Surveying

(CE 341)

Prepared by:
Dr. Aslam Al-Omari
 Chapter 2: Errors, Precision,
and Accuracy
2.1) Introduction
2.2) Measurement Errors
2.3) Characteristics of Random Errors
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation, and Standard Error of
the Mean
2.5) Probable Error and Maximum Error
2.6) Precision and Accuracy
2.7) Relative Precision
2.9) Law of Propagation of Random Errors
2.11) Weights and Weighted Mean
2.12) Significant Figures
2.13) Rounding Off
2.1) Introduction

Surveying operations are subject to

- imperfections of instruments
- fallibility of human operator
- uncontrollable nature of natural environment

No surveying instrument is exact, and the true value

of the measured parameters is never known

The surveyor must understand the sources of errors

in various surveying methods as well as the
methodology for evaluating the achievable accuracy
of surveying program
2.2) Measurement Errors

True Error: difference between the measured value xi

and its true value x (which is never known and can
never be determined exactly)
ei x i x
True error can never be exactly determined.
An estimate vi of the true error ei can be computed
vi xi x
Errors in surveying measurements can be classified
into: 1. Blunders
2. Systematic errors
3. Random errors
2.2) Measurement Errors

Blunders:
- mistakes caused by human carelessness, fatigue,
and haste

- Take any sign (+ or -) and magnitude, and there

occurrence is unpredictable

- Examples of blunders:
1) Transportation of digits in recording observations
2) Misreading the tape
3) Sighting on the wrong target (in measuring angle)
2.2) Measurement Errors

Systematic errors
- Caused by some maladjustment of surveying
instruments, personal bias or inclination of the
human operator, and natural environment
- Can sometimes be modeled by a mathematical
expression
- Examples of systematic errors:
1) Change in length of a steel tape with temperature
2) Maladjustment of a leveling instrument (line-of-sight
not being perfectly horizontal when the level bubble
is perfectly centered)
2.2) Measurement Errors

Random errors:
Caused by:
- imperfection of the measuring instruments,
- inability of the human operator to make an exact
measurement, and
- uncontrollable variations in the natural
environment
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
Random errors have the following characteristics:
1) Positive and negative errors of the same
magnitude occur with equal frequency;
2) Small errors occur more frequently than large
ones; and
3) Very large errors seldom occur

The estimated error ( ) is called deviation from

the mean
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
Scientist found that the pattern of the random
measurement errors can be approximated by a
continuous curve called the normal curve of error.
This curve is now commonly known as the normal
distribution or Gaussian distribution.
The normal distribution curve, as shown in Figure
2.2, is mathematically expressed by the following
equation:


=

2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
The probability that the random error in a
measurement takes on a value between a and b is
equal to the area under the curve and bounded by
the values of a and b (Figure 2.3)

Mathematically:


=

2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
2.3) Characteristics of Random
Errors
The probability that a random error takes on a value
between and + is equal to 0.683 (or 68.3%)
In terms of , some representative probabilities for
selected error ranges are as follows:

The value is called the standard error or simply

sigma
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation,
& Standard Error of the Mean
Mean ( x ) (Probable Value) of the n repeated
measurements is computed as follows
n

x i
x i 1
n

Unbiased estimate of the standard error of one

measurement of the quantity:
n

ix x 2

x i 1
i
n1
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation,
& Standard Error of the Mean
x is often called the standard deviation of the set of
i
n measurements or the root-mean-square (RMS)
error of a single measurement

An estimate for the standard error of the mean of the

n measurements
n

ix x 2
x
x i 1
i

nn 1 n

x is also often called RMS error of the mean

2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation,
& Standard Error of the Mean
Example 2.1
A length was measured ten times, the results are:
4.536, 4.533, 4.530, 4.531, 4.532, 4.534, 4.535, 4.531,
4.531, & 4.533m.
Compute:
1. The mean ( x )
2. Standard deviation ( xi )
3. An estimated standard error of the mean ( x )
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation,
& Standard Error of the Mean
Solution:
45.326
x 4.5326m
10

0.00003440
xi
9
0.00196m
0.002m

0.00003440
x
10 9
0.00196

10
0.00062m
0.0006m
2.4) Mean, Standard Deviation,
& Standard Error of the Mean
In case of
a small
sample,
the
histogram
usually
does not
resemble
the pattern
of normal
curve
2.5) Probable Error
& Maximum Error
Probable error of a measurement is defined as being
equal to 0.6745. there is a 50% probability that the
actual error exceeds (or less than) the probable error

The maximum error in measurement is most

commonly defined as being equal to 3. There is
99.7% probability that the actual error falls within 3,
and only a 0.3% probability that it exceeds the 3.

