Engineering method for high-voltage substations
lightning performance estimation
Prof. M.S. SaviC
Indexing terms: Lightning and lightning protection, Cables and overhead lines
Abstract: A computer method for estimating the
lightning performance of high-voltage substations
has been developed and modified for simple engin-
eering applications in the substation design. The
main substation element representation and the
equivalent circuit choice are suggested. The
method is illustrated by the example of a 110 kV
substation with a cable entrance. Both shielding
failures and lightning strikes to the towers or the
earth wires, causing back-flashovers on the in-
coming overhead lines, have been analysed and
the best variant of the overvoltage protection sug-
gested.
1 Introduction
In the design of high-voltage substations one of the ver
important tasks is to perform insulation coordination by
the correct selection and location of the surge arresters.
Recently two kinds of methodologies for insulation
coordination have been recognised. In the case of an
untypical high-voltage substation layout a com-
prehensive study for estimating the expected number of
failures due to over-voltage occurrence has been per-
formed. On the other hand, in the case of a typical sub-
station the simplified methods for overvoltage protection
design have been applied.
In this paper a general methodology for high-voltage
substation lightning performance estimation, convenient
for engineering applications, will be described. The
method is illustrated by the example of the 110 kV sub-
station of the power plant Nikola Tesla in Yugoslavia.
The method is based on the travelling-wave technique.
Wave distortion due to the corona losses is taken into
account [1). Frequency-dependent line parameters can
be involved in the computation procedure [2]. The prob-
ability method of limiting parameters described in Ref-
erences 3 and 4 is used for estimating the risk of insulation
failure at a certain place in the substation. This method is
based on computation of the critical value of the light-
ning current amplitude which, if applied at a certain
point in front of the substation, causes greater overvol-
tage than the basic insulation level (BIL) at the inspected
part of the insulation in the substation. The computation
is repeated for various lightning current gradients to
obtain the relation between the current gradient and the
critical current magnitude causing insulation failure. It is
Paper 6725C (P7, Pll), received 16th January 1989
Prof. Savic is with the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of
Belgrade, Bulevar Revolucije 73, PO Box 816, 1101 Belgrade, Yugo-
slavia
222
presumed that every overvoltage exceeding the BIL
causes an insulation failure.
2 Computation methodology
2.1 Equivalent circuit choice
One of the most important tasks in the lightning per-
formance of a high-voltage substation estimation is the
correct choice of the substation element representation
and the selection of an equivalent circuit.
(a) Usually the monophase representation of all con-
ductors by positive sequence surge impedance can be
satisfactory for a short-distance propagation process. The
ground return frequency-dependent parameters cause a
decay of the wave crest of a few percent. This effect can
be neglected for the sake of simplicity and safety. The
mutual influence of the phase conductor and the earth
wire can be modelled by a coupling factor C , in the fol-
lowing way :
where U , is the earth wire surge voltage and Up,, is the
surge voltage of the phase conductor. Factor C, can be
taken from the range 0.2-0.3.
(b) A power transformer can be represented as an
equivalent surge capacitance given by the manufacturers.
Some authors use a surge impedance 2, = of the
transformer in parallel with the surge capacitance. This
surge impedance can cause a decrease in the crest voltage
at the transformer terminal of less than 3%, and usually
it can be neglected.
(c) Current transformers, voltage transformers, circuit
breakers, disconnectors and even insulator strings can be
represented by equivalent capacitances. In that case
equivalent circuit would become very complex and the
results would become optimistic. Owing to this it has
been decided to neglect all capacitances except power
transformer surge capacitance.
(d) In the case of a strike to the earth wire causing
back-flash it is sufficient to investigate strikes to the first
two spans in front of the substation. Strikes to the other
spans causing back-flashovers are not dangerous for the
substation insulation, owing to the wave distortion along
the line.
(e) Every tower can be modelled as a short line with a
constant surge impedance dependent on the tower
geometry, as described in Reference 5.
(f)The number of back flashes is strongly dependent
on the value of the tower impulse-footing resistance. This
parameter is a function of the lightning current magni-
tude and waveshape owing to ionisation effects, change
of moisture content in the soil during the lightning dis-
charge, and the presence of the propagation process in
the case of the long buried conductors. For a simplified
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. C , No. 4, J U L Y 1989
lightning performance estimation in Reference 5 the (h) The numerical corona model is described in Refer-
application of a constant tower impulse-footing resist- ence 1. It is based on the empirical formula given in
ance equal to the low-frequency resistance is suggested. Reference 8 for the increase of the wave front duration
(9) There are two different insulation characteristic
models: for air insulation and for solid dielectrics. A line
insulation flashover voltage is computed by the constant current wave
area criterion [6] with the following mathematical for-
mulation :

