1 SPRING 1999 | VOLUME 15 | NUMBER 2
Density Stratification in LNG Storage
by David Sheats and Michael Capers,
Scientific Instruments, Inc.
The use of LNG (Liquid Natural
Gas) as an important energy source
around the world is increasing steadi-
ly. It currently represents about 6% of
the worlds natural gas and is readily
available at numerous sites world-
wide.
Factors contributing to this
increased usage include the discovery
of large resources, development of
cost-effective methods of production,
transportation and storage and the fact
that LNG is a very clean-burning fuel,
making it an attractive option where
environmental concerns are high.
LNG is stored at cryogenic tem-
peratures, which present some unique
safety concerns and require specialized
instrumentation to be able to detect
potentially unsafe conditions. In the
following discussion, these concerns
are identified and the instrumentation
techniques for addressing them are
explained. The end result is a solution
that gives confidence to the storage
facility personnel that any potentially
hazardous condition will be detected
in a timely manner so that the proper
corrective action may be taken.
Production of LNG
LNG is produced through a lique-
faction process that lowers the temper-
ature of the multi-component mixture
of hydrocarbons (mainly methane
with lower concentrations of higher
hydrocarbons) to 160C, a 600 to 1
reduction of volume from gas to liq-
uid. In this state, the product is eco-
nomically transported via specialized
tanker ships from the production site
(typically quite remote) to the cus-
tomer. There are three primary types of
sites where LNG is stored, namely liq-
uefaction/export facilities, import /
distribution facilities and peak shaving
facilities.
Liquefaction/Export
The liquefaction/export facility is
located at the gas source and performs
the "cleaning," liquefaction and initial
storage of the finished product. Such
long-term supply countries as
Indonesia, Algeria, Australia,
Malaysia, Brunei and the United Arab
Emirates represent this part of the
LNG production train. New liquefac-
tion facilities are or soon will be on-
line in Nigeria, Trinidad, Oman and
Qatar. New fields have been discov-
ered and remain to be developed in
Indonesia, Russia and off the coast of
South America. A "typical" LNG
exporting facility will operate up to
2-10 production trains and may have
up to 10 LNG storage tanks. These
tanks are located at a deep-water port
and are used to load the tankers for the
oceanic transportation of the product
to customers.
Typical LNG storage tank
Import/Distribution
An import/distribution facility
capable of accommodating these LNG
tankers is located at a deep-water port
in countries that are using the LNG as
an energy source. From these storage
facilities, typically 3-10 storage tanks,
natural gas is re-gasified and fed into a
national pipeline system or trucked to
remote storage locations. Such facili-
ties are located in Spain, Japan,
Taiwan, Korea and the United States.
Peak Shaving Facilities
A peak shaving facility is actually
a production/distribution plant com-
bined into one. The purpose is to pro-
duce LNG during low usage periods,
and store that gas for use during peak
demands. The end result is the ability
to "shave the peak" demand require-
ment off the gas supply lines, since
that demand is normally only for a
short period, such as a very cold day.
It is typically owned and operated by a
local gas company or pipeline distribu-
tor. While the process is very similar to
the larger facilities, the prod-
uction/gasification rate is much lower.
The very nature of this type of facility
dictates that the gas will likely be
stored for a much longer period, which
has significant implications pertaining
to possible density stratification as dis-
cussed below.
The storage tanks used at all three
of the above types of facilities may be
above or below ground, but they are
fundamentally the same. They have an
inner tank, an insulation space and a
concrete or high carbon steel outer
tank. They are typically 150' in diame-
ter, 160' in height, and have a storage
volume of 15-18 million gallons of
product. There are presently plans in
development for tanks with signifi-
cantly greater capacity than those pre-
viously built and in service.
Rollover
A significant safety concern in the
storage of LNG is a phenomenon
known as "rollover." If this occurs,
pressures inside the storage tank may
rise to excessive levels. The tanks are
equipped with safety vent valves that
are designed to keep the pressures
from rising to levels that could cause
structural damage. However, when
these valves operate, LNG is vented to
the atmosphere at an uncontrolled
rate, which is an additional safety con-
cern.
LNG is heavier than air and could
settle in pockets of explosive mixtures.
Perhaps the most well known case of
rollover is that which occurred in La
Spezia, Italy, in 1971. The actual pres-
sures realized are unknown since they
exceeded available instrumentation
and gas vented uncontrolled in a high-
ly populated area for several hours.
Fortunately, there was no explosion
and no major damage was done to the
tanks. The possibility of both potential
problems was very evident, and much
attention to detecting and preventing a
similar occurrence has taken place
since that time.
Rollover occurs under certain con-
ditions as stratified LNG comes to
equilibrium. Stratification occurs when
the product in the tank forms in layers
with different densities and different
(Continued on page 9)

Density Stratification
temperatures. Sudden mixing of LNG
in any storage tank occurs as two or
more layer densities approach equali-
ty. Any heat trapped in the system is
released rapidly during mixing, gener-
ating a vapor which may exceed the
venting capability of the tank.
The exact conditions that lead to
rollover are somewhat complex. If lay-
ering occurs (discussed below), each
layer is initially uniform, with the
upper layer lighter than the lower.
Heat entering the top layer comes
through the walls of the tank. The liq-
uid next to the tank walls warms
slightly, becomes less dense and rises
to the top, where it evaporates. Since
light gases evaporate first, the liquid in
the top layer tends to become denser.
Fluid circulation in a stratified LNG storage tank
At the same time, the liquid in the
lower layer gains heat through the
floor and walls of the tank with a con-
vection flow similar to the top layer.
But because of the hydrostatic pressure
of the upper layer, the rising liquid
does not evaporate but superheats.
Thus the lower layer becomes warmer
and less dense. When the two layers
approach the same density, the inter-
face between the two becomes unsta-
ble and mixes rapidly. When this
occurs, the liquid from the lower layer
that is superheated gives off a large
amount of vapor that rises to the sur-
face. It is this phenomenon that is
known as rollover.
Causes of Layering
What are the causes of layering?
There are basically two ways that lay-
ering is produced. The first, and most
obvious, occurs when liquid of a dif-
ferent composition than that which is
already in the tank is introduced into
the tank. This could be from a different
SPRING 1999 | VOLUME 15 | NUMBER 2
gas field, or an altered process that
results in a different composition. This
is most likely to occur at a receiving
terminal.
The second cause of layering
comes from a process referred to as
"autostratification." In this mechanism,
unstratified liquid gains heat at the
walls of the tank and rises by convec-
tion. It flashes upon reaching the sur-
face. If sufficient nitrogen is present,
the remaining liquid will be less dense,
creating a layer at the top. As this layer
increases, it seals in the lower layer
and can cause it to superheat, creating
conditions leading to rollover.
Layer Detection
The most effective method of pre-
venting rollover is to detect layering
by means of instrumentation, and if
layering is present, take action to mix
the layers under controlled conditions
before the final conditions leading to
rollover develop. If the size and com-
position of the layers can be detected,
the potential danger can be accurately
determined and the most cost-effective
approach can be chosen. This action
may be the operation of recirculation
pumps (if available), or by mixing with
liquid in other tanks. Some installa-
tions that have the capability of recir-
culation within a tank choose to oper-
ate these pumps on a regular basis as a
preventive measure. Operation of
these pumps is expensive, however,
and some facilities do not have a sim-
ple method of recirculation.
Layer detection is best accom-
plished by means of a temperature
sensor and density sensor that are run
through the entire depth of the liquid.
In the absence of this, multiple temper-
ature sensors located at fixed intervals
will also give an indication of layering.
The disadvantage to multiple sensors
is the difficulty of accurate calibration.
The cost of multiple density sensors is
prohibitive.
Instrumentation
One instrument currently avail-
able for layer detection and installed at
a number of facilities around the world
is the M6280 LTD series from Scientific
Instruments, Inc. It is specifically
designed to detect temperature and
2
density layering in LNG tanks. To
accomplish this, a single probe with
installed temperature, density and liq-
uid level sensors is driven over the
entire depth of the liquid in the tank.
The data is collected at fixed intervals
as specified by the customer.
Simple data analysis is performed
to alert the operator of apparent tem-
perature or density layering. If certain
areas of the tank are suspect, a feature
known as "Top Scan" is available to
examine a potential layer in more
detail, providing an accurate picture of
the suspected layer. As mentioned pre-
viously, because a single sensor is used
for data collection, calibration errors
are eliminated and an accurate relative
profile is obtained. With an accurate
temperature and density profile,
detailed calculations can be per
Typical display from M6280LTD System showing
stratification
formed to properly determine the
extent of the danger, and to enable
cost-effective action in a timely man-
ner to prevent rollover.
Summary
Although we are not aware of any
rollover incidents that have resulted in
fires, explosions or major structural
tank damage, there have been many
rollover incidents throughout the LNG
industry. An increasing awareness of
the potential problem has resulted in a
greater emphasis on installing instru-
mentation.
Proper instrumentation, such as
Scientific Instruments, Inc. M6280
LTD, is the most secure way to obtain
information so that preventive action
can be quickly implemented to avert a
potential problem.