The maximum error is used as the criterion for

separating blunders from random errors
2.5) Probable Error
& Maximum Error
Example 2.2
An angle was measured 15 times:
27 30 41, 32, 30, 38, 31, 34, 39, 37, 32, 03, 40,
42, 30, 37, & 36

a) Reject any measurement containing a blunder, then

b) Compute the mean, standard deviation, & estimated

standard error of the mean
2.5) Probable Error
& Maximum Error
Solution First Iteration:
1) Mean = 27 30 33.5
2) Standard Deviation
= 9.3
3) Estimated standard
error of the mean
= (9.3/15) = 2.4
4) Maximum error of a
single measurement
= 3 9.3 = 27.9
5) Then, REJECT
measurement
27 30 03
(Its error Vi is
larger than 27.9)
2.5) Probable Error
& Maximum Error
Solution Second Iteration:
1) Mean = 27 30 35.6
2) Standard Deviation
= 4.1
3) Estimated standard
error of the mean
= (4.1/14) = 1
4) Maximum error of a
single measurement
= 3 4.1 = 12.3
5) Maximum error of
the mean = 3 1
= 3
2.6) Precision and Accuracy

The measurement is said to have a high precision if

it has a small standard deviation

Figure 2.5, large means a flatter distribution curve

for the random errors

The measurement is said to have a high accuracy if

it is close to the true value.

High precision does not necessarily mean also high

accuracy. Both occur at the same time if the
measurement contains little or no systematic error
2.6) Precision and Accuracy
2.7) Relative Precision

The term relative precision is commonly used to

describe the precision of distance measurement in
surveying
If a distance D is measured with a standard error D,
then
1
1 =

1
3 =

3
2.7) Relative Precision

For example:
A distance was measured to be 3,673.24 ft with an
estimated standard error of 0.03 ft, then:

1 1 1
1 = = =
3,673.24 120,000
0.03

1 1 1
3 = = =
3,673.24 41,000
3 3 0.03
2.9) Law of Propagation of
Random Errors
Suppose that the value of parameter Y can be
calculated from the measured values of n other
parameters, say X1, X2, X3, , Xn , and:
= , , , ,
Let be the estimated standard error of parameter
Xi and be the estimated standard error of Y

= + + +

Examples 2.3, 2.4, 2.5

2.9) Law of Propagation of
Random Errors

663,981 ft2
2.9) Law of Propagation of
Random Errors

1 acre = 43560 ft2

29 ft2

15.243 acres
0.00066 acre
2.9) Law of Propagation of
Random Errors

1 acre = 43560 ft2

2.9) Law of Propagation of
Random Errors

1 acre = 43560 ft2

2.9) Law of Propagation of
Random Errors

Solving for N
N=2079
Rounding off to 2
significant nonzero digits:
N=2100
2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean
Let

=

wi be the weight of measurement xi
the standard error of unit weight (because if the
standard error of a measurement is equal to then
it has a weight of 1)
Note: wi is inversely proportional to the square of

Thus, the more precise the measurement, the

smaller will be its standard error and the larger will

be its weight
2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean
Let x1, x2, , xn be n independent measurement of a
quantity, and let 1, 2, , n be the corresponding
standard errors of the n measurements.
Then, the most probable value () of the quantity is
given by the weighted mean of the n measurements
+ + +
=
+ + +
and

=
=
Example 2.6
2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean
2.11) Weights and Weighted
Mean
2.12) Significant Figures

The significant figures in a number are those digits

with known values.
They are identified by proceeding from left to right,
beginning with the first nonzero digit and ending
with the last digit of the number.
Some examples are as follows:
a. 541.6800 has 7 significant figures
b. 50.0006 has 6 significant figures
c. 0.00058 has 2 significant figures
d. 0.006200 has 4 significant figures
e. 8.000050 has 7 significant figures
f. 51.0 has 3 significant figures
2.12) Significant Figures

For further clarification, the following rules may help

1. All nonzero digits are significant
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number merely indicate
the position of the decimal point. They are not
significant
3. Zeros between digits are significant
4. Zeros at the end of a decimal number are significant
5. Zeros at the end of a nondecimal number are not
necessarily significant
23,600 may have 3, 4, or 5 significant figures
depending on whether its value is correct to the
nearest hundred, ten, or unit. If it is to be expressed
to 3 significant figures, it can be written as 23.6103.
2.13) Rounding Off

If the result is to be expressed to n significant

figures, then the n th figure should be retained as is
if the figure following it is less than 5 in the (n+1) th
place.
If the digit following the n th significant figure is
greater than 5 in the (n+1) th place, the n th figure
should be increased by one unit.
When the (n+1) th digit is 5, round off to the nearest
even digit in the n th place
2.13) Rounding Off

These examples illustrates the usual rules:

a. 6746.589 to 5 significant places is 6746.6
b. 837848 to 4 significant places is 837800
c. 468.767 to 5 significant places is 468.77
d. 468.762 to 5 significant places is 468.76
e. 468.755 to 5 significant places is 468.76
f. 468.745 to 5 significant places is 468.74

When performing addition (or subtraction) the sum

cannot be more precise than the least precise
number included in the addition
2.13) Rounding Off

For example, the summation of the following 3

measured segments of a survey line (in feet):
. + . + . = . .
When performing multiplication (and/or division):
The result should have the same significant numbers
as the number with the fewest significant numbers
..
= . =
..
General guides for trigonometric functions:
1. For a 01 error in angle, use 5 places
2. For a 10 error in angle, use 7 places
3. For a 01 error in angle, use 8 places
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems