refer to Attachment II for further information on anemome-
ter application.

Low Velocity Measurement

Either low velocity anemometers or smoke tubes can be used for measuring low velocities. For
smoke method, the three items of equipment needed are a smoke tube, a watch, and a tape. The
sequence is as follows:

Pick the best smooth-walled, straight, and unobstructed section of airway available
away from bends upstream.
Measure off and mark a distance for the smoke cloud to travel.

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The distance varies depending on how well the smoke cloud hangs together. 20' is usually
adequate for fairly rapidly moving air while 10' might be maximum for very slow moving air.
One person holds the watch at the downstream end of the measured distance and the second
person holds the smoke tube at the upstream end. At the moment the smoke is released, the
timing is started. Travel time is measured when the leading edge of the smoke cloud passes the
downstream mark. Smoke visibility is improved if the upstream person, only, shines a light on
the smoke cloud.

Smoke cloud release points are generally spotted top, middle, and bottom for each of the
left, center, and right sides of the drift. More readings are made if better accuracy is desired.
The area of the drift is then measured, usually with three vertical measurements and three hori-
zontal measurements (right, center, and left; and top, middle, and bottom). Again, for better
accuracy, more measurements may be taken. The intent is to get the best figure for the velocity
of the smoke cloud from an average and the best figure for the area that the smoke cloud travels
in. Of the two types of measurements made, it has been found that the area is the more difficult
to determine accurately.

Example 1: The smoke tube method is used to determine the air quantities in an airway. The
data is as follows:
Air traveling distance: 20'
Travel time in minutes: 0.15, 0.14, 0.14, 0.14, 0.13, 0.16, 0.14, 0.15, 0.13.
Beginning area: height - 7.1', 8.1', 7.3'
width - 6.1', 7.0', 7.9'
Ending area: height - 7.5', 8.6', 8.1'
width - 6.1, 7.0', 7.9'

Solution :

0.15+0.14+0.14+0.14+0.13+0.16+0.14+0.15+0.13
Average travel = 9
= 0.142 minute
Velocity = 20' 0.142 = 141 fpm
Beginning area = ave. height x ave. width = 7.5' x 7.07' = 53.02 ft2
Ending area = ave. height x ave. width = 8.07' x 7.00' = 56.49 ft2
Average area = (56.49 + 53.02)/2 = 54.76 ft 2
Q = AV = 54.76 x 141 = 7,721 cfm 7,720 cfm

Medium Velocity Measurement

Anemometers are usually used for medium velocity measurement. Alternate equipment may be
a swinging vane velometer, a vortex anemometer, or (rarely) a hot wire or hot film anemome-
ter. The procedure is as follows:

Select the best smooth-walled, straight, and unobstructed section of airway available
away from upstream.
With the anemometer attached to an extension bar (or a wand), make a one-minute zig
zag slow moving traverse across the airway from top to bottom, moving clear across
from one side to another.
Make a least two velocity measurements that should agree with each other within less
than 5% total difference.

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Min-218 Lab #2
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Make area measurements (Please see Sources of Error When Using Anemometer later
in this chapter for further details).

The intent of the anemometer traverse is to get the average velocity of the air moving
through that place in the airway. This requires a movement of the anemometer to cover the
section completely in the time selected and to cover an equal area in an equal time. This
means keeping the same steady rate of travel and ending up exactly on time at the starting
point.

High-velocity Measurement

Pitot tube is used in measuring high velocity and will be covered in future lab.

3 . Airway Area Measurements

The most common method of determining the cross-sectional area of the air passage is through
horizontal and vertical taped linear measurements. These may be reduced into average dimensions
or parameters of regular shapes to produce an area. Alternatively the dimensions could be used to
draw a plan of the section and the area determined through planimetry, weighing, or surveying
computer software.

