EatingBehaviour

Topic1:AttitudestoEatingBehaviour

WhatisanAttitude?

Attitudesarejudgements.MostdevelopthroughtheABCmodel:

AffectiveResponse:Anemotionalresponsethatexpressesapersonspreferenceforsomething.

BehaviouralIntention:Anindicatorofapersonstypicalbehaviouraltraits.

CognitiveResponse:Theindividualsbeliefaboutthesubjects.

Mostofourattitudescomefromeither:

DirectExperience:Thephysicalandpsychologicalconsequencesoftheobject.

ObservationalLearning:Ourattitudedependsonfactorssuchasourfamiliaritywiththeobject,
parentalandculturalinfluences.

SocialCognitionTheoriesofEatingBehaviour

Socialcognitionmodelsassumethatafixedsetofthoughtscauseaparticularbehaviour.Themost
commonsocialcognitionmodelusedtopredicteatingbehaviourisAjznen(1985)stheoryof
plannedbehaviour:

Attitude:Apersonsjudgementsaboutthebehaviour.

SubjectiveNorms:Apersonsbeliefabouthowthepeopletheycareaboutwillviewthebehaviour.

BehaviouralControl:Apersonsbeliefintheirabilitytoperformthebehaviour.

Behaviouralintention:Apersonsintentiontoperformthebehaviour.

ActualBehaviour:Themorefavourabletheattitudeandsubjectivenormandthegreaterthelevel
ofbehaviouralcontrol,themorelikelyitisthatapersonwillperformthebehaviour.

Examplesofstudieswhichhaveusedsocialcognitionmodelstopredictoureatingbehaviour
include:

Sparksetal(1992)(biscuitsandwholemealbread)Roatsetal(1995)(semiskimmedmilk)

SparksandShepherd(1992)(organicvegetables)

However,accordingtoSutton(1998),ourintentionstoperformabehaviourarenotthebest
predictorofbehaviour.Researchhasthereforebeencarriedouttoidentifythemostaccurate
cognitivepredictorsofourbehaviour.Thereisageneralconsensusthatourattitudesarethebest
predictorsofourbehaviour:

ShepherdandFarley(1986)(useoftablesalt)Axelsonetal(1983)(fastfoodrestaurants)
Poveyetal(2000)(healthyeating)Shepherd(1988)(lowfatmilk)

Evaluationofsocialcognitiontheories:

Infocusingonhowapersonsthoughtsaboutfoodcontroltheireatingbehaviour,socialcognition
modelsprovideuswithaframeworkfordesigningresearchintoandastructuredwayofthinking
aboutpeoplesthoughtsaboutfood,aswellasabasisfordevelopingwaysofchangingtheway
peoplethinkaboutfood.

Inmanyofthestudiesthatusedsocialcognitionmodelstopredicteatingbehaviour,the
researcherschosethecognitionstoinvestigate.Thiscouldmeanthatsomecognitionsimportantto
understandingeatingbehaviourhavebeenmissed.

Socialcognitionmodelsfailtotakeintoaccountthemultiplemeaningsassociatedwithfood.

Socialcognitionmodelsassumethatoureatingbehaviourisaproductofourthoughtsaboutfood.
However,thisfailstotakeintoaccounttheroleouremotionsplayinoureatingbehaviour.

Despiteconsideringtheviewsofothersthroughthesubjectivenorm,socialcognitionmodelsdo
notadequatelyconsidertherolethatotherpeopleplayinoureatingbehaviour.

DevelopmentalTheoriesofEatingBehaviour

Culturaldifferencesineatingbehaviourhaveleadtoresearchintohowweacquireeatinghabits.
Thisresearchisusuallycarriedoutfromadevelopmentalperspective.Birch(1999)identified3main
areasofresearchinthisfield:

SocialLearning

Thisareaofresearchexaminestheimpactthatobservingotherpeopleseatingbehaviourhasonour
owneatingbehaviour.Researchinthisareahasshown:

Birchetal(1980):

For4days,childrenweresatnexttochildrenatlunchwhohaddifferentvegetablepreferences
(peasorcarrots).Thechildrenwhodidntinitiallylikepeaslikedthembytheendofthestudy,and
thiswasthesameforthechildrenwhodidntinitiallylikecarrots.Thischangeinpreferencewasstill
visibleinafollowupassessment.

Loweetal(1998):

Childrenwereshowedvideosofolderchildrenenjoyingfoodsthatyoungchildrenhadahistoryof
refusingtoeat.Followingthis,thechildrensfoodpreferenceschangedsignificantly(particularly
theirintakeoffruitandvegetables),suggestingthatourfoodpreferencescanchangethrough
watchingotherseat.

Oliveraetal(1992):

Thestudyfoundaclearlinkbetweenthenutrientintakeofmothersandtheirpreschoolage
children.
Ogden(2004):

Thisstudentfoundconsistentcorrelationsbetweenthesnackfoodintakeandmotivationsforeating
ofparentsandchildren.

ExposuretoFood

Researchhasshownthatmereexposuretofoodcanchangeapersonsfoodpreferences.Wealso
needtoconsidertheroleofneophobia(fearandavoidanceofnewfoods)inoureatingbehaviour.
Youngchildrenoftenshowneophobicresponsestofood,butgenerallycometoacceptfoodsthat
theyoriginallysawasthreatening:

BirchandMarlin(1982):

2yearoldchildrenwereexposedtoaselectionofnewfoodsovera6weekperiod.1foodwas
presentedonce,another5times,another10timesandanother20times.Thestudyfoundthat810
exposureswereusuallyneededtochangethechildrensfoodpreferences,suggestingthatwetend
topreferfoodsthatwearefamiliarwith.

AssociativeLearning

Thisareaofresearchexaminestheeffectthatfactorssuchasrewardandaversionhaveonour
eatingbehaviour.Researchinthisareahasfocusedontheimpactof3particularfactors:

Pairingfoodwithareward:

Birchetal(1980):

Childrenweregivenfoodwithpositiveadultattention.Thiswasfoundtoincreasetheirhealthy
eatingpreferences.

Loweetal(1980):

Rewardingvegetableconsumptionwasfoundtoincreasevegetableconsumption.

Usingfoodasareward:

Inthesestudies,accesstothefoodisdependent(contingent)onotherbehaviour:

Birchetal(1980):

Childrenwerepresentedwithfoodasareward,asnackorrandomlyinanonsocialsituation.The
studyfoundthatfoodacceptanceincreasedwhenthefoodwaspresentedasareward,butthe
otherconditionshadnoeffect.

Lepperetal(1982):

28preschoolchildrenweretoldastoryaboutachildthatwasgiven2newfoods(hupeandhule).
Therewere2conditions:

NonContingent:Thechildrenweretoldthatthemotherinthestoryofferedtheirchildfirstone
food,thentheotherhavingonefoodwasnotdependentonhavingtheother.
Contingent:Thechildrenweretoldthatthemotherinthestorysaidtheirchildcouldhaveonefood
iftheyatetheotherhavingonefoodwasdependentonhavingtheother.

Allofthechildrenwereaskedwhichfoodtheywouldprefertohave.Theresultsshowedtherewere
nopreferencesinthenoncontingentcondition,however,inthecontingentcondition,thechildren
preferredthefoodwasusedasarewardforeatingtheotherfood.Evidencesuggeststhatpairing2
foodsinthiswaycanleadtotherewardfoodbeingviewedmorepositivelytothefoodthatprovides
accesstoit.

PsychologicalConsequencesofFood:

Thereisawealthofevidencetosuggestthatoneunpleasantpsychologicalconsequenceoffoodcan
alterapersonsfoodpreferencesi.e.Gelanietal(1974).

FoodandControl

Theassociationbetweenfoodandrewardsuggeststhatparentscanplayaroleincontrollingtheir
childseatingbehaviour.Wardleetal(2002)arguedthatalackofcontrolinfoodintakemay
contributetotheemergenceofdifferencesinweight.Somestudieshavefoundthatparental
controlcanleadtoreducedweightandimprovedeatingbehaviour:

Ogden(2004):

Thestudyfoundthatgreaterparentalcontroloffoodintakewasassociatedwithhigherintakeof
healthysnackfoods.

However,otherstudieshavefoundthatparentalcontrolcanhaveanegativeimpactonchildrens
eatingbehaviour:

Birch(1999):

Birchreviewedevidenceontheimpactofimposingparentalcontrolonfoodintake,andconcluded
thatchildfeedingstrategiesthatrestrictchildrensaccesstofoods...actuallymaketherestricted
foodsmoreattractive.

Ogdenetal(2006)suggestedthatthecontrastingeffectsofparentalcontrolonfoodintakemaybe
todowiththetypeofcontroluse.Themeasuredtheeffectsofovertcontrol(caneasilybe
detectedbychildren)andcovertcontrol(notsoeasilydetectable).Theyfoundthathigherovert
controlcausedincreasedhealthysnackintake,whilsthighercovertcontrolcauseddecreased
unhealthysnackintake.

Evaluationofdevelopmentaltheoriesofeatingbehaviour:

Thedevelopmentalapproachexplainshowfoodpreferencesarelearntduringchildhood,and
providesanumberofexplanationsastowhatinfluencesthesepreferences.

Developmentalresearchisoftencarriedoutinalaboratorysetting.Thisallowstheimpactof
specificvariablestobemeasuredandconfoundingvariablestobeexcluded.
Becausedevelopmentalresearchiscarriedoutinacontrolledlaboratorysetting,theextentto
whichresultscanbegeneralisedtoreallifesituationsislimited.

Althoughthedevelopmentalapproachexaminesfoodasareward,gainingrewardthroughfood
andtheunpleasantpsychologicalconsequencesoffood,itignoresseveralothersmeaningsoffood.

Thedevelopmentalapproachdoesnottakeintoaccounttheroleourcognitionsplayinoureating
behaviour.

Topic2:WhatInfluencesourEatingBehaviour?

Culture

Thereisgreatvarianceinfoodpreferencesbetweenandwithincultures.Forexample,childrenin
theU.K.oftendeveloppreferencesforfoodssuchaschips,whereaschildreninIndiagrowup
believingthatspicyfoodisbetter.Rozin(1982)statesthatthebestpredictorofapersonsfood
preferencesistheirethnicgroup.Culturaldifferencesineatingbehaviourhaveleadtoresearchinto
thelearningprocessthateffectoureatingbehaviour.

HealthConcerns

Healthisoftenemphasisedasamotivationforeatingbehaviour.Thiscanbeseeninmanyreallife
situationsi.e.TVprogrammeswhichfocusonhealthyeating.Researchontheinfluenceofhealthon
ourattitudestoeatingbehaviourhasshown:

Rapport(2003):

Rapportstatesthatthegrowingmarketandinterestinhealthyeatingisobviousevidencethat
healthmotivatespeopleseatingbehaviour.

Steptoeetal(1995):

Thislargescalesurveyfoundthathealthwasoneofmanymotivatingfactorsforfoodchoice,and
wasnotaparticularlyhighpriorityforsomepeople.Othermotivatingfactorsincludedthesensory
appealandpriceoffood.

Mood

Schacter(1986)semotionalitytheoryofobesitystatesthatpeoplebecomeobeseiftheyeatfor
emotionalreasons,whereaspeoplestaythiniftheyeatduetohunger.Researchontheinfluenceof
moodonoureatingbehaviourhasshown:

Bruch(1965):

Bruchexaminedanorexiaandbulimia,andsuggestedthatthosewhosufferfromeatingdisorders
useovereatingandundereatingtomanagetheiremotions.

Ogden(2003):

Ogdensuggestedthatpeopleeatinresponsetotheirmoodregardlessoftheirweightoranyeating
disorder.Forexample,wemayeatmorewheninanegativemoodtoimproveourmood,butwe
mayalsoeatmorewhilstinapositivemoodaspartofasocialsituation.

Particularlyfocushasbeenputonwhetherornotweeatmorewhenwefeelstressed.Somestudies
havefoundthatstressincreasesfoodintake:

Spillman(1990):

Spillmanstatesthatsomepeopleuseeatingasacopingresponsetostress.

Wardleetal(2000):

Thiswasanaturalisticstudyofstressatworkthatconcludedthatperiodsofhighworkloadwere
associatedwithincreasedintakeofsaturatedfatandsugar.

OliverandWardle(1999):

Thisstudyexaminedtherelationshipbetweenstressandsnacking,andfoundthatstressincreased
snackinganddecreasedmealconsumptionin73%ofparticipants.

However,otherstudieshavefoundthatstressdecreasesfoodintake:

Willenbringetal(1986):

Willenbringpointedoutthatlaboratorystudiesonhumanshavefoundthatparticipantseatless
whentheyfeelstressed.

Popperetal(1989):

Popperpointedoutthatdecreasesinfoodconsumptionhavebeenreportedinmarinesduring
combatsituations.

StoneandBrownell(1994):

Theeatingpatternsandstresslevelsof158studentswererecordedfor84days.Thestudyfound
thateatinglesswasapredominantresponsetostress.

StoneandBrownellreferredtothecontradictoryfindingsontherelationshipbetweenstressand
eatingasthestresseatingparadox.GreenoandWing(1994)putforward2hypothesestoexplain
this:

GeneralIntakeModel:Stresschangesfoodintakeingeneral.

IndividualDifferenceModel:Stressonlychangesfoodintakeinvulnerablegroupsofindividuals.

Researchhasfocusedontheindividualdifferencemodel.Somestudieshaveconcludedinfavourof
thismodel:

Coolsetal(1992):

Thestudyfoundthatstressonlytriggeredincreasedfoodintakeinpeoplethatwerealreadydieting.

However,otherstudieshaveconcludedagainsttheindividualdifferencemodel:

Oliveretal(2000):

Thisstudyreportednoimpactofdietonstressinducedeating,althoughitdidfindthatemotional
eatersatemorefollowingexperimentallyinducedstress.

Cooneretal(1999):

Thestudyfoundadirectassociationbetweenincreaseddailyhasslesandincreasedsnackingin
studentsovera7dayperiod.However,noparticulargroupshowedgreatersnacking.

Topic3:Dieting

Dietinginvolvestryingtoeatlessthanusualbyplacingacognitivelimitonfoodintake.Research
showsthatupto70%ofwomendietatsomepointintheirlives.HermanandMack/Hermanand
Pollivydevelopedtherestrainttheorytoexplainthecausesandconsequencesofdieting.The
theorystatesthatdietingcaneitherbesuccessful,resultingineatinglessandweightloss,or
unsuccessful,resultinginovereatingandweightgain.

SuccessfulDieting

Somestudieshaveshownthatrestrainedeatingcansuccessfullyleadtoreducedfoodintake:

Kirkleyetal(1988):

Waddenetal(1993),Glennyetal(1997):

Thesestudiesfoundthatdietaryinterventionsinvolvingstrategiessuchascaloriecontrol,cognitive
behaviouraltherapyandhealthyeatingresultedinsubstantialchangesineatingbehaviourand
weightinamatterofmonths.

FactorsofaSuccessfulDiet

Researchersbelievethat4factorsareneededinordertodietsuccessfully:

Amodelofobesitythatfocusesonbehaviourasacentralpartofthepersonsweightproblem.

Thepersonavoidingastateofdenialwheretheydontwanttoeatbutdo.

Thepersoncreatingasituationwherefoodisntregardedasrewarding.

Thepersonestablishinganewidentityasathinnerperson.

Researchonthesefactorshasshown:

Rodinetal(1977):

Participantsbeliefsaboutthecausesofobesityandtheirmotivationtoloseweightwerethe
primarypsychologicalpredictorsofweightloss.

Williamsetal(1996):

Thestudyfoundthatmotivationwastheprimarypredictorofweightlossandweightmaintenance.

Kiermanetal(1998):

Thestudyfoundthatpeoplewhoweredissatisfiedabouttheirbodyshapewerethemostsuccessful
dieters,suggestingthatphysicalattractivenessisaprimarymotivationforweightloss.

Ogden(2000):

Ogdenexaminedthedietfeaturesofweightlossmaintainers,weightlossregainersandpeoplewho
wereconsistentlyobese.Hefoundthatweightlossmaintainersweremorelikelytoadoptamodel
oftheconsequencesofobesity,weremotivatedtoloseweightbecauseofpositivepsychological
factorsandwerelesslikelytoadoptacauseandeffectmodelofweightloss.

OgdenandHills(2008):

Theresearchersinterviewedsuccessfulweightlossmaintainers.Theyfoundthatweightlosswas
oftentriggeredbykeylifeevents,whichtranslatedintolongtermbehaviourifanumberof
conditionsweremet:

Abehaviouralmodelofobesity.

Areductioninwhatandwhenparticipantsate.

Areductioninthebenefitsandfunctionsoffood.

Creatinganewidentityasathinner,healthierperson.

UnsuccessfulDieting

Otherstudieshavefoundthatdietingcanbeunsuccessfulresultinginovereating.Muchofthe
researchinthisareainvolvestheuseofthepreload/tastetestmethod,inwhichparticipantsare
givenasampleoffoodbeforetheirfoodintakeismeasuredinatastetest.Thisallowsfoodintaketo
bemeasuredinacontrolledsetting:

RuddermanandWilson(1979):

Participantsweregiveneitherahighorlowcaloriepreload.Theywerethenaskedtotakepartina
tastetest.Theywereleftalonetoeatthefoodsandtheamountoftimetheytookwasrecorded
(althoughtheywereunawareofthis).Thestudyfoundthatrestrainedeatersconsumedsignificantly
morethanunrestrainedeaters,regardlessofthesizeofthepreload.

HermanandMack(1975):

Thisstudywascarriedouttodemonstratetheeffectsofdisinhibitiononrestrainedeaters.
HermanandPollivy(1988)defineddisinhibitionaseatingmoreasaresultoflooseningrestraints
inresponsetoemotionaldistress,intoxicationorpreloading.

Theresearchersgaveagroupofdietersandnondietersahighorlowcaloriepreload.Thestudy
foundthatthedietersconsumedmoreinasubsequenttastetestwhengivenahighcaloriepreload
theyhadsufferedfromdisinhibitioninresponsetothepreload.

ThefindingsofthisstudyarewidelycitedinEnglishspeakingcountries.Thestudychallenged
contemporaryideasabouteatingbehaviour.Thefindingthattryingnottoeatcouldresultin
overeatingwasreflectiveofthereallifeexperiencesofmanydieters.

Thefactthestudywascarriedoutinalaboratorysettinggivesitsomescientificcredibility.

Thestudyusedasmallsample,socautionneedstobeexercisedwhengeneralisingthefindingsto
theexternalpopulation.

CausesofOvereating

Researchhasbeencarriedouttoestablishwhydietersovereat:

CausalModelofOverEating

HermanandPollivy(1980)putforwardacausalmodelofovereating,whichstatesthatdieters
whoattemptnottoeatactuallyendupovereating.ThisideawastestedinWardleandBeales
(1980):

27womenwereassignedtoeitheradietgroup,anexercisegrouporacontrolwhereno
interventionwasused.Theirfoodintakewasassessedinalaboratoryprocedureinthe4thand6th
weeks.Thestudyfoundthatthoseinthedietgroupatethemost,suggestingthattheirattemptat
dietingcausedthemtoovereat.

Thestudyhighlightsthenegativeeffectsofrestrainedeating.Thefindingsarewidelyknown
amongstthenonscientificcommunity,andhaveinfluencedmanynegativeviewsofdieting.

Thewaytheresearchersallocatedparticipantsallowedthemtomakecomparisonsbetweenthe
groups.Thelaboratorysettingallowsgreatercontrol.

Participantswererandomlyallocatedtotheconditions,sotheyshouldhavebehavedconsistently.

Thestudyusedasmallsample,socautionneedstobeexercisedwhengeneralisingthefindingsto
theexternalpopulation.

Theresearchwascarriedoutinalaboratorysetting,meaningtheparticipantscouldhaverealised
theywerebeingobserved,andsocouldhavechangedtheirbehaviourasaresult.

Allofthewomeninthestudywantedtoloseweight,andsocouldhavesimplycontinuedwiththeir
owneffortstodosoregardlessoftheconditiontheywereallocatedtointhestudy.
Mood

Dieterstendtoeatinresponsetonegativemood.Researchersarguethatdieterssometimesblame
theirovereatingonthefacttheyaredieting,whenitisinfactcausedbynegativeaspectsoftheirlife
thattheycannotcontrol.Thisisknownasthemaskingeffect.Researchinthisareahasshown:

PollivyandHerman(1999):

Participantsweretoldthattheyhadeitherpassedorfailedacognitivetask.Theywerethenoffered
asmuchfoodastheyliked,orsmall,controlledamountsoffood.Thedieterswhoateasmuchas
theylikedtendedtoblamethisbehaviouronthefacttheyweredietingratherthantheirresulton
thecognitivetask.

Denial

WegnerandWenzlaff(2000)claimthatsuppressingandcontrollingthoughtscanhavethereverse
effectofmakingthesethoughtsmoreprominent.ThisideawasdemonstratedinWegneretal
(1987):

Participantswereaskednottothinkaboutawhitepolarbear,butringabelliftheydid.Thestudy
foundthatthosewhoweretoldnottothinkaboutthebearactuallythoughtaboutitmorethan
thosewhoweretoldtothinkaboutit.

Thistheorycanalsobeappliedtoeatingbehaviour.Ifwedecidenottoeatacertainfood,wemay
actuallyeatitmoreoften,asdemonstratedinSoetensetal(2006):

Theresearchersdividedtheresampleintorestrainedandunrestrainedeaters.Therestrainedeaters
werethendividedintohigh/lowdisinhibition.Thestudyfoundthatdisinhibitedrestrainedeaters
usedthoughtsuppressionmoreoftenthantheothergroups,andactuallyatemoreafterusing
thoughtsuppressiontechniques.

WeightLoss

Theaimofdietingistoloseweightbyreducingfoodintake.However,researchhasshownthat
dietersoftengothroughperiodsofovereatingandundereating,resultinginweightfluctuation.
Researchinthisareahasshown:

Heathertonetal(1991):

Thestudyfoundthatrestrainedeaterswentthroughperiodsofbothovereatingandundereating.
Thisleadtoweightfluctuation,butnoactualweightloss.

Ogden(1993):

Ogdenexaminedrestrainedeaters,andfoundthatthosewhoemployedhighmeasuresofrestraint
werentalwayssuccessfulatreducingtheirfoodintake.Thesefindingssuggestthatrestrainedeating
isanintentionwhichisonlysporadicallyrealised.

Heathertonetal(1988):

Theresearchersarguedthatrestrainedeaterswhooccasionallyoverateweremorerepresentative
ofrestrainedeatersthanthosewhowereconstantlyrestrained.

Evaluationofresearchondieting:

Muchoftheresearchondietinghasbeencarriedoutinanexperimentalsetting,allowingbetter
manipulation/controlofvariables.

Researchfindingsondietingtendtoreflectthereallifeexperiencesofdieters.

Therestrainttheoryislimited,asifattemptingnottoeatresultsinovereating,thisdoesnot
explainhowrestrictiveanorexicsmanagetostarvethemselves.

Thereisacleargenderbiasinresearchondieting,asmuchoftheresearchhasfocusedonfemale
participants.Thisisbecausefemalesaremorelikelytodiet.

Topic4:EvolutionaryExplanationsofEatingBehaviour

Thereare3mainareasthatareofinteresttoevolutionistsresearchingeatingbehaviour:

InnateFoodPreferences

Researchsuggeststhathumanshavedevelopedinnatepreferencesforparticularfoods:

Davis(1928):

Daviswantedtoinvestigatethechoiceschildrenmadeabouttheirdietsatatimewhenchildfeeding
regimeswerehighlyrestricted.ChildrenlivinginaU.S.paediatricunitwereoffered1012foodsand
werefreetoeatwhatevertheyliked.Davisrecordedthefoodsthechildrenchose.Thestudyfound
thatthechildrenchosefoodsconsistentwithhealthandgrowth,andnofeedingproblemswere
observed.

Becausethechildrenwereobservedinareallifesetting,itcouldbesaidthatthefoodstheychose
werereflectiveoftheirreallifefoodpreferences.

Davisfindingswerepublishedinaprestigiousreviewjournal,andhavebeencitedbyclinicians
frommanydisciplines.Becausethestudywascarriedoutatimewhenchildrensdietswerehighly
restricted,thefindingswerehighlycontroversial.

Desoretal(1978):

Thestudyfoundthatbabiesusedsuckingandfacialexpressionsasindicatorsofpreferencefor
sweettastingsubstances.

Geldard(1972):

Thestudyfoundthatbabiesusedsuckingandfacialexpressionasindictorsofrejectionforsour
tastingsubstances.

Denton(1982):

Dentonclaimsthatresearchsuggeststhatanimalshaveaninnatepreferenceforsalt.

Moran(1982):

Thisstudyfoundthatbabieswhousuallydranksweetenedwaterdrankmoreofthisthanbabies
whowerenotsoaccustomedtodoingso.Thesefindingssuggestanimportantroleforlearningand
familiarityinthedevelopmentoffoodpreferences.

HowWereInnateFoodPreferencesAdaptive?

Ourancestorsdietsconsistedoffruit,berries,vegetablesandsomemeats.Thesefoodpreferences
wouldhavebeenadaptivebecause:

Aninnatepreferenceforsweetfoodswouldhaveencouragedourancestorstoeatfruit.Fruit
containsnaturalfructoseandcaloriesneededforenergy.

Anavoidanceofsourfoodswouldhaveprotectedourancestorsbyhelpingthemtoavoid
poisonousfoods.

Aninnatepreferenceforsaltmaybeimportant,astheadditionalsaltinmeatisimportantin
maintainingourbodysnaturalsodiumbalance.

HowDoInnateFoodPreferencesFunctionToday?

Themainchallengeforourancestorswastoeatenoughfoodtoavoidmalnutritionandmaintaina
physicallyactivelifestyle.However,today,foodislessscarceandourlivesarelessactive.Today,an
innatepreferenceforsweet/saltyfoodsmaynotencouragepeopletoeatfruit/meat,buteatfoods
thatarehighincalories.Evolutionistshaveputforwardanexplanationofobesityknownasthe
obesogenicenvironment.Thistheorystatesthataspectsofourmodernlifestylesuchascarsand
fastfoodrestaurantscancontributetoanunhealthylifestyle,inturnresultinginhighlevelsof
obesity.

Evaluationofevolutionaryexplanationsofeatingbehaviour:

Theevolutionaryapproachexplainsfoodpreferencesthatwereadaptiveforourancestorsand
howthesefunctioninthemodernworld.

Theevolutionaryapproachfocusesonultimate(adaptive)asopposedtoproximate(present
circumstances)causesofourbehaviour.Byfocusingonthelongtermcausesofourbehaviour,using
anevolutionaryapproachmayleadtoamorelongtermsolutiontomaladaptiveeatingbehaviour.

Itishardtoestablishthevalidityofadaptationasanexplanationofhumanbehaviour,asthereis
nowayoftestinghowitworks.

Someevolutionistsbelievethatwearenolongeradaptingtoourenvironment,however,others
suchasWills(1999)believethathumansarestilladaptingbothphysicallyandpsychologicallyfaster
thananyotherspecies.
Topic5:BiologicalExplanationsofEatingBehaviour:

Researchhasidentifiedanumberofbiologicalmechanismsthatcontroloureatingbehaviour:

Homeostatis

Humansareahomeostaticspeciestheyregulatetheirbodieswithindefinedlimits.Ourbody
weightisoneofthevariablesthatisregulatedinthisway,meaningthatoureatingbehaviourisan
essentialpartofhomeostatis.Anumberoftheoriesastohowweregulateourbodyweighthave
beenputforward:

GlucostatHypothesis:

Thisistheideathatourbloodglucoselevelsareimportantinregulatingourbodyweight.Whenwe
arehungry,ourbloodglucoselevelsfall,andwhenwearefull,ourbloodglucoselevelrise.

Glucoselevelsdonotvarygreatlyundernormalcircumstances,sowecannotsaytheyarea
significantsignalofhungerandsatiety.

Diabeticshavehighbloodglucoselevels,butrelativelynormalappetites.

LipostaticHypothesis:

Thisistheideathatourfatstoresareimportantinregulatingourbodyweight.Fatisstoredincells
knownasadipocytes.Adipocytesreleasethehormoneleptin.Thistravelstothehypothalamus
andactsasasatietysignal.Themorefatstoredintheadipocytes,themoreleptinisreleased,andso
thehypothalamusisencouragedtoreducefoodintake.Researchontheroleofleptininfoodintake
hasshown:

Carlson(2007):

Leptinwasinjectedintoobmice(geneticallyobesemicethatareunabletoproduceleptin).This
causedthemicesfoodintaketodecreaseandtheirweighttoreturntonormal.

Wecannotsaythatlowlevelsofleptincauseobesity.Obesepeoplehavenormallevelsofleptin
comparedtothoseofanormalweight,andthereafewpeoplewhoareobesebecauseofagenetic
leptindeficiency.

AdenosineTrisophate:

Thisisaproductofthebreakdownofnutrients.Itisconvertedintoenergythroughthecitricacid
cycle.Thisisalsothoughttoplayanimportantroleinhomeostatis.

TheHypothalamus

Mostoftheresearchonareasofthebrainresponsibleforeatingbehaviourhasidentifiedakeyrole
forthehypothalamus.Thefirsttheoryontheroleofthehypothalamusineatingbehaviourwasthe
dualcentretheory:
HetheringtonandRanson(1942)madecuts(lesions)totheventromedialhypothalamusofseveral
rats.Thecutscausedtheratstobecomedramaticallyobese.Theresearchersstatedthatthe
ventromedialwasasatietycentreitsfunctionistoinhibiteatingbehaviourwhenwearefull.

AnandandBrobeck(1951)foundthatlesionstothelateralhypothalamusofratsleadtoalossof
eatingbehaviour.Theysuggestedthatthisareawasafeedingcentreresponsibleforinitiating
eatingbehaviour.

Thelateralhypothalamusisactivatedandwestarteating

Foodintakeleadstoareleaseofgrehlin,bloodglucoseandleptin,andsotheventromedial
hypothalamusisactivated.

Theactivationoftheventromedialhypothalamusleadstofullness.

Electricstimulationoftheventromedialhypothalamushasbeenshowntoinhibiteatingbehaviour,
whilstelectricstimulationofthelateralhypothalamushasbeenshowntotriggereatingbehaviour,
confirmingthefunctionsofthesecomponentsaccordingtothedualcentretheory.

Damagetothelateralhypothalamushasbeenshowntocauseaphagia(failuretoeatwhen
hungry),whilsttumoursinthebasalhypothalamushavebeenshowntocauseobesity.

TheStomach

Researchontheroleofthestomachineatingbehaviourhasshown:

CannonandWashburn(1912):

Washburnswallowedaballoon.CannonthenusedtheballoontomeasureWashburnsstomach
movementsinrelationtohisfeelingsofhunger.HefoundthatWashburnsstomachcontractedas
hisfeelingsofhungerincreased,suggestingthatthepresence/absenceoffoodinthestomachisan
importantfeedingsignal.

Peoplewholoosepartsoftheirstomachduetocancercanstillregulatetheirfoodintake.

Cummingsetal(2004):

Thisstudyexaminedtheroleofgrehlinineatingbehaviour.Grehlinisahormonereleasedbythe
stomachindirectproportiontohunger.

6participantsatelunch.Theresearchersthenmonitoredtheirgrehlinlevelsthroughbloodsample
takenevery5minutes.Participantswereaskedtoassesstheirhungerevery30minutes.Thestudy
foundadirectcorrelationbetweengrehlinlevelsandhungerin5ofthe6participants.The
researchersconcludedthatgrehlinlevelsdirectlyreflectstomachemptinessandarecloselyrelated
tofeelingsofhunger.

Theresearchagreedwithpreviousworkontheroleofgrehlinineatingbehaviourwhichisagood
indicatorofreliability.
Theresearchwascarriedoutinisolation,meaningparticipantsgrehlinlevelswerecausedby
actualhungerratherthanexternalsignalsthatmealtimewasapproaching.

Theresearchersobtainedconsenttocarryouttheresearchfromtheirlocalethicscommittee.
Participantsgaveinformedconsentandwerefullydebriefedafterthestudy.

Thestudyprovidescorrelationalevidencewecannotsaythatgrehlinlevelscausehunger.

Thestudyconsistedof6maleparticipants,soitisextremelydifficulttogeneralisethefindingsto
theexternalpopulation.

TheDigestiveTract

Asfoodpassesfromthestomachintotheduodenum(partofthesmallintestine),thebodyrelease
thehormonecholecystokonin(CCK).Gibbs(1982)foundthatinjectionsofCCKintohumansand
animalsreducedmealsize,suggestingthatCCKactsasasatietysignalandreducesfoodintake.

ManyanimalswithageneticmutationintheCCKsystembecomeobese.

Neurotransmitters

Researchhasidentified3neurotransmittersthatinfluenceoureatingbehaviour:

Catecholaminesincludedopamine,adrenalineandnoradrenaline.Thesearereleasedbythe
adrenalglandaspartofthestressresponse.

Serotonintriggersthemusclesforfeeding.

Peptidesarepolymersformedbythedirectlinkingofaminoacidsinasetorder.

Someneurotransmittershavebeenshowntoincreasefoodintake:

Noradrenaline:Researchindicatesthatinjectionsofnoradrenalinecaneitherstimulateorreduce
foodintakedependingontotheareaofthehypothalamusintowhichtheyareinjected.Lebowitz
(1986)statesthatnoradrenalinemaytriggeraspecificdesireforcarbohydrates.