A= 1% - uo] dt (2)

where uo is the reference voltage, V I t a g e

u0 = E,d (3)
E, is the mean electrical field along the air gap at 50%
flashover probability level, d is the air gap length, u(t) is
the transient voltage across the air gap, to is the time
instant when u(t) exceeds the reference voltage and t , is
the moment of flashover when the computed area A
becomes greater than A,, ,
The flashover criterion can be written in the following
form :
A > Acr (4)
Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit to explain procedure of current crest
The critical area A , can be calculated from the following computation
relation: d , = utg; d - utF
U = propag:tsn speed
A , = Cd (5) uF = line insulation flashover voltage
ug I transformer BIL
where C is the empirical constant deduced from experi-
mental data. The constants C and E, are computed to owing to the corona effect. The applied empirical formula
obtain the 50% flashover voltage from a standard labor- is
atory test on the completely equipped insulator string
with the standard 1.2/50ps lightning wave. The com-
puted constants from the test results described in Refer-
ence 7 are C = 677 kV ps/mm and E, = 5.067 kV/mm. In
this way all possible air insulation weak points (line or where d is the propagation distance (m). U is the propaga-
busbar insulators) are modelled. tion speed (300 m/& B is the empirical coefficient
It is supposed that the solid dielectric breakdown dependent on the conductor radius given in Fig. 2 (l/kV).
voltage in such high-voltage equipment as power trans-
formers, current or voltage transformers, high-voltage
cables or other equipment can be modelled by constant 10
voltage-time characteristics equal to the BIL. Any light-
k g overvoltage exceeding the BIL is considered an
hulation failure. If the method of limiting parameters is
applied, whenever a computed surge for a certain current
gradient at a inspected part of the equipment becomes
greater than the BIL, the transient process computation
is stopped for this current gradient and the current mag-
nitude sufficient to produce this voltage is computed as
1, = I(tB + t,) (6)
where t, is the time interval from the moment of
occurrence of the voltage surge at the observed part of
the substation equipment to the moment of insulation 10 20
breakdown. t , is the time interval from the moment of R,mm
the lightning strike (to the top of the tower or earth wire) Fig. 2 Dependence of coefficient of corona on conductor radius
to the moment of back-flashover on the tower in front of
the substation. I is the linearised wavefront current gra- U is the instantaneous value of the voltage (kV) and U,, is
dient. the corona inception voltage (kV).
In Fig. 1 the computation of the current magnitude
sufficient to cause insulation failure is explained. The time 2.2 Computationof risk of substation insulation
interval t, sufficient to cause back-flashover on the tower, failure due to back-flashover on incoming line
together with the time interval t, from the appearance of In the statistical estimation method of the substation
the voltage wave on the inspected part of the insulation lightning performance due to direct strikes to the earth
to the moment of reaching the BIL, gives the total linear- wire or tower and back-flashover, the place of the dis-
ised front time duration of the current wave, sufficient to charge is varied along the first few spans, as presented in
produce insulation failure at the inspected place. Fig. 3. Usually two spans are enough.
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. C , No. 4, JULY 1989 223
 Instead of a continuous variation of the point of dis-
charge along the span only a few (usually 5 ) equidistant
points of discharges at every span are analysed. The
Fig. 3 Variation of place of discharge
mean value of the probability of occurrence of overvol-
tages exceeding the BIL of the equipment in the sub-
station due to a strike somewhere on the analysed span,
denoted P,, can be computed by means of the trape-
zoidal rule in the following form :
+ +
+ ... P,,- 1 0.5 K , Pf,J (8)
PZi(i = 1, n) is the probability of occurrence of the light-
ning over-voltages exceeding the BIL of the equipment in
the substation if the strike hit the top of tower 1 or n in
Fig. 3, causing back-flashover. Pi(i = 2, 3, ..., n - 1) is
the probability of occurrence of the over-voltage exceed-
ing the BIL in the substation if the strike hit certain
points (2, 3, ..., n - 1) on the span, causing back-
flashover on the nearest tower. K , is the coefficient of cor-
rection of the discharge probability to the top of the
tower, which is presumed to be 1.3. In this way it is sup-
posed that the probability of discharge to the top of the
tower is 30% greater than that to the span.
The risk of occurrence of lightning overvoltages
exceeding the BIL of the equipment in the substation can
be computed in the following way:
(9)
P,, is the mean probability of occurrence of overvoltages
exceeding the BIL of some equipment in the substation if
the discharge hit thejth span. d j is the length of thejth
span. Sa, is the attractive area of the overhead line per
unit length. N , is the annual lightning density of the dis-
charges to the ground per km2. m is the number of
observed spans.
The attractive area of the overhead line is a band on
both sides of the line in which the most of the lightning
discharges occur to the line and the minority to the
ground. It can be estimated for a line of unit length as
Sa, = 6 he, (km) (10)
where he, is the effective height of the earth wire along
the span (m).
The mean number of years without lightning overvol-
tages exceeding the BIL of the substation equipment, due
to strikes to the towers or earth wire causing back-
224
flashovers, is
N = 1jR (1 1)
2.3 Computation of risk of substation insulation
failure due to shielding failure on incoming line
In estimating the risk of occurrence of lightning overvol-
tages exceeding the substation equipment BIL due to the
shielding failures on the line, it is supposed that a direct
strike hits the substation entrance or overhead line cable
junction in the case of cable entrance.
The probability of strike penetration to the shielding
zone denoted Psh as a function of the lightning current
magnitude can be computed by means of the electro-
geometrical method described in References 10 and 11.
A direct strike to the phase conductor causes an over-
voltage wave propagating to the substation. This over-
voltage can be computed by means of the travelling-wave
technique. The probability of exceeding the BIL of the
substation equipment for a strike at the substation
entrance can be calculated in the following manner:
P1 =
b f(Z, Z')Psh(Z)dZ dZ'
f(Z, Z') is the joint frequency distribution of the lightning
(12)
current magnitudes and wave front gradients. PJZ) is the
probability of the shielding failure as a function of the
current magnitude. D is the failure zone, limited by the
minimum lightning current magnitudes and rates of rise
causing the insulation failure. The limiting set of param-
eters forming the failure zone is illustrated in Fig. 4.
I I I
I I I I 1
1; 1; 1; 1; 1;
I , kAlps
Fig. 4 Method of limiting parameters
The failure zone D can be expressed as a sum of ele-
mentary zones AD,, A D 2 , ...,AD,,, presented in Fig. 4.
n
D = CAD,
i= 1
The curve of lightning limiting parameters can be defined
by sets of limiting values (Zl,r1),( I , , I;), ..., (Z,,,Z3,or
corresponding overvoltage wave parameters on the phase
conductor at the struck point defined by
U i = Z, lJ4 and Ut = Z, 174 (13)
where 2, is the surge impedance of the phase conductor,
Ui is the overvoltage wave magnitude and U;is the over-
voltage wave gradient.
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. C , No. 4, JULY 1989
 In the case of a strike at a certain distance from the
substation entrance, the incoming wave gradient is
reduced. The distance of this point from the substation
entrance can be determined in such a way as to reduce
Fig. 5 Equivalent circuit
the overvoltage wave gradient from the given value U ; at
the point to the value UJ at the substation entrance, both
belonging to the sets of limiting values of the curve of
limiting parameters computed for the case of discharge at
the substation entrance. The wave front is prolonged
owing to corona distortion for the time increment A t j .
Atj = ( U J U ; - U l f U ; ) (14)
The value T = U , / U ; is a front time of the voltage wave
at the point, and T + A t j = U j / U Jis a voltage wave front
time at the substation entrance after propagation along
distance d j . It is supposed that the wave front remains
linear after corona distortion.
The distance d j necessary to reduce voltage wave gra-
dient from U', to U J can be calculated from eqn. 7 for the
front of wave time increase Atj owing to the corona.
The probability of occurrence of lightning parameters
causing substation insulationfailure for the case of a
point struck at distance d j from the substation entrance,
denoted P i , can be computed by the application of eqn.
12 in the areas A D j , ADj+ 1, . .., AD,,.
Eqn. 12 is applied only to lightning current rate rise
greater than ZJ or corresponding lightning overvoltage
wave gradients U J at the point. Discharge with the
lightning current gradient less than ZJ , causing corre-
sponding overvoltage wave gradient to be less than U J ,is
reduced, owing to propagation at the station entrance, to
voltage wave gradient less than U ; . This voltage gradient
is - not enough to cause insulation failure in the sub-
station.
The risk of insulation failure due to a lightning strike
to the line length Adj = ( d j + - di) is
R j = 0.5(Pj+ + Pj)AdjSa,N , (16)
where Pi and are the probabilities of occurrence of
overvoltages exceeding the BIL of some equipment in the
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. C , No. 4, JULY 1989
substation if shielding failure occurred at points j and
j+ 1 in front of the substation.
The total risk R of substation insulation failure due to
shielding failure on the line in front of the substation can
be computed as the sum of the risks of failure due to
strikes to certain parts of line Adj ( j= 1,2, . . . , n).
R=CRj
This method is pessimistic because wave distortion due
to other effects is neglected.
3 Computation of lightning performances of
110 kV substation with cable entrance
3.1 System data
The equivalent circuit of the analysed 110 kV system is
presented in Fig. 5. The 110 kV cable is analysed in 5
uniformly distributed points to get the maximum voltage
distribution along the cable due to the lightning strike.
All system parameters taken from the substation
layout or estimated are given in Table 1. A lightning
strike to the earth wire on the first and second spans, and
to the phase conductor in front of the substation, owing
to shielding failure is analysed. In Fig. 5 and Table 1
system data for a strike to the second span in front of the
cable are presented. In the case of the element modelled
as an equivalent line, the surge impedance and the line
length are also presented in Table 1.
The system rated voltage is 110 kV. The BIL of all
equipment is 550 kV. Classical Sic surge arresters of the
type HMM 108, rated voltage 108 kV, [14] are modelled
with the voltageftime characteristic of the spark gap
given in Table 2.
The current/voltage characteristics of the surge
arrester nonlinear resistor is given in Table 3. The char-
acteristics are linearly extrapolated for smaller current
magnitudes.
3.2 Lightning parameters
The joint log-normal lightning current magnitude and
front of wave gradiefit distribution suggested in Reference
9 is in the following form :
1
F(x, Y ) =
2 d G G exp (- +x2 2(1y 2--p2)
2pxy) d x
225
Table 1 : Substation layout Parameters cl,,1, = current gradient logarithmic
Branch Type of element Resistance, Length, standard deviation
R m p = correlation coefficient of I and I'
1 earth wire 400 W
2 tower height to 156 30.6 1000
cross arm
3 tower grounding 10
resistance 800
4 earth wire support 156 2
5 cross arm 156 2
6 air gap after 200 2
back-flash 600
7 phase conductor 370 03 >
Y

8 part of earth wire 370 0-1 34 3-

9 lightning channel 300 CO
10 part of earth wire 370 134-0 4 00
11 tower height to 156 30.6
cross arm
12

13
14
15
tower grounding
resistance
earth wire support
cross arm
air gap after
156
156
200
10

2
2
2
2ooii
0~
5 10 15
back-flash
16 phase conductor 370 134 t,P5
17 earth wire 400 30 Fig. 6 Transient voltage at place of cross arm
18 portal 125 16.6
19

20
tower grounding
resistance
horizontal part of
10

140 2
1000 -
portal
21 air gap after
back-flash
200 2
800 -
22 phase conductor 370 30
23 connection conductor 370 20
24 busbars 370 15.5 600 -
25 connection conductor 370 11 >
Y

26 lead to thesurge 370 4 3

-
arrester
27 conductor to cable 370 4 400 -
termination
28,29,30,32 parts of cable 33.8 4x65
32
33

34
phase conductor
lead to the surge
arrester
connection to the
370
370

370
21

10
4
2mt I
power transformer 0 a ' ' ' ' a 5 ' * ' ' ' ' ' ' ' * ' J

5 10 15
Capacitance, t, P S
nF Fig. 7 Transient voltage on phase conductor at place of backflash
35 power transformer 5
surge capacitance
36 voltage transformer 3 The presumed lightning strike parameters corresponding
surge capacitance to Berger's measuring results according to Reference 9
are
Table 2: Voltageltime characteristic of surge arrester
I = 30 k~
Front of wave spark-over t , = 0 . 3 2 4 ~ U,
~ = 292 kV
voltage at instant r" = 14 k A / p
Minimum 100% sparkover t , = 1.2 ps U, = 248 kV
voltage at instant Oln 1 = 0.68
Minimum switching spark-over t , = 250 ps U, = 259 kV
g l n r * = 0.55
voltage at instant
p = 0.38
Table 3: Current/voltage surge arrester characteristic
Current, kA 5 10 20
3.3 Classical approach to overvoltage computation
Residual voltage, kV 227 248 281 The classical approach to overvoltage computation of
choosing the representative current magnitude and mean
waveform gradient is used to investigate the voltage
where distribution along the cable, and to investigate the
x = In (IIQIOln r
,,
y = In (I'/I')/oln
voltage waveforms in different points of the equivalent
circuit.
[ = random current amplitude In the classical methodology of overvoltage computa-
Z = mean current amplitude tion the critical lightning parameters with the probability
r_' = random current gradient of exceeding the chosen values by 2% are determined.
I' = mean current gradient The computed critical values are
olnI = current magnitude logarithmic
standard deviation I , = 121 kA and r:, = 43.2 kA/p
226 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. C , No. 4, J U L Y 1989
Lightning channel surge impedance is presumed to be (a) A surge arrester is placed in front of the junction of
300 n. the cable and the overhead line.
It is supposed that the lightning strike happened at the (b) A surge arrester is placed at the other end of the
middle of the second span to the earth wire. Three differ- cable.
600 r
variant a

variant b
480

variant c
360

Fig. 8
t . p5
Transient voltage at different points on cable
2401
120

01
0
t
75 150 225
1
300
700 r d , rn
Fig. 10 Peak voltage distribution along cable for various overvoltage
protection variants

t . lJ5
Fig. 9 Transformer terminal overvoltage
Table 4: Overvoltages at different points
Nodeno. 11 24 25 26 27 28 31
Variant
(a1 976 425 489 550 557 528 659
(b1 976 595 579 493 485 449 417
(C) 975 333 339 354 359 352 404 0 50 100 150 200
struck point distance, rn
ent overvoltage protection variants are analysed. In the Fig. 11 Expected number of strikes causing overvoltages less than the
first variant the surge arrester was connected only in power transformer BIL as a function of position of strike
front of the overhead line-cable junction. In Fig. 6 the
transient response of the tower computed at the cross (c) A surge arrester is placed on each end of the cable.
arm is presented. The computed overvoltages of the three protection
In Fig. 7 the transient voltage on the phase conductor variants analysed are presented in Table 4.
at the place of back-flashover is presented; the infinitely The peak voltage distributions along the cable are pre-
steep wavefront after backflash can be seen. There is an sented in Fig. 10 for overvoltage protection variants (a),
overvoltage on the cross arm exceeding the BIL after (b) and (c).
back-flashover, owing to the large current wave magni-
tude. 3.4 Estimation of risk of power transformer insulation
In Fig. 8 the transient overvoltages at different places failure
along the cable are presented. The surge front gradient is
decreased owing to the cable capacitance charging effect 3.4.1 Risk of power transformer insulation failure due
and wave distortion owing to the corona. The trans- to the back-flashover: In the statistical approach to the
former terminal voltage is presented in Fig. 9. risk of occurrence of overvoltages exceeding the power
Three analysed overvoltage protection variants were transformer BIL the annual lightning density N, = 4.5 (1/
investigated : year x km2) is taken according to the meteorological
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. C , No. 4, JULY 1989 221
data [l2]. The analysis is performed for the same three system elements and the equivalent circuit selection is
variants of overvoltage protection. especially emphasised.
The point of discharge to the earth wire is varied The results of lightning performance studies show that
along the first two spans. In Fig. 11 the expected number strikes to the earth wire or tower in the vicinity of the
of strikes causing one overvoltage exceeding the trans-
former BIL as a function of the position of the strike is
presented. It can be seen that the most dangerous point