There is a total of eight different ways recommended to measure an airway area2, with the ver-
tical and horizontal tape measurement being the simplest and the most prevalent method under-
ground. The airway is assumed to be of rectangular cross section and the area equals height times
width. Several heights and widths (usually three: for heights, one at either side of the rib with the
third one in the middle of the airway; for width, one near the roof, one in the middle, with the third
reading taken close to the floor) are measured and averaged to come up with the representative
area.

2 The eight recommended methods are: 1) Vertical and horizontal taping; 2) Vertical and horizontal offsets; 3)
Simpson's rule; 4) Diagonal offset; 5) Spiked protractor; 6) Profilograph; 7) Full circle protractor; and 8)
Photographic.

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Elementary Statistics

1 . Introduction

We live in an age in which we are deluged by facts and figures, or "statistics," on almost every
subject imaginable. Quantitative facts such as those indicated will form the basis of our study, but
we are about to study more than just sets of data ==> inferential statistics: to use the data to make
intelligent, rigorous statements (inferences) about a much larger phenomenon from which the data
were selected. Ventilation data collection in the field certainly falls under this category. An
understanding of some the basic statistical concepts will provide us with a tool that offers more
accurate treatment of field data.

Any problem in statistics has as its starting point a population of interest.

1) population is the total set of measurements of interest in a particular problem.

The population measurements are unknown at the outset, and in many cases they can-
not be completely determined. We cannot, for example, test all of factory A's components
to get a complete list of lifelengths, for this would be too time-consuming and too expen-
sive. We have to obtain a representative set of measurements from the population by per-
forming an experiment. The set of measurements yielded by an experiment is called the
sample.

2) A sample is a subset of the population that contains measurements obtained by an experi-

ment. The objective is to use these sample data for purposes of making inferences about the
population from which the sample was obtained.
Questions as to the appropriate number and type of sample observations are important
in any statistical investigation. A civil engineer wants to estimate the traffic intensity on a
particular road. He might measure traffic flow by a mechanical device, such as the cables
commonly seen stretched across a roadway. For how many days should he record the data
to obtain a reliable estimate'? A mechanical engineer wants to test the strength of a certain
material. The test is destructive and the material is expensive. Thus he wants to test as few
specimens as possible. When can he stop testing and still make a reliable decision'? An
environmental engineer wants to estimate the bacterial count in a lake. She will take
samples from the lake and use a special culture to count the bacteria in the sample. How
many samples does she need, and what should be the volume of water in each one'?

3) Deterministic Model
To develop formally the methodology for inference making, we must start with a model
for the phenomenon under study. A model may be thought of as a theoretical, and usually
oversimplified, explanation of a complex system. In the sciences these models usually take
the form of mathematical equation, such as the equations for heat transfer in physics or the
equations for various chemical reactions.
The models most familiar in the physical sciences and engineering are called
deterministic models, which have the distinguishing feature that specific outcomes of
experiments can be accurately predicted.

2 . Fundamental Statistical Techniques

1) Frequency Distribution Histogram

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Min-218 Lab #2
Air Quantity Measurement

In order to estimate an estimate of a true result, a number of measurements must be

made. Although the same thing is measured each time, there will be variations between the
values obtained by successive measurements called experimental error and always arises
when measurements are made. (It does not mean that a mistake has been made in taking the
readings. The variation could be due to a number of factors beyond the observer's control
such as variation in the instruments, variation in the quantity being measured, etc.) ==>
summarize to obtain useful information.

Example 1 Classroom temperature estimation (histogram, frequency distribution, etc.)

Example 2 Suppose twenty people were asked for their estimates of the correct time.
These were the results obtained:

10:21 10:19 10:24 10:18 10:19 10:23 10:20

10:22 10:20 10:21 10:20 10:19 10:21 10:22
10:17 10:20 10:21 10:20 10:23 10:19

Value Frequency Cumulative Frequency

10.17 ~ 10.18 2 2
10.19 ~ 10.20 9 11
10.21 ~ 10.22 6 17
10.23 ~ 10.24 3 20

a) The boundaries of the histogram are midway between the class boundaries,
1 1
e.g., the rectangle representing 9 has boundaries 10:182 and 10:202;
b) for the polygon, the frequencies are plotted at the mid-points of the class
intervals.

Histograms can be extremely instructive. They (1) show the range of values that can be
expected (cumulative and otherwise); (2) can detect extreme values, possibly erroneous
values; (3) the values that is occurring most often can be visually determined; (4) can also
help to detect mixtures of geologic environments.

Histogram diagram handout

2) Normal Distribution
This is bell-shaped as shown below. It has a peak in the middle and tails off equally on
both sides. The central value is the mean of the set of results. If the experimental variation
is large, the results will be spread over a wide range; if the variation is small, the curve will
have a narrow peak.

Normal Distribution
Frequency

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Min-218 Lab #2
Air Quantity Measurement

3) Log-normal Distribution
One pattern that occurs in almost dust measurements is the long-normal distribution curve.
It has a long tail on the right and the peak is not at the center.

Log-Normal Distribution

Frequency

Normal and lognormal distributions are two types commonly encountered in mineral
deposit sampling. Usually, normal distribution will indicate that normal statistical pa-
rameters may be calculated for the data set. The mean (average) variance and standard
deviation calculated for the sample data should provide a reasonable approximation of
these parameters for the deposit. Lognormal distribution requires log parameters, geo-
metric mean, and standard deviation. Various other types of distribution are also pre-
sent. Handout mineral deposit distribution

100 100
Number of Samples

Number of Samples

50 50

0 0
0 1.0 1.5 0 20 40
(a) Grade % Cu (b) Grade % P2O5

100 100
Number of Samples
Number of Samples

50 50

0 0
0 0.5 1.0 0 10 20
(c) Grade % Mo (d) Grade % O2 /T Ag

(a) normal distribution, moderate variability, typical of some stratiform and massive
sulfide deposits. (b) Normal distribution, low variability, found in certain industrial
mineral, Fe, and Mn deposits. (c) Lognormal distribution, common in many Mo, Sn, W,
and precious metal deposits. (d) Bimodal distribution which may be produced by
sampling two distinct ore types, or sampling across a zonation boundary in the
mineralization.

In many type of deposits, the fact that sample data are not random is not of serious con-
cern. The results may still be utilized while keeping in mind the bias introduced by the
lack of statistical independence among the samples.

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Min-218 Lab #2
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4) Best Estimate of the Correct Value Mean

Classical statistical analysis is based on two assumptions: (1) the samples are random
and that (2) the data have a normal distribution. The best estimate of a correct for a set of
data is the mean (X).

sum of all observations

Mean = Total number of observations taken

n
x = 1n xi = 1n (x1 + x2 + x3 + . . .x n )
i=1

But this is just a point estimate of the true mean (m) for the entire population, some
measure of how close the point estimate is likely to be to the true value is required. One
way to report is to report both the estimate and its standard deviation (standard error).

5) Dispersion Standard Deviation (s) and variance (s)

Once the correct value has been estimated, the extent of the scatter around this value
must be estimated. A result will obviously be more reliable when the scatter is small than
when it is large. Of course, the amount of scatter often depends on the magnitude of the
result. For a normal and log-normal distribution (or transforming the data by taking logs to
make it normal), the measure of the scatter may be given by the standard deviation, s, using
the following formula (for small number of observations; n < 20):

n n

n - 1 i n - 1 i
= 1 [ (xi - x)2 ] = 1 [ xi 2 - nx2 ]
=1 =1

Variance, = s 2

In other words, the standard deviation can be thought of as the size of a "typical"
deviation between an observed outcome and the expected value.

Example 3 Find the standard deviation of the following wet kata readings:

6.1 6.2 5.9 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.2

Mean, x = 6.16
x2 = 379.62
nx2 = 379.456
x2 nx2 = 0.164
x2 nx 2
n 1 = 0.0182

=

x2 nx 2
n 1 = 0.13

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Min-218 Lab #2
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The following formula is used to calculate standard deviation for cases there are large
number of results:
n

n -1 i
= 1 [ x2i fi - nx2 ]
=1

where xi is the mid-point of a small range, and i is the frequency of observations in

that range.