NeuropeptideY:Thisisa33aminoacidfoundintheperfornicalandparaventricularhypothalamus.
ResearchonneuropeptideYhasshown:

Lebowitz(1986):

RatswhowerealreadyfullcontinuedtoeatwheninjectedwithneuropeptideY.

Marieetal(2005):

TheresearchersgeneticallymodifiedratssotheydidnotproduceneuropeptideY,butfoundno
subsequentdecreaseintheireatingbehaviour.

Galanin:Thisisa29aminoacidthatiswidespreadinthebrain.Lebowitz(1986)foundthat
injectionsofgalaninintoratscausedincreasedfoodintakeandapreferenceforfats.
Otherneurotransmittershavebeenshowntodecreasefoodintake,accordingtoRowlandetal
(1996):

CCK:Thisisahormonereleasedbythesmallintestine.Ifinjectedintorats,CCKcausessatietyand
reducesappetiteandweightgain.

Bombesin:Thisisapeptidewhichhasbeenshowntoreducefoodintakeinrats.

CorticotrophinReleasingFactor:Thisisa41aminoacidwhichhasbeenshowntoreducefood
intake.

Serotoninhasalsobeenshowntodecreaseeatingbehaviour.

Drugs

Certaindrugshavebeenfoundtoinfluenceoureatingbehaviour.Somehavebeenshownto
increasefoodintake:

Marijuana(Hollister(1971))Antipsychotics(Robinsonetal(1975))

Othershavebeenshowntoreducefoodintake:

Nicotine(Ogden(1994)foundthatdietersusedsmokingasaweightlossstrategy,andstopping
smokingmayresultinhighercalorieconsumption).

Analgesics(aredrugsgivenaspainrelief.Beecher(1959)foundthatmorphineslightlydecreases
hunger.TrenchardandSilverstone(1983)foundthatnaloxoneslightlyreducedfoodintake).

Tryptophanandsibutramine(Kopelam(1999))

Fenfluoramineanddexfenfluoramine(BlundellandHill(1989),however,thesedrugshavesince
beenremovedfromthemarketduetoalinktoheartproblems).

Theinfluenceonsomedrugsonfoodintakeisunclear:

Alcohol(Hollister(1971))

Antidepressants(Blundelletal(1989)foundthattheantidepressantamitryptilinecaused
increasedhunger,slightweightgainandacravingforsweetfoods,butfoundthatSSRIspromoted
weightloss).

Muchoftheresearchintotheeffectsofdrugsoneatingbehaviourhasbeencarriedoutina
laboratorysetting,andthereareveryfewstudiesthathaveusedhumanparticipants.

Evaluationofbiologicalexplanationsofeatingbehaviour:

Biologicalexplanationsofeatingbehaviourreflectourreallifeexperiencesweeatwhenwefull
hungry,andstopeatingwhenwefeelfull.

Biologicalexplanationsofeatingbehaviourcanexplainwhypeoplewithcertainmedicalconditions
havedifferenteatinghabits.
Biologicalexplanationsofeatingbehaviourarereductionist.Theyexplaineatingbehaviourbased
onbiologyalone,andfailtotakeintoaccountthemanymeaningsthatfoodhasandthefactthatwe
canoverrideourpsychologicaldesirestoeat.

Muchofthebiologicalresearchintoeatingbehaviourhasbeencarriedoutinalaboratorysetting
usingnonhumananimals.Theextenttowhichthesefindingscanbegeneralisedtoreallife
situationsislimited,aslaboratorysettingsarehighlycontrolled,andtherearephysiological
differencesbetweenhumansandanimals.Therearealsoethicalissueswithusingnonhuman
animalsinscientificresearch.

Thebiologicalapproachignorestherolethatthesensoryappealoffoodplaysinoureating
behaviour.AccordingtoDeCastro(2004),bothandanimalsprefertoeatbettertastingfood.Also,
weofteneatdesirablefoodsuchaschocolatewhenwearenotevenhungry.

Topic6:Obesity

2commondefinitionsofobesity:

BodyMassIndex

Apersonsweightisdividedbytheirheight.Thisissquared,andtheproductofthisisapersons
bodymassindex.Basedonthismeasure,apersonsweightcanbecategorisedasnormal(BMI20
24.9),overweightgrade1(BMI2529.9),clinicallyobese(BMI3039.9),severeobesity(BMI40+).

AlthoughBMIisthemostcommondefinitionofobesity,itfailstotakeintoaccountthetypeof
weight(muscle/fat)orthelocationoffat.

WaistCircumference

Thecircumferenceofthewaistismeasuredaroundtheabdomen.Thistakesintoaccountthe
locationoffat.Ananalysisofthelocationoffatisimportant,becauseabdominalfatisabetter
predictorofhealthproblems.AccordingtoLeonetal(1998),aweightcircumferencegreaterthan
40inches(35inchesinwomen)isanindicatorthatweightreductionneedstotakeplace.

HowCommonisObesity?

Researchindicatesthatobesityisbecomingincreasinglycommon,forexample:

UKNationalAuditOffice(2001):

IfobesityisaBMIofover30,thenin1980,6%ofmenand8%ofwomenwereobese.Thishadrisen
to17%and21%by1998,withnosignofthisupwardtrendreducing.

ChinnandRona(2001):

TheresearchersanalysedweightdataonEnglishchildrenfrom1994,andfoundthat9%ofboysand
13.5%ofgirlswereoverweight,and1.7%ofboysand2.6%ofgirlswereobese.Thesefigureswere
50%higherthanthosefromthepreviousdecade.
ThehighestobesityratesarefindinTunisia,Canada,SaudiArabiaandtheU.S.A.Thelowestobesity
ratesarefoundinChina,Japan,Mali,BrazilandSweden.TheUKisinthemiddleoftherange.

PhysicalConsequencesofObesity

Obesityhasbeenlinkedwithanumberofhealthproblemsincludingheartdiseaseanddiabetes.
Researchinthisareahasshown:

Ashtonetal(2001):

Thisstudyexamined14,077women,andfoundadirectlinkbetweenBMIandriskfactorsforheart
diseasesuchashighbloodpressure.

RomeroCorral(2006):

AccordingtoRomeroCorral,studieshaveshownalinkbetweenhighBMIandhighbloodpressure,
diabetesandheartdisease.

PsychologicalConsequencesofObesity

Thereisalsoanargumentthatobesityislinkedtopsychologicalproblems.Somestudieshavefound
evidencetosupportthislink:

Waddenetal(2006):

Thisstudyfoundthatindividualswaitingforsurgicaltreatmentforobesityshowedmoredepressive
symptomsthanthoseofanormalweight.

RandandMcgregor(1991):

Individualswhohadundergonegastricbypasssurgeryreportedthattheywouldrathersufferfrom
conditionssuchasdyslexiathanreturntotheirformerweight.

Simonetal(2006):

Thisstudyexamined9,000U.S.adultsandfoundthatobesityrateswereassociatedwithincreased
diagnosesofdepression,panicdisorder,bipolaroragoraphobia.

However,otherstudieshavefailedtofindalinkbetweenobesityandpsychologicalproblems:

Ross(1994):

Rosscarriedouttelephoneinterviewswith2,000adultsofavariedweight.Hefoundthatbeing
overweightwasnotrelatedtodepression.Heidentifiedagroupwithinhissamplethatwere
overweight,sufferedfromdepressionandwerealsodieting.Heconcludedthatitwasthese
participantsstressofdietingandnottheirweightwhichcausedtheirpsychologicalproblems.

PsychologicalExplanationsofObesity

Thereare2primaryexplanationsofobesityfromapsychologicalapproach:

PhysicalActivity

Asobesityrateshaveincreased,theamountweexercisehasdecreased.Changestoourlifestyle
meanwenowexerciseless,therefore,ithasbeensuggestedthatadecreaseintheamountwe
exercisehasleadtoanincreaseinratesofobesity.Researchinthisareahasshown:

PrenticeandJebb(1995):

Thestudyfoundastrongcorrelationbetweencarownership,TVviewingandincreasedobesity.The
researcherssuggestedthatdecreasedphysicalactivityandreducedenergyneedshadplayedan
importantpartinthedevelopmentofobesityinBritain.

Thestudyusedalargesample,meaningtheresultscanbegeneralisedtoanexternalpopulation.

Thestudyusedobjectivemeasuresofphysicalactivity,avoidingtheproblemsposedbyselfreport
data.

Thestudyusedpopulationdataonweightandheight,againavoidingtheproblemsposedbyself
reportdata.

Thestudyprovidescorrelationalevidencewecannotsayalackofphysicalactivitycausesobesity.
Theremaybeanumberofothervariableswhichcauseobesity.

Rissonenetal(1991):

Thisstudyexaminedtheassociationbetweenphysicalactivityandweightgainin5,000adults.It
foundthatlowlevelsofphysicalactivitywereamajorriskfactorforweightgain.

Thestudyprovidescorrelationalevidencewecannotsayalackofphysicalactivitycausesobesity.
Theremaybeanumberofothervariableswhichcauseobesity.

Researchhasalsobeencarriedouttoinvestigatewhetherobesepeopleexerciselessthanthoseofa
normalweight.Researchinthisareahasshown:

Bullenetal(1964):

Theresearchersobservedgirlsconsideredtobeobeseandthoseofanormalweightonasummer
camp.Duringswimming,theobesegirlsspentmoretimefloatingthanswimming.Duringtennis,the
obesegirlswereinactivefor77%ofthetime,whereasthenonobesegirlswereonlyinactivefor56%
oftime.Theresearchersalsopointedoutthatobesepeoplespendlesstimewalkingandareless
likelytousestairs.

However,reducedexercisemaybeaconsequenceofratherthanacauseofobesity.Obesepeople
mayexerciselessduetofactorssuchasdiscomfortwhenexercising.Whilstlowlevelsofexercise
maymaintainobesity,theymaynotbetheoriginalcause.

EatingBehaviour

Thereare3mainareasofresearchinthisarea:

Arechangesinobesityratesassociatedwithchangesinfoodintake?:

Althoughpopulationdatashowsthatwenoweatlesscarbohydratesandmorefats,researchhas
foundnorelationshipbetweenchangesinfoodintakeandrisingobesityrates:

TheUKNationalFoodSurvey:

Thisisadatabasecontaininginformationonfoodintakeinthehomefromthepast50years.The
databaseshowsthatwhilstcalorieconsumptionincreasedbetween1950and1970,therehasbeen
nosignificantincreaseintheamountweeatsincethe1970s.

PrenticeandJebb(1995):

Thestudyfoundnoobviouscorrelationbetweenchangesinfoodintake(fatandenergy)and
changesinobesityrates.

Doobesepeopleeatfordifferentreasonstononobesepeople?:

Schactersexternalitytheoryofobesitystatesthatwealleatinresponsetoenvironmentalcues.
However,peoplewhoareobeseresponduncontrollablytothesecues.Schacterattemptedtotest
thistheorybycomparinghowobeseandnonobeseparticipantsrespondedtoenvironmentalcues,
althoughfindingsfromhisstudieswereinconsistent.

Schacterlaterputforwardtheemotionalitytheoryofobesity.Thistheorystatesthatwhilstweall
eatforemotionalreasons,thisismoresoforpeoplewhoareobese.

Doobesepeopleeatmorethannonobesepeople?:

Researchhasshownthatingeneral,obesepeopleeatnomorethannonobesepeople:

Coatesetal(1978):

Theresearcherswentintothehomesof60middleclassfamilies,examinedthecontentsoftheir
cupboardsandweighedeachfamilymember.Thefoundnorelationshipbetweenthefamilies
weightsandtheamount/typesoffoodconsumed.

SpitzerandRodin(1981):

Theresearchersexaminedpreviousstudiesofeatingbehaviour,andconcludedthatofthe29
laboratorystudiesontheeffectofamounteatenonbodyweight...only9reportedthatoverweight
subjectsatesignificantlymorethantheirthinnercounterparts.

Otherresearchershaveexaminedwhetherobesepeopleeatmoreofcertaintypesoffood.Prentic
(1995)putforwardthefatproportiontheory.Thisstatesthatalthoughobesepeoplegenerallyeat
nomorethannonobesepeople,theytendtoeatmorefat.Caloriesfromfatleadtogreaterweight
gainthancaloriesfromcarbohydrates.Thistheoryissupportedbythefindingsof:

BoltonSmithandWoodward(1974):

Inasampleof11,500peopleinScotland,menwithalowlevelofcarbohydrateintheirdietswerex4
morelikelytobeobesethanthosewhoconsumedahighlevelofcarbohydrate.
BlundellandMacDiarmid(1997):

Thestudyfoundthatpeoplewhoobtainedmorethan45%oftheirenergyfromfatwerex19more
likelytobeobesethanthosewhoobtainedlessthan35%oftheirenergyfromfat.

Blundelletalofferedanexplanationastohowfatintakemayleadtoobesity.Carbohydratesare
burnedinthebody,whereasfatisstored.Carbohydratesobtainedfromfoodssuchasricearealso
betteratsatisfyinghunger.

Evaluationofpsychologicalexplanationsofobesity:

Psychologicalexplanationsofobesityattempttoexplaintheroleourbehaviourplaysinobesity,
andofferreasonswhyobesityrateshavechangedoverthepast40years.

Psychologicalexplanationsofobesitycouldprovideuswithaframeworkfordeveloping
psychologicaltherapiesforobesity.

Itisdifficulttomeasurefoodintake,aspeopleeatdifferentamountsindifferentsituations,and
oftenlieabouttheirfoodintakewhenselfreportdatawasused.