r-
of strike is the first tower just in front of the cable termi-
nation. The expected number of strikes causing one over-
voltage exceeding the BIL increases for strikes to the
earth wire in the middle of the span and decreases again
-
for strikes to the top of the second tower. Strikes to the
earth wire on the second span produce overvoltages
which are sufficiently damped owing to propagation that
dangerous overvoltages are extremely seldom.
Discharges to the top of the third tower or even m
further away cannot cause dangerous overvoltages at all. w
N
The total risk of occurrence of overvoltages exceeding
the power transformer BIL is presented in Table 5. The

Table 5: Risk of power transformer insulation failure

Variant Risk, l/year N = l/Risk, year

(a) 6.01 x 1664

(6) 5.09 x lo-' 196 7
(c) 1.88 x 0.532 x lo6 ////// / /,
Fig. 12 Line geometry with effective dimensions for whole span
expected number of years without transformer insulation
failure as a reciprocal value of the risk of insulation 0.081
failure is also presented.
In Reference 13 an equipment failure rate of N = 800
years or N = 400 years, depending on the equipment
importance, is suggested. According to this criterion,
0 06-
variant (a) with only one set of surge arresters in front of
the cable and overhead line junction can be recommend-
ed.
3.4.2 Risk of power transformer insulation failure due Go.o4[
to incoming overhead line shielding failures: An inves-
tigation of the risk of exceeding the power transformer
BIL due to shielding failures on the line and substation
was performed. The analysed line configuration with the
effective heights of the earth wire and phase conductor is 0.02-
presented in Fig. 12.
The probability of shielding failures on the line is
analysed by means of the electrogeometrical method
described in References 5, 10 and 11.
The probability of occurrence of lightning current """"""" , ' I " ' """"""""""'
6 7 8 9 10 11
magnitude penetrating the shielding zone and hitting the I, kA
phase conductor in front of the cable and overhead line
Fig. 13 Probability of penetration of lightning currents of certain
junction is presented in Fig. 13. It can be seen that the magnitude into shielding zone and hitting phase conductor
greatest lightning current magnitude which can cause
shielding failure is 11.1 kA. This current magnitude is not substation entrance or the overhead line and cable junc-
sufficient to cause dangerous overvoltage for transformer tion causing back-flashover are most dangerous for the
insulation; the minimum current magnitude which can transformer insulation in the analysed case of a 110 kV
produce overvoltage equal to the transformer BIL is system. Strikes on the third tower or further from the
24 kA. substation entrance are not dangerous for the substation
The probability of penetration of lightning into the insulation.
shielding zone of the substation is extremely small, due to The overvoltages produced by shielding failures on the
the effective shielding geometry with negative shielding line are not dangerous for the substation equipment.
angles, and it will not be presented here. Shielding failures in a substation with effective shielding
geometry, realised with negative shielding angles, are
4 Conclusion impossible.

In this paper the general methodology of the risk of the 5 Acknowledgment

lightning outage estimation is presented and illustrated
with the example of a 110 kV substation with cable I acknowledge the support of 'Energoprojekt, Depart-
entrance. The importance of the correct modelling of ment of thermal and nuclear plants', and in particular
228 I E E PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. C , No. 4, JULY 1989
Engineer M.Pekovil: for obtaining all the necessary data
and the late Engineer B. Miletil: for study organisation. I
am also very grateful to the Community of Science of the
Republic of Serbia for the financial support of this study.
6 References
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229