MOTOR WINDINGS

Starters for separate-winding two-speed motors consist of two standard three-pole starter units
that are electrically and mechanically interlocked and mounted in a single enclosure. Additional
units can be used for each speed. Although these are always electrically interlocked, it may not
be practical to provide mechanical interlocks on more than two starters.

The starter for a consequent-pole two-speed motor requires a three-pole unit and a five-pole unit.
The design of the particular motor winding determines whether the fast or slow-speed connection
is made by the five-pole unit.

For three-speed consequent-pole motors, a three-pole starter is used for the single-speed
winding; a five-pole starter and a second three-pole starter handle the reconnectable winding. A
four-speed consequent-pole motor requires two sets of three and five-pole starters.

Different power circuits are needed for delta-type multispeed motors, because currents circulate
within the inactive or unconnected winding. A pair of four-pole starters is required for a two-
speed motor with separate open-delta windings. Another four-pole starter is required for each
speed. Thus, three and four-speed motors with open-delta windings require very complex
starters.

Specific winding information is used to select the motor controls. Torque characteristics also
deserve special attention to ensure selection of the proper control. Constant-horsepower motors
require larger starters than either constant-torque or variable-torque motors of equal horsepower.
Reversing and reduced-voltage operations can be incorporated in a multispeed motor starter.
Synchronous motor controls:

Controllers for synchronous motors have four components: a three-pole starter for the ac stator
circuit, a contactor for the dc field circuit, an automatic synchronizing device to control the dc
field contactor, and a cage-winding protective relay to open the ac circuit if the motor operates
too long without synchronizing.

Synchronous motors require ac power during both starting and running, thus the main contactor
is closed when the motor is operating. The dc winding of the rotor is energized by the field
contactor as the motor approaches synchronous speed. Two normally open poles on the field
contactor make the connection for dc excitation, and one normally closed pole permits
dissipation of induced field current (through a resistor) during any period of nonsynchronous
operation.

For smooth synchronization, two conditions determine the instant that the dc field is energized:
the rotor must be turning at the proper speed -- usually 93 to 98% of synchronous speed, and the
rotor poles must be lagging slightly behind stator poles of opposite polarity. Several
synchronizing devices apply dc to the rotor field. Special relay systems can automatically close
the dc contactor when the rotor reaches the proper speed and the rotor and stator poles are in
proper relationship.

These relays will open if the motor falls out of step because of a momentary overload or voltage
dip. Synchronous operation is automatically restored when voltage returns to normal or the
overload is removed. In some cases, resynchronization may not be desirable from a safety
standpoint. In such cases, the controller can be designed to disconnect power from the stator.

Out-of-step protection is provided by a conventional thermal-overload device (OSP). This device

is energized whenever the motor is running without rotor field excitation. If, during the start, the
motor does not synchronize within a given time period (usually 15 to 20 sec) the OSP relay
opens the main contactor.

If the motor pulls out of step while running and does not resynchronize within the specified time,
the relay will disconnect the motor. This protection is necessary because the cage winding has
limited thermal capacity and will overheat in a short time at subsynchronous speed. Synchronous
motors can be stopped quickly by methods similar to those used with induction motors.
 The Hot Topic of Motor Temperature
by Chris Medinger, LEESON Electric Corporation

Back to Web Merlin The chief enemy of an electric motor's

insulation system is heat, so you want
General Information to be sure the motor stays within limits
Mechanical for long winding life. But you'll never
be able to judge by feeling the motor's
Electrical surface.
Metric IEC
Maintenance
Conversions/Formulas
What will concerned parents do when
Warranty their child says, "Mommy and Daddy, I
Reference think I am sick"? Feel the little one's
forehead, of course. It's a logical first
step---followed, one hopes, by
measurement methods more precise
than the human touch before making a
final diagnosis.

Perhaps it is this common human

scenario that causes people, even
those who probably know better, to
attempt to judge an AC induction
motor's condition by feeling its
"forehead". Here's a story from our archives at LEESON that illustrates the
perils of making motor diagnoses based on feel.

A motor user facing a humid environment in a part of his plant called for
advice on what kind of motor he might use for maximum durability. We
recommended he try a washdown-duty motor, which is designed to withstand
not only humidity, but even frequent direct blasts from a hose, as in a food
processing area. He agreed that though his was not a food plant he would
not be hosing down the motor, the added moisture-resistance of the
washdown motor made sense. So he installed a one of our washdown
motors, which have among other features a white epoxy exterior finish.

Some time later, this same customer called to say that while the washdown
motor was holding up well and had no apparent performance problems, it
appeared to be "running hot ." The reason for his concern was that the
motor's white surface was discoloring. Upon investigation, we found that
maintainance people had been feeling the motor's surface, leaving the dirt,
oil, and grease of their day's work behind on the white surface. This "hot
motor" problem was solved with spray cleaner and shop rag. And a check of
the motor's current draw, a much better way to gage performance, showed it
to be operating properly.

You cannot tell by touching

Point is, you cannot accurately judge a motor by feeling its surface. Design
temperature ratings apply to the hottest spot within the motor's windings, not
how much of that heat is transferred to motors surface. The heat transfer will
vary greatly from motor to motor based on frame size and mass, whether the
frame is smooth or ribbed, whether open or totally enclosed, and other
cooling factors. Even the efficiency of the motor may have little effect on
surface temperature. For example, a premium efficiency motor, though it's
internal temperature will be cooler as a result of lower loses, may not have
lower surface temperatures, because the ventilation fan is likely be smaller to
reduce windage losses. Plus, any motor's frame surface is a quilt of hot spots
and cool spots related to internal air circulation patterns.

Unless you have benchmark lab readings of heat runs that show "normal"
surface temperatures for that specific model in exact locations on the frame,
a motor's skin temperature provides little if any evidence of what is going on
inside.

Another point: for safety's sake, no one should be touching most electric
motors in the first place, unless they are specially designed to have safe
surface temperatures. Such motors include those used on bench grinders,
power saws and the like. For those applications, Underwriters Laboratories
sets maximum acceptable surface temperatures for a metal "surface subject
to casual contact" at 70 C(158 F) after 30 minutes of operation in a 25
C(77 F) room. Even at that temperature, however, you do not want to touch
the surface for long.

The surface temperature of continuously (and correctly) operating general

purpose industrial electirc motor will easily be 80 C (176 F) and perhaps as
high as 100 C (212 F). You cannot keep your hand on a surface that hot
long enough to discern differences, and if you try, you could get a nasty burn.

There are no published standards regarding surface temperatures of general

purpose motors, though UL does set such standards for explosion-proof
motors. Also machinery manufacturers sometimes specify unusually low
maximum surface temperatures for certain applications. Your motor
manufacturer can help you work through the specifics.

Heating, a valid concern

Even if feeling a motor's surface is not the way to

judge operating temperature, a motor's winding
temperature is important . The concern, of
course, is for the integrity of the motor stator's
insulation system. Its function is to separate
electrical components from each other,
preventing short circuits and, thus, winding
burnout and failure. In most NEMA frame motors,
the key insulation components include magnet
wire coating, which insulates wires within a coil
from each other; slot cell and phase insulation,
typically high strength polyester sheets that are
installed in stator slots to provide phase-to-
ground protection; and insulating varnish into
which the wound stator is dipped to provide
moisture resistance and overall better insulating
performance.

Most people who work with motors have heard

the common rule of thumb that a 10 C rise cuts
the insulation's useful life in half and a 10 C
decrease doubles the insulation's life. That rule
of thumb does not mean that if you can keep a
motor cool enough, it will last forever, because there is more to a motor than
just its windings. Also, insulation can have other enemies such as moisture,
vibration, chemicals and abrasives in the air that might shorten its life.