Psychologicalexplanationsofobesityfailtotakebiologicalexplanationsintoaccount.

Researchclaimsthatpeoplewhoareobeseeatmoreandexerciseless.Thishasleadtoawidely
heldstereotypethatobesepeopleareglutinousandlazy,whichcouldinfluenceresearchers.

BiologicalExplanationsofObesity

Anumberoftheoriesonthebiologicalcausesofobesityhavebeenputforward:

MetabolicRateTheory

Apersonsmetabolicrateistherateatwhichtheyburnenergy.AccordingtoBouchardetal(1990),
thischaracteristicishighlyinheritable.Ithasbeenarguedthatpeoplewithalowmetabolicrateare
atgreaterriskofbecomingobese,astheyburnlessenergywhenresting.Researchonthemetabolic
ratetheoryhasshown:

Tattarinietal(2003):

AccordingtoKnowleretal(1991),thePimaIndiansofSouthArizonahaveoneofthehighestobesity
ratesintheworld.Theresearchersmeasuredtheenergyintakeandexpenditureof92adultPima
Indians.Thestudyfoundthatlowmetabolicrateswereamajorriskfactorforobesityinthis
population.

Wecannotsaythatlowmetabolicratealonecausesobesity,asobesepeoplehavesimilarandif
nothighermetabolicratesthanthoseofanormalweight.

Neurotransmitters

Ithasbeenarguedthatpeoplemaybecomeobeseduetohavingtoomanyneurotransmitterswhich
triggerfoodintakeandtoofewthatcausesatiety.
Fat

Itusedtobethoughtthatfatwassimplyaproductofobesity.However,ithasbeensuggestedthat
onceapersongainssurplusfat,theyfeelmorehungerandarelesssensitivetothenormalsignalsof
satiety.

AGeneforObesity

Ithasbeensuggestedthatthereisageneresponsibleforobesity.Researchershaveattemptedto
identifythisgene:

Montagueetal(1997):

Theresearchersidentified2childrenwithadefectintheirobgene(responsibleforproducing
leptinwhichactsasasatietysignal).Ithasbeenarguedthatobesepeoplemaynotproduceleptin.
Totestthis,thechildrenweregivendailyinjectionsofleptin.Thiscausedreducedfoodintakeand
weightlossof12kgpermonth.

Fraylingetal(2007):

Theresearchersanalysedthebloodsamplesof39,000whiteparticipantsfromtheUKandFinland.
25%oftheseparticipantswerecategorisedasobese(basedonBMI).Theseparticipantshad2
normalcopyofthegene.Zahavi(2007)claimsthatthealteredFTOgenealsoleadstoanincreased
riskoftype2diabetes.

However,theresearchersstatedthatthefunctionsoftheFTOgenewereunclear,andthatchanges
indietandlifestyleweremoreresponsibleforincreasingobesityrates.Theyalsostatedthatit
wouldnotbefairtosaytheFTOgenecausesobesity,becausethehumangenepoolhasnotchanged
forthepast2030years.

FamilyClusters

Bodysizeoftenrunsinfamilies,andchildrensweightisoftenrelatedtotheirparents.Researchin
thisareahasshown:

Garnetal(1981):

Garnobservedthatifoneparentisobese,thereisa40%chanceoftheirchildbeingobese.Ifboth
parentsareobese,thereisan80%chanceoftheirchildbeingobese.Theprobabilitythatthin
parentswillproduceanobesechildis7%.

Maesetal(1997)pointedoutthatGarnsobservationhasbeenreportedinmanystudiesin
differentpartsoftheworld.

However,becauseparentsandchildrensharesimilarenvironments,obesitycouldalsobeexplained
bythisfactor.Twinandadoptionstudieshavebeenusedtoinvestigatewhetherornotobesityis
causedentirelybygenetics:

TwinStudies:
Twinstudiesofobesitycompareidenticaltwinpairslivinginseparateenvironmentsandnon
identicaltwinslivinginsimilarenvironments.Studieshavefoundthatidenticaltwinshavemore
similarobesityratesthannonidenticaltwins,suggestingagreaterroleforgeneticsinobesity:

Skunkardetal(1990):

ThisstudyexaminedtheBMIof93twinpairsraisedinseparateenvironments,andfoundthat
geneticsaccountfor6670%ofthevariancesintheirbodyweight.

However,greatergeneticsimilarityinweighthasbeenobservedmoreinlightertwinpairs.

AdoptionStudies:

Adoptionstudiesofobesitycomparetheweightsofadoptedchildrentothoseoftheirbiologicaland
adoptiveparents.Researchinthisareahasshownastrongroleforgeneticsinobesity:

Skunkardetal(1986):

Theresearcherscollectedinformationabouttheweightsof540adopteesandtheirbiologicaland
adoptiveparents.Thestudyfoundastrongerrelationshipbetweentheweightsoftheadopteesand
theirbiologicalparentsthisrelationshipwaspresentforallweighttypes.

Evaluationofbiologicalexplanationsofobesity:

Biologicalexplanationsofobesityarereductionist,astheyexplainobesityintermsofgenetics
alone.However,peopleoftenpreferbiologicalexplanationsofobesity,asthefocusontheroleofa
singlefactorratherthanprovidingacomplexmodelexaminingtheroleofseveralfactors.

Instatingthatobesityisaproductofourgenes,thebiologicalapproachisdeterministic,anddoes
nottakeintoaccounttheroleoffreewillinourbehaviour.

Researchhasshownthatwhenpeoplemovetoacountrywithahighrateofobesity,theirweight
changesinthelinewiththeobesityrateofthenewcountry.Thiscannotbeexplainedfroma
biologicalapproach.

Researchintoageneresponsibleforobesityremainsunclear.

Whilstobesityrateshavechangedinthepast40years,thehumangenepoolhasnt.Thisdiscredits
theargumentthatobesityiscausedbyourgenes.Theevolutionarythriftygenehypothesiswould
beamoreappropriateexplanation,asitstatesthatobesitycouldnolongerbesuitedtotodays
environment.

EvolutionaryExplanationsofObesity

Evolutionistsinvestigatingobesityareinterestedinestablishingwhetherornotbeingoverweight
andstoringexcessfatwasadaptiveforourancestors.Becausemuchofourpastwascharacterised
byalackoffood,itwouldbefairtoassumethatthesecharacteristicswouldhavebeenadaptive.

Themainevolutionarytheoryofobesityisthethriftgenehypothesis(JamesNeel).Thistheory
statesthatourancestorswhowereabletoburnfatandstaythinwerelesssuccessful.Theprocess
ofnaturalselectionwouldhavethereforefavouredthosewhowereabletostorefatandwereless
abletoburnitoff.Whilstthishasleftuswithpeoplewhoareadaptedtoharshconditionsand
famine,becausefoodisnowplentiful,thesearethepeoplethatbecomeobeseanddevelophealth
problemstheenvironmentnolongerrequirestheirthriftygenes.