Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Michal Holub
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in
Prague
After a careful history and clinical assessment, 10 important questions should be routinely
addressed before selecting a specific antibiotic:
Non-urgent situation: mild infection, which does not require treatment untill the diagnosis
is not established
Urgent situation: the patient with suspected severe infection:
o Febrile neutropenia
o Bacterial meningitis
o Necrotizing celullitis
o Severe sepsis and septic shock
Herpangina
* Edmont RTD, ed. Color Atlas of Infectious Diseases, 1995
Standard cultivation
Gram stain
Latex agglutination (Strep test)
Appropriate cultures anaerobic and aerobic cultures
Antibiotical treatment can be modified when the pretreatment cultures become available
Follow up cultures are less reliable than initial pretreatment cultures
Pneumonia
Major symptoms (CURB-65)
o C - confusion
o U - urea >7 mmol/L
o R - respiratory rate >30 breaths/min.
o B - blood pressure <90 mmHg, diastolic BP <60 mmHg
o Age >65 yrs
Minor symptoms
o Immunosuppression or severe underlying diseases (IHD, DM, CRF etc.), bilateral
pneumonia, oxygen saturation <92%
only one major symptom of CURB-65 classification = -lactam p.o., i.m. nebo i.v. or 1st
generation cephalosporin
CURB-65 2 = -lactam + advanced macrolide
CAP due to M. pneumoniae, C. pneumoniae or L. pneumophila = advanced macrolide
(azithromycin, clarithromycin) or doxycycline (adults)
Antimicrobial Resistance
Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria:
Synergism
o one antibiotc enhances the activity of another (measured by time killing curves)
o serial inhibition of microbial growth
o one antibiotic enhances the penetration of another (penicillin and aminoglycoside)
Broad spectrum of activity in sepsis of unclear etiology and febrile neutropenia
Infection due to multiple organisms intraabdominal sepsis or pelvic abscess
9. Will initial therapy need modification after culture data are available?
The antibiotic treatment should be modified if necessary based on clinical course (ie.
relief of symptoms) and findings on cultivation
Narrow spectrum of antibiotics should be used (to decrease the risk of colonization)
Negative cultures in the patient with pneumonia and no prior antibiotics: mycoplasmal
pneumonia, flu, tubercolosis, Legionnaires disease or opportunistic infection in
immunocompromised host etc.
Reese RE, Betts RF. A Practical Approach to Infectious Diseases. 3rd edition. Boston, Little, Brown &
Company 1991.
Reese RE, Betts RF, Gumustop B. Handbook of Antibiotics. 3rd edition. Philadelphia. Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins 2000.
European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (EAARS). EAARS Annual Reports 2001 and
2007.
Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (eds.). Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 6th edition.
Philadelphia, Elsevier 2005.
Suchopr J, imek R, Valentov et al., eds. Remedia compendium. 3.vydn. Praha, Panax Co, spol. s.r.o.
1999.
Home Page
Each time you contemplate prescription of an antibiotic decide upon a specific diagnosis. Your
antibiotic choices can then be informed by trusted therapy guidelines such as these created in the
Vancouver Island Health Authority.
Outpatient Therapy
Error on the side of not prescribing when diagnosis is unclear for those who are not
seriously unwell and are immuno-competent. These patients are in the majority in
primary care.
Error on the side of prescribing when diagnosis is unclear for those seriously ill or
immunocompromised (many of these patients should considered for hospital care)
Use the narrowest spectrum antibiotic possible
Use the least expensive effective antibiotic
Use the shortest effective duration
Utilize local, trusted guidelines for empiric therapy
Hospital Therapy
Antibiotic Classes
General introduction to antibiotics can be viewed here and the following are short discussions of
the major classes and individual antibacterial antibiotics that are in common usage in Canada.
Penicillins
Cephalosporins
Macrolides and Lincosamides
Aminoglycosides
Tetracylines
Sulfonamides
Fluoroquinolones
Glycopeptides
Carbapenems
Linezolid
The term Gram-positive coverage is often used when describing the spectrum required for a
particular clinical situation. It is a meaningless term and should be avoided. Consideration must
be given to the potential for specific Gram positive organisms to be involved.
Staphylococcus aureus
If S. aureus is high on the list of potential pathogens, as it is for all skin and soft tissue infections,
empiric coverage must include an agent that is reliably active. Cloxacillin, cefazolin, and
clindamycin are examples of such therapy in Canada.