6) Limits for observation data

For a normally-distributed entire population, it is known that 66% of the readings will
be within 1standard deviation of the mean; 95% will be within 2 standard
deviations, and 99% will be within 3 standard deviations.
This fact is used to put control limits on a set of results. For example, if 95% limits are
required, it is known that 95 in 100 results will fall within these limits and 5 will fall
outside. If more than 5 consistently fall outside, then these results are "out of control"
and there have been changes in the experimental set-up, other than accounted for by
experimental variation.
For example, suppose a set of wet-bulb temperatures were taken in an airway. The
mean and standard deviation of these results were calculated and the results were
plotted on a graph as follows:
Temperature

x x x x Upper limit
x x
x
x x x
x x Mean
x x xx
x x x
x x x Lower limit

Time

Once the limits have been established, 95% of the points should fall within them. If the
graph looks like this:

x
x x
x
Temperature

x x x Upper limit
x x
x x x Mean
x
x x x x
Lower limit
x x
x x
x

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Min-218 Lab #2
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then the temperature are higher than would be expected from normal experimental
variation and the possible causes for this should be investigated.

7) Confidence intervals (CI)

After knowing something about the mean (X) and variance (S) of as an estimator of
q, it would be nice to know something about how small the distance between and q is
likely to be. If is an estimator of q (which has a known sampling distribution), and one
can find two quantities that depend on, say g1 () and g2 (), such that

P [ g1 () q g2 ()] = 1 a

for some small positive number a, then we can say that (g1 () and g2 ()) forms an interval
that has a probability 1 a of catpuring the true q. This interval is referred to as a
confidence interval with confidence coefficient (1 a),

The quantity g1 () is called the lower confidence limit (LCL)

The quantity g2 () is called the upper confidence limit (UCL)

for some small positive number a, then we can say that (g1 () and g2 ()) forms an interval
that has a probability 1 a of catpuring the true q. This interval is referred to as a
confidence interval with confidence coefficient (1 a),

8) Limits to a mean value standard error (s)

For estimating a mean m for a population with variance s2 , we select random sample X1 ,
X2 , . . . X n from this population and compute X as a point estimator of m. If n is large (n
30), then X has approximately a normal distribution with mean m and variance s2 /n.
Formally,

X
Z=
/ n
where Z is a variable which has a standard normal distribution, approximately. For any
prescribed a we can find from Table a value Za/2 such that

P[z2/a Z + z2/a] = 1 a

Example 4 Data for 50 battery lifelength observations show that x = 2.266 and s = 1.935.
Using the confidence interval

x Z/2
n

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Air Quantity Measurement

with (1 a) = 0.95, we see that ZZa/2 = Z0.025 = 1.96 (Table), this interval yields,

1.935
2.266 1.96 , 2.266 0.536
50

or (1.730, 2.802)

Thus we are 95% confident (similarly formed intervals will contain m about 95% of
the time in repeated sampling) that the true mean lies between 1.730 and 2.802.

The term, (s/

n), is called standard error where n is the number of readings taken. The
constant 1.96 is usually rounded off to 2. From this we can state that:

interval m 2s/
n contains about 95% of the X that could be generated random
samplings from the population.

Thus in 95 cases out of 100, the true mean will lie within

s
2
n

s s
of the estimate. Same can be used to estimate 3 for 99% and for 66% CI.
n
n

Example 5 Lab results (concentration of Pb) for a piece of lead reserve is as follows,

11.2 12.4 11.6 12.8 12.3 10.8 10.3 10.6 (n = 8)

Mean, x = nX = 11.5

Variance, S = (X X)2

S = (0.09 + 0.81 + 0.01 + 1.69 + 0.64 + 0.49 + 1.44 + 0.81)/7

= 5.978

The smallest value of S can assume is 0, and that would occur if all the proba-
bility was at a single point (X takes on a constant value with probability of 1).