The more pertinent issue is the temperature at which the motor windings are
designed to operate so they give a long and predictable insulation life of
20,000 hours or more. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) sets specific temperature standards for motors of various enclosures
and having various service factors. These standards are based on thermal
insulation classes---the most common being A,B,F and H.The table
summarizes these standards into maximum winding temperatures a motor
can attain and still have long insulation life. These are total temperatures,
based on maximum ambient of 40 C (104 F), plus additional heat
(temperature rise ) generated by motor operation. Greater than 40 C
ambient may require special application considerations or special motor
designs.

The temperatures shown are for motors having a 1.0 service factor. Many
industrial motors have 1.15 or higher service factors, indicating a higher
overload tolerance, and meaning they could operate safely at higher
temperatures. But why push it ? Use these maximums, and you won't go
wrong.

Thermal ratings of insulation classes

These are the highest allowable stator winding temperatures for long
insulation life. Temperatures are total, starting with a maximum ambient of
40 C
Insulation class Maximum winding temperature, C
A 105
B* 130
F* 155
H 180
* Most common classes for industrial-duty motors.

Class B or Class F insulation systems are most common in today's industrial-

duty motors. Smaller sizes, say up to 5 hp, are typically class B. From 5 to 10
hp, many ratings move toward class F.That's also true of premium efficiency
and inverter duty motors . Larger than 10 hp , Class F becomes most
common. Beyond that, many manufacturers design their motors to operate
cooler than their thermal class might allow. For example, a motor might have
Class F insulation but a class B temperature rise. This gives an extra thermal
margin. Class H insulation systems are seldom found in general purpose
motors, but rather in special designs for very heavy use, high ambient
temperature, or high altitude conditions. Class A insulation is not used on
today's industrial duty motors, though it can be found on some small
appliance motors.
Class A insulation was, however, standard on industrial motors built in the
1960s and earlier ---the so called NEMA-U frame motors, as opposed to
todays NEMA-T frame designs. Because Class A insulation has such a low
temperature rating, these older motors were required to have far lower
maximum temperatures than today's class B and Class F insulated motors.
This accounts for the perception among many long time motor users that
modern motors "run hot." In fact, they do compared with older motors, but
their insulation systems are so much better that the reliability and durability of
new motors are equal to or better than older design motors. Plus, older
motors achieved cooler operation through the expense of larger frames and
more material. Better insulation systems have allowed motor manufacturers
to put more horsepower in a smaller package for maximum cost
effectiveness.

Determining correct operation

Provided you have purchased a motor from a reputable manufacturer,

correctly sized, applied and installed it and are operating it under the
conditions for which it was built, you have very little reason to be concerned
about it overheating. However, unanticipitated changes in environment, aging
of equipment, misuse and other factors can subject the motor to stresses for
which it was not intended.

Specifying motors with inherent overload protectors ---such as thermostats,

thermocouples, or resistive temperature devices(RTDs)-- or installing motor
protective devices in motor controls, can help ensure that a motor is taken
off-line before winding damages occurs. Since protectors and thermostats
are typically very reliable devices, if a motor is constantly "tripping out," it
usually means it is overheating. Motor protection of one sort or another is
advisable in almost any application. Your motor supplier can help sort out the
details.

A good field test is to check the motor's current draw using a clamp-style
ammeter. If current draw is less than or equal to the nameplate rating, you
can be confident all's well with the windings, including their temperature, if
the motor is operating in an application it is designed for.

Resistance method. A more precise test for detemining winding

temperature is the resistance method. This test requires an ohm meter
capable of measuring very low resistance. For motors up to about 2 hp, the
 meter should be accurate to 0.1
ohm; from 2 through 20 hp, 0.01
ohm; and for larger motors, 0.001
or better yet to .000001 ohm.