S. epidermidis and other CNS colonize all people and rarely cause severe disease. As such, they
are not considered potential pathogens in most clinical circumstances. However, when patients
develop infections in the setting of indwelling intravascular catheters or other prosthetic devices
(heart valves, hips, knees etc.) CNS are common pathogens.
Methicillin resistance in S. epidermidis is very common worldwide and empiric choices are
limited to the glycopeptides (vancomycin and teichoplanin) and oxyzolidinones (linezolid) as
with MRSA. The primary mode of therapy is often removal of the prosthetic material if possible.
Enterococcus
Enterococcus spp. are increasing in importance as nosocomial pathogens and are inherently
resistant to antibiotics. Some isolates are ampicillin susceptible but the only predictably effective
therapies are vancomycin and oxyzolidinones and resistance is already a problem in some areas
in the case of glycopeptides (so-called vancomycin resistant enterococci or VRE).
Listeria monocytogenes
This organism deserves special attention because it is the fourth most common cause of bacterial
meningitis and is resistant to cephalosporins the most commonly advocated therapy for
meningitis. For this reason a second agent (ampicillin) is necessary.
Streptococcus pneumoniae
No single organism is driving change in outpatient empiric therapy recommendations more than
S. pneumoniae. Resistance inexorably increases and knowledge of local susceptibility is essential
in determining appropriate empiric treatment for conditions potentially caused by this organism.
Similar to the situation with Gram positive bacteria, the oft used term Gram negative coverage
is meaningless because specific Gram negatives and groups of Gram negatives have varying
susceptibility profiles and recommended empiric therapies.
E. coli
While resistance increases, E. coli tends to be the least resistant of the Gram negative enteric
organisms. Many antibiotics that are used for the therapy of hospital acquired infections are
active against this organism. Local susceptibility profiles guide empiric recommendations for
therapy for outpatient urinary tract infections.
I use this term to group the hospital-associated, antibiotic-resistant members of the family
Enterobacteriaciae namely Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Serratia, Citrobacter and Proteus, and
Morganella. Hospital patients become colonized with these organisms and they are common
causes of nosocomial infections, in particular pneumonia and urinary tract infections.
In many scenarios carbapenems are the only reliable empiric therapy and resistance to this class
is increasing.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
This is the prototypic non-fermenter, an environmental organism that only causes disease in
opportunistic circumstances. However, the disease it causes can be very severe and P.
aeruginosa is inherently resistant to antibiotics. If this organism is on the list of potential
pathogens, such as in the case of febrile neutropenia, options are limited. Antipseudomonal
penicillins (piperacillin and ticarcillin), antipseudomonal cephalosporins (ceftazidime and
cefepime) and carbapenems (imipenem and meropenem) are the only reliable therapies. Therapy
often includes one of these agents plus an aminoglycoside (gentamicin or tobramycin). When
you are covering for P. aeruginosa you are giving very broad spectrum therapy.
Anaerobes
The empiric selection of antibiotics for the treatment of anaerobic infections is relatively easy.
Metronidazole is the workhorse agent with most important anaerobes susceptible and very few
patients allergic or intolerant. Antibiotic therapy is often secondary in importance to surgery for
serious anaerobic infections. Clindamycin is another agent often employed for its activity against
many anaerobic bacteria.
Atypicals
Mycoplasma spp., Chlamydia spp. and Legionella spp. Only particular classes of antibiotics (esp.
macrolides, tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones) are reliably active.
MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
TEORI
3. Jumlah organisme
Semakin banyak mikroorganisme yang dihambat atau dibunuh, maka semakin lama waktu yang
diperlukan untuk mengendalikannya.
4. Suhu
Suhu yang optimal dapat menaikkan efektivitas zat antimikrobial
5. Bahan organik
Bahan organik asing dapat menurunkan efektivitas zat antimikrobial dengan cara
menginaktifkan bahan tersebut atau melindungi mikroorganisme. Hal tersebut karena
penggabungan zat dan bahan organik asing membentuk zat antimikrobial yang berupa endapan
sehingga zat antimikrobial tidak lagi mengikat mikroorganisme. Akumulasi bahan organik terjadi
pada permukaan sel mikroorganisme sehingga menjadi pelindung yang mengganggu kontak
antara zat antimikrobial dengan mikroorganisme (Boyd, 1980).
Faktor lain yang mempengaruhi adalah dosis antibiotika yang diberikan. Beberapa
masalah adalah konsentrasi dari zat kemoterapi dalam jaringan, dimana menghasilkan
konsentrasi obat lain lebih besar atau lebih rendah daripada yang digunakan dalam
laboratarium. Hal itu penting, sehingga level obat itu dapat dicapai dalam bermacam bagian
tubuh dapat diketahui seperti halnya sensitivitas relative dari bakteri pathogen. Sensitifitas
relatif disebut dengan Minimum Inhibitory Concentration atau MIC (Pelczar,1988).