Standard deviation, =

S = 2.445

The standard deviatiin can be thought of as the size of a "typical" deviation

between an observed outcome and the expected value.

Standard error = =
2.445
= 0.864
n
8
The 95% confidence interval that the concentration will fall within the range of:

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11.5 2 (standard error) or

11.5 2 (0.864) < Pb concentration < 11.5 + 2 (0.864)

9.771% < Pb concentration < 13.229%

9) Student Distribution (t-Distribution)

If the samples we are dealing with are not large enough to ensure as approximately
normal sampling distribution for X, same procedure is applied by still assuming normal
distribution and arriving the same interval but using different constant t-distribution,

X
T=
S/ n

Since E(X) = , the sampling distribution of T should center at zero. Standard deviation (s)
is replaced by s (random variable), the sampling distribution of T should show more
variability than Z with (n 1) degrees of freedom.

Example 6 Prestressing wire for wrapping concrete pipe is manufactured in large rolls. A
quality-control inspection required 5 specimens from a roll to be tested for ultimate
tensile strength (UTS). The UTS measurements (1,000 psi) turned out to be 253, 261,
258, 255, 256. Use these data to construct a 95% CI estimate of the true mean UTS for
the sampled roll.

Is it assumed that if many wire specimens were tested, the relative frequency
distribution of UTS measurements would be nearly normal. A CI based on the t
distribution can then be employed. With 1 a = 0.95 and n 1 = 4 DF, t 0.025 =
2.776. From the observed data,

x = 256.60 and s = 3.05

Thus x t/2 s
n
3.05
becomes 256.60 (2.776) or 256.60 3.79
5

We are 95% confident that the interval 252.81 to 260.39 includes the true mean
UTS for the roll.

Example 7 (text, p. 476), 35 holes are drilled yielding a mean of 11.5% Pb, and the
sampling s = 5.90; t-distribution for n = 35 (34 DF) at a 90% confidence interval is
1.691; the precision (one-half the range, r, of the confidence interval, is

r t s (1.691)(5.90)
2 = n = = 1.69 (%)

35

confidence interval for the mean is

11.5% 1.69% Pb (or 11.5 15%)

15
Min-218 Lab #2
Air Quantity Measurement

If enough holes have to drilled to provide for a max 10% variation (1.15% Pb
rather than 1.69% Pb) in the estimated grade at the 90% confidence level,

t s 2 (1.691)(5.90) 2
n = [ r/2 ] = [ ] = 75.3
1.15

The appropriate values of t for the desired confidence level may be found in any
handbook of statistical tables. At the 95% confidence level and greater than 50 samples,
the value for t is approximately 2.0. Thus, if a particular set of 60 samples has a mean
of 8.5% Pb with s = 1.2, then the confidence interval for the mean would be:

1.2 x 2
CI = 8.5 = 8.5 0.31
60

CI = 8.19 < 8.5 < 8.81

There is only one chance in 20 (5% probability) that the true grade lies outside the
range of 8.19% to 8.81% Pb. The formula can be rearranged to approximate the num-
ber of samples needed to reach a required precision for the estimate of the mean (p.
476),

N= ((2)(s)
CI/2 )
2

For example, USBM requires that the grade determination should be within 20% of the
estimated value in order to be qualified as proven ore. If the calculation of a set of
sample data indicates an average grade of 1.0% Cu, then to be considered as proven,
the grade must be between the confidence limits of 0.8% and 1.20% Cu. If s = 1.5,
then,
N= ( 0.4/2 )
(2)(1.5) 2
= 225

If the preliminary sample consisted of 60 assays and produced a s of 1.5, then

approximately 225 samples will be required before the grade of the deposit may be
considered as meeting proven ore standards ==> Fig 2 offers a quick way for rapid
approximations at 95% confidence interval.

16