With the motor disconnected from

power lines, first use the ohm meter
to determine resistance across the
motor leads on a cold motor. Then
connect the motor and operate it
under normal load conditions until
the running temperature
stablizes.This usually takes 3 or 4
hours, possibly longer depending
on motor size. Disconnect the
motor from power source and, as
quickly as possible, make another resistance check. Then enter these cold
and hot resistance readings into the following formula to determine the
winding temperature.

Tt = Tc + (Rh - Rc)/Rc x (Tc + 234.5)

Where:
T(t)=total winding temperature
T(c)=Cold motor (ambient) temperature, C (The motor should be in the
ambient environment long enough to reach that temperature.)
R(h)=Hot motor resistance
R(c) =cold motor resistance
234.5 = constant for copper windings

In the laboratory environment, such as a motor manufacturer uses,

resistance testing is often done in conjunction with correlating tests involving
thermocouples placed in the windings and at specific locations on the motor's
surface. This testing produces a heat run profile for a particular motor model.
Only by referring to such design, specific data can any correlation be made
between surface and winding temperatures.

Guarding against overheating

Motor manufacturers are not perfect. Sometimes a motor overheats because

of a manufacturing or design defect. But far more often, motor overheating
problems can be traced to misapplication. Overloading is a leading cause.
This involves using an undersized motor, a situation that may become more
common as concern for energy efficiency puts the emphasis on eliminating
oversized motors. Use 80% loading as your guide . Most electric motors
reach their peak efficiency at that load, and a comfortable overload margin
remains. Other common causes of overloading include a load seizing up,
causing a locked rotor condition on the motor, misalignment of power
transmission linkages, and increased torque requirements of the driven load.

Environmental conditions that can result in motor overheating include high

ambient temperatures (look especially at motor surroundings; is the motor
near a heat-generating device?) and high altitudes. Above 3,300 feet, the
thin air has less cooling capability. You may have to derate a motor under
these conditions, probably choosing the next size up. Another environmental
concern is the dirt and fibers, which can clog ventilation openings, coat heat
dissipating surfaces and cause a variety of mechanical problems. If it's dirty,
use a totally enclosed motor versus an open one.

Power supply problems are another overheating cause. Low voltage will
cause the motor to draw higher current to deliver the same horsepower and
the higher current means higher winding temperatures. Figure that a 10%
drop in voltage could cause nearly that much temperature rise.

Excessive or sustained high voltage will saturate a motor's core and lead to
overheating as well. In three-phase motors, phase imbalances can cause
high currents and excessive heat, the extreme being the complete loss of
voltage in one phase(called single phasing), which if correct protection is not
in place, will burn out the motor.

Often overlooked as a cause of overheating is the number of start-stop

cycles per hour. While starting, a typical motor draws five to six times the
rated running current. This starting current accelerates heating dramatically.
Most continuous-duty motor designs are intended to do just that--- operate
continuously. Though various provisions are made relative to loading and off-
time, NEMA essentially limits a three phase continuous-duty motor to two
starts in succession before allowing sufficient time for motor to stablize to its
maximum continuous operating temperature. This is highly application-
dependent, so its best to check with your motor manufacturer if you face a
high cycle application. A custom design may be required.

Finally, pay special attention when applying adjustable-speed inverter drives,

especially if you are connecting an inverter to an older motor. The inverter's
"synthesized" ac wave form increases motor heating. However, technological
advances continue to improve the wave form to more closely approximate an
ac sine wave . More importantly, be especilly careful when operating an
inverter-powered motor at low motor speed (less than 50% of base speed)
for extended periods, unless the motor has a separately powered cooling
fan, which delivers a constant volume of cooling air over the motor
regardless of motor speed.

Modern inverter-duty motors have higher insulation ratings to help alleviate

this concern, and the robust insulation systems used in most of today's
general purpose industrial motors are adequate for many applications. In
extreme cases, however, a secondary cooling source may be required.