Staphylococcus aureus merupakan bakteri Gram Positif, tidak bergerak, tidak berspora
dan mampu membentuk kapsul, berbentuk kokus dan tersusun seperti buah anggur
sebagaimana terlihat pada gambar 2.4. Ukuran Staphylococcus berbeda-beda tergantung pada
media pertumbuhannya. Apabila ditumbuhkan pada media agar, Staphylococcus memiliki
diameter 0,5-1,0 mm dengan koloni berwarna kuning. Dinding selnya mengandung asam
teikoat, yaitu sekitar 40% dari berat kering dinding selnya. Asam teikoat adalah beberapa
kelompok antigen dari Staphylococcus. Asam teikoat mengandung aglutinogen dan N-
asetilglukosamin. Suhu optimum untuk pertumbuhan Staphylococcus aureus adalah 35o 37o
C dengan suhu minimum 6,7o C dan suhu maksimum 45,4o C. Bakteri ini dapat tumbuh pada
pH 4,0 9,8 dengan pH optimum 7,0 7,5. Pertumbuhan pada pH mendekati 9,8 hanya
mungkin bila substratnya mempunyai komposisi yang baik untuk pertumbuhannya. Bakteri ini
tidak dapat tumbuh pada media sintetik yang tidak mengandung asam amino atau protein
(Ratu Balqis, 2008).
Prinsip dasar metode ini adalah dengan cara memberikan bakteri / kuman uji dengan
kepadatan tertentu kepada bahan antibakteri yang akan diuji pada konsentrasi yang semakin
kecil. Kepekaan bahan uji terhadap bahan anti-bakteri ditentukan dengan pengamatan secara
makroskopis setelah masa inkubasi berakhir yaitu dengan melihat ada tidaknya pertumbuhan
koloni kuman / bakteri uji dalam tabung ( medium cair ) yang ditandai keruhnya medium cair
yang dipakai (Pelczar, 1988).
Metode ini digunakan untuk menentukan kadar hambat minimal (KHM) suatu senyawa
anti-bakteri. Pada metode ini digunakan erlenmeyer yang diisi media cair dan sejumlah tertentu
bakteri yang diuji, kemudian masing-masing erlenmeyer diisi dengan senyawa yang diuji.
Erlenmeyer-erlenmeyer tersebut diinkubasi pada suhu 37 0C selama 24 jam, untuk selanjutnya
diamati turbidansi atau kekeruhannya dengan menggunakan spektrofotometer UV-VIS.
Konsentrasi terendah senyawa yang memberikan hasil biakan yang mulai tampak jernih
merupakan Kadar Hambat Minimal senyawa tersebut. Metode Tube Dilution Test mempunyai
keuntungan karena dapat menguji daya bakteriostatik dan bakterisidal sekaligus, namun
metode ini hanya dapat menguji satu bahan antibakteri dalam satu kali kegiatan (Pelczar,
1988).
KEGIATAN 2
Antibiotika atau antimikroba ialah zat-zat yang dihasilkan oleh suatu mikroba, terutama
golongan fungi (jamur), yang dapat menghambat atau membasmi mikroba jenis lain. Suatu obat
antibiotika yang ideal menunjukkan toksisitas yang selektif. Istilah ini berarti bahwa obat
tersebut haruslah bersifat sangat toksis untuk mikroba, tetapi relatif tidak toksis (dalam
konsentrasi yang dapat ditoleransi) terhadap hospes (Setiabudi, 1995).
Namun begitu, terjadi juga kes-kes dimana bakteri dapat mampertahankan dirinya
terhadap antibiotika dan dapat menggagalkan terapi dengan antibiotika. Definisi bagi resistensi
adalah ketahanan suatu mikroba terhadap antibiotika tertentu yang dapat berupa resistensi
alamiah, resistensi kromosomal, resistensi ekstra kromosomal, maupun resistensi silang.
Resistensi kromosomal terjadi akibatadanya mutasi spontan pada mikroba, resistensi
ekstrakromosomal terutama terjadi akibat adanya faktor R pada sitoplasma bakteri, sedangkan
resistensi silang ialah resistensi akibat pemindahan gen resisten atau faktor R atau plasmid dari
bakteri lain yang telah resisten yang masuk ke dalam bakteri. Resistensi kromosomal
dapatdibagi menjadi dua golongan yaitu: