Chapter No 1

Introduction to information technology

What is information technology?

Information technology is the use of computers hardware and software to manage
information. The group information technology concerned for storing information,
protecting information, processing the information, transmitting the information as
necessary, and later retrieving information as necessary.

Information technology is combination of two technologies Computer Technology

and Telecommunication technology. Where computer technology storing
information, protecting information, processing the information and on the other hand
telecommunication technology related with transmitting the information.

There are following major components of IT.

1. Computer science

2. Telecommunication engineering

3. Computer engineering

1.Computer science (or computing science): -

Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the science of the
theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and
application in computer systems.

2. Telecommunication: -

Telecommunication assisted transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of

communication. In modern times, telecommunication typically involves the use of
electronic transmitters such as the telephone, television, radio or computer..

3.Computer engineering: -
Computer engineering principles and methods to the design and development of
hardware and software systems

What is DATA?

Data is a plural form of latain word DATUM each means ?something?. Any thing in
the raw form (not meaningful) likes number; words and fact are known as Data.

Data is a collection of facts, figures and statistics related to an object. Data can be
processed to create useful information. Data is a valuable asset for an organization.
An example is a collection of name of student on admission forms, their addresses and
subject marks.

Types of data:

1. Alphabetic data

2. Numeric data

3. Alphanumeric data
Alphabetic data: Capital letter from A-Z and small letterform a-z

Numeric data: Decimal number from 0-9 and decimal point notation

Alphanumeric data: Alphabetic, numeric and special character/symbol.

What is Information?

When the raw data had been manipulated and organized in the form of result/output,
upon which people can take necessary decision is called information. In other words
information is the meaningful, processed data that be relevant accurate and thereby
can be used in decision-making. E.g. Vouchers, bills, fee registration cards.
What is computer?
Computer is an electronic processing machine, which gets the input, process on it at
very fast speed and then produced the output and also stores a lot of information. The
name is defined from the Latin word computer, meaning ? to computer? and can be
applied as properly to an abacus or an adding machine as to the modern computer.

A computer is a machine. Which can be both store and process information. It is

defined as store program digital computer system.

A computer is an electronic device that can be transmitted. Store and manipulate

information or data, which can be numeric or character type.

A computer is a device capable of performing computation and making logical

decision at speeds thousands of even million of time faster than human being.

Characteristics of computer

There are the following main features of computer

Speed: -

The speed of electronic computer is very fast because the signal can pass at the speed
of electricity, which is same as that of light. Thus million of calculation can be done in
a second.

Storage and retrieve of information: -

Computer can store large amount of data, instruction and information on its internal
memory and secondary storage device and the same can be easily access and
retrieved.

Consistency

Computer can?t become bored or tried or loss concentration when performing high
repetitive jobs unlike human beings. Every time same work is done by equal diligence
by the computer

Automatic operation: -
One data and program have been fed into the computer. Operation of computer is
automatic

Accuracy: -

Computer work very accurately and result are always same as per design. Accordingly
software need to be designed properly check and control are necessary I program and
data

Flexibility: -

General-purpose computer may be used for verity of purposes depending on the

program fed into the computer.

History of computer
Computer didn?t suddenly developed. We can say that their number and use is greatly
increased during the recent years. They have been in use for a very long time, and
even in the days of the old navigator and astronomers there was a need for some sort
and calculating instrument and relive the human brain of work. initially computer was
used develop as an accounting machine. With the passage of time, however drastic
(strong) change in computer machine made it most effective and it become a
wonderful invitation of this century. Today we find billion of computer all around us.
Covering almost all field of life.

The research of the computer technology is the process of hundred of year and still in
the process. Computer has been pass through many processes in several decades. The
history pf computer is given below.

Year 3000 BC ABACUS:

Abacus used by the Chinese for performing calculation. It is probably consider the
original mechanical counting device. The abacus has been used through out this word.

Year 1617: First Mechanical Calculating Device:

John Napier made the first mechanical device consider for the set of numbered rods
called Napier Bones. This tool made long computation faster and more accurate then
before.
Year 1642: First Mechanical Calculator:

Blaise Pascal invited first mechanical calculator ?Pascaline?. The numbers 0 through
9 were marked on their circumference of small wheels. Which were connected engage
that turned the wheel on tenth of the revolution to its immediate left. Reverse
revolution allow one to do subtraction.

Year 1801:Punch Card:

A franch man, Joseph mare invented punch card to create a pattern in fabric on a
loom. His idea would revolutionize data processing.

Year 1842: Analytical Engine:

Charles Babb age conceived of first programmable computer the ? Analytical Engine
? which would perform calculation and printing mathematical table automatically
using punch cards.

Year 1944: The First Analog Computer Marks 1:

The first electro mechanical computer the Marks 1 was completed in 1944 under the
sponsorship of IBM. The mark 1 was significant improvement it was essentially a
serial collection of electrometrical calculators.

Year 1946:ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)

The first completely electronic digital computer ENIAC hade was develop in USA.

Year 1951:UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

UNIVAC was developed the first computer to store program as well as data in
memory.

Year 1965: First Mini Computer:

In the year 1965 first mini computer was developed.

Year 1975: First Micro Computer:

In the year 1975 first microcomputer was developed.

Year 1981: The IBM PC

IBM developed the first personal computer named it is IBM PC and soon it become
the standard for the microcomputer.

Year 1984: The Graphical User Interface:

1984 apple computer introduced the Macintosh desktop computer with very friendly
?graphical user interface?

Generation of Computer

1) First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat,
which was often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming

language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve
one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output
was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing

devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business
client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

2) Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and used in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Although the transistor still generated a great deal of heat
that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum
tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from binary (machine) language to symbolic, or

assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as
early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that
stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to
magnetic core technology.

3) Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the half mark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were minimized and replaced on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program the monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to
a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

4) Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation
filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip,
developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output controls on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to
use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

5) Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to
make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and
nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The
goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Types of computer

There are two way of classifying computer

1) Classification on the basis of their principal of construction also called types of

computer.

Analog computer

Digital computer

Hybrid computer

2) Classification of the basis of their configuration, size and performance

Mini computer

Micro computer

Main frame computer

Analog computer: -

The analog computer operates by measuring rather by counting. If function by setting

up physical situation that are analog in nature. It represents physical quantity such as
distance, velocity, temperature, and pressure. It measures continuous change in some
physical quantity. e.g Speedo meter of car measure speed in term of KM/H or M/H,
the changes of temperature is measured by thermometer in degree. The weight
machine is measured in terms of Kg or Gm. These computers are ideal in situation
when data can be accepted directly from the measuring instruction without having the
convert it into number of codes. Now day analog computers are manually used for
engineering and scientific work. Analog systems are frequently used to control
processes such as those found in an oil refinery where flow of temperature
measurement are important. They were used in papermaking and chemical industry.
Analog computer do not required in storage capability because they measured and
compare quantities in a single operation. Outputs from the analog computer are
generally in the form of reading in a graph

Digital computer: -

This computer provide a digital output from an input of information represented in a

digital form and process information which is based on the presence or the absence of
an electrical charge or binary one or binary zero. Digital computer represents data as
number. A digital computer is a computer, which measured in a term of digital
quantities. e.g computer used in scientific and business oriented job. The most
common example of digital computer is accounting machine and calculator. The
results of digital computer are more accurate and reliable then the result of analog
computer. Analog computer is faster then digital. Analog lack memory where as
digital computer store information.

Hybrid computer: -

A hybrid computer is combination of both analog and digital computer i.e parts of
processing is done on analog computer and a part on digital computer. Hybrid
computers combine the characteristics of both analog and digital computer. It provides
grater accuracy than can be attend with digital computer, grater control and speed then
is possible with analogs. It can accept input data in both analog and digital form. It is
used for air defense system, different laboratory equipments for medicine etc.

Classification of the basis of their configuration, size and performance

Digital computer is further divided into different categories according to their physical
size, cost and speed. We can generally classify them into three categories.

Mini computer

Micro computer

Main frame computer

Mini computer
Mini computer are small in size and more compact, smaller in memory and
Comparatively less expensive. These type of computer designed for the
computerization of the data of scientific research and data collection, industrial
process control and small business application

Mini computer usually fills small rooms because it also includes many types of
peripherals equipments attach to it.

Disks are used for secondary storage and tape is used for data backup. Time-sharing,
attach processing and on line processing are available are mini computers.

Mini computer system are typically interactive system and are used to enter data
directly in to the computer via keyboard. Mini computer are also support distributes
processing. Behave like terminal at remote sites and data is entered and sent to the
mainframe which act as a host computer. These computers are also used for
networking.

Micro computer: -

Micro computer are smallest in size, very small in memory, least expensive. These
type of computer are designed for personal use. These are used for small-scale
domestic and business application. Microcomputers are easily accommodated on a
table and thus have the names desktop. These are highly flexible. The basic of the
microcomputer are microprocessor, a silicon chip containing the necessary circuitry to
perform arithmetic logical operation and the control I/O operation.

Main Frame: -

Main Frame computer are Large in size, Large in memory, more powerful and more
expensive. These types of computer are designed for the computerization for the data
of huge business, university, bank, and scientific laboratories national and
international market.

Mainframe usually fills a large room because it includes many types of peripheral
equipment attach with it. Mainframe operating system support multi programming,
multi user and multi sharing. The internal circuit of the system is designed according
to the size of the word i.e 64 bit using bus lines in parallel and thus it is faster machine
and a more accurate one.

Multiple I/O devices are used. Secondary storage are used in the system were tapes
are disks. Millions are bytes of information store in large in mainframe are processed
at the speed of over 100 million arithmetical operation per second.
Chapter No 2

Computer Hardware

Main Components of Computer

A small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price,
personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred dollars to thousands of
dollars. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to
put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word
processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database
management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is
for playing games.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most
popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems
seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal
computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer
of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. One
of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which
remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace.

Main Components of Computer

Every digital computer is made up of four-basic units.

These are:

1. Input Unit

2. Output unit

3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

4. Memory Unit
1. Input unit: -

The basic unit, which provides communication between the user and the computer, is
the input unit. This unit describes a device, used to transfer information into a
computing system. It performs following three functions.

It accepts data from user.

Converts that data into electrical signals, which can be later, used in
arithmetical calculations.

Coded data is then moved to the system for processing.

The data can be fed into a computer by using different types of input devices. The
commonly used input devices are Keyboard, MOUSE etc.

2.Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is abbreviation of central processing unit. The central processing unit is

responsible for performing all of the mathematical and logical calculations that are
required for a computer to function properly means that work of CPU is Data
Processing. This is the main Unit of computer system. Because a computer cannot
function without the CPU.it is not uncommon to hear people refer to the CPU as the
"brains" of a computer.

CPU must complete a cycle of four steps to perform processing function. The first
step in this cycle is to fetch a instruction from a software program's memory. Once the
CPU fetches the instruction, its second step is to decode the instruction. By decoding
the instruction, the CPU is able to organize the information from the instruction in a
manner that allows the CPU to complete the next step, which is executing.

During the execution step, the CPU completes the instruction. It accomplishes this by
following the information gained during the decoding step. Once the CPU has
finished executing the instruction, the final step in this cycle is to write-back the
results that occurred during the execution step. The CPU can write-back the results to
its own internal register, or to the main memory of the computer.

CPU is mainly divided in to three parts:

1. Control Unit.
 2. ALU

3. Cache Memory

Control Unit:

Control Unit controls operations of other parts of CPU as well as all parts of computer
by sending a control signal, e.g.

Control sequence of instruction to be executed.

Control flow of data among all parts of computer.

Interpret instructions.

Regulate timing of processor.

Send control single to and receive control single from peripheral devices

ALU (Arithmetic And Logic Unit):

Arithmetic and Logic Unit consists of a complicated set of logic circuit and
accumulator.

It is mainly responsible for

Calculation

Logical comparison and decision

Cache (pronounced cash):

Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a
computer?s central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip. The
CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run
programs, improving overall system speed. The advantage of cache memory is that
the CPU does not have to use the motherboard?s system bus for data transfer.
Whenever data must be passed through the system bus, the data transfer speed slows
to the motherboard?s capability. The CPU can process data much faster by avoiding
the bottleneck created by the system bus.

3. Memory Unit:

Memory unit responsible for storing the information permanently and temporary
during the processing. Computer memory is mainly divided in to two types.

Primary Memory

Secondary Memory

Primary Memory:

Primary memory stores the information in form of binary coded data. Primary
memory holds the input data (before processing), result for output purpose (after
processing) and also provides the permanents storage as requested. It is usually refer
to main memory and also known as Internal Memory.

Main memory consists on RAM, ROM, and Cache Memory.

Secondary Memory:

The Secondary Memory is also known as auxiliary storage or external storage which
store the permanently.

4.Out Put Unit:

The final part, of a computer is the output unit, which presents the results of the
machine operations in printed or other visual form. It is a device that receives results
from a CPU. It can be a communicating link between a computer and people. It. is
used to transfer information out of a computing system.

What is Hardware?
Your PC (Personal Computer) is a system, consisting of many components. Some of
those components, like Windows XP, and all your other programs, are software. The
stuff you can actually see and touch, and would likely break if you threw it out a fifth-
story window, is hardware.

Not everybody has exactly the same hardware. But those of you who have a desktop
system, probably have following hardware Components.

Processing Unit (CPU) and related microchips and micro-circuitry, keyboards,

monitors, case and drives (hard, CD, DVD, floppy, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra
parts called peripheral components or devices include mouse, printers, modems,
scanners, digital cameras and cards (sound, colour, video) etc.

Keyboard

The keyboard is a means of interacting with your computer. You really only need to
use the keyboard when you're typing text. Most of the keys on the keyboard are laid
out like the keys on a typewriter. But there are some special keys like Esc (Escape),
Ctrl (Control), and Alt (Alternate). There are also some keys across the top of the
keyboard labeled F1, F2, F3, and so forth. Those are called the function keys, and the
exact role they play depends on which program you happen to be using at the
moment.

Mouse ?

Mouse is Pointing device. Generally the mouse has two buttons the left one is used to
select objects and text and the right one is used to access menus.

Monitors ?

The monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is called outputting
information. When the computer needs more information it will display a message on
the screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in many types and sizes. The
resolution of the monitor determines the sharpness of the screen. The resolution can
be adjusted to control the screen's display..

Motherboard: -

The motherboard (Main Board )is the main circuit board in a PC. It contains all the
circuits and components that run the PC. Some time it is called connecting device.

Main board provides connectivity to all the other comments and also provides the
power.

Major Components found on the motherboard are:

CPU Socket where we connect the CPU.

BIOS - Basic Input Output System is a non-volatile memory that contains

configuration information about the PC.

RTC - the Real Time Clock chip keeps date, day and time.

Chip Set - these are large chip(s) that integrate many functions that used to be
found in separate smaller chips on the motherboard. They save space and cost.

Main board also have IDE slots of Hard disk and CD/DVDs, ISA, PCI and USB
slots.

Power - A 20 pin connector accepts a plug from the power supply.

CPU : -

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the 'brain' of the computer. It's typically a
square ceramic package plugged into the motherboard, with a large heat sink on top
(and often a fan on top of that heat sink).

All instructions the computer will process are processed by the CPU.

ATX Case :

Most modern computers have an "ATX form factor" case in which ATX-compatible
power supplies, Mainboards and Drives can be mounted.

Power Supply : -

All computers have some sort of power supply. This converts the supply voltage (AC
110 or 220V) to different voltages such as DC 5V, 12V and 3.3V.

RAM (Random Access Memory )

RAM is a memory that the microprocessor uses to store data during processing. This
memory is volatile (loses its contents at power-down). When a software application is
launched, the executable program is loaded from hard drive to the RAM.

Hard drive:

A hard drive consists of one or more magnetic platters or disks and a read arm with
two electromagnetic coils for each disk. Each hard disk is divided into many sectors,
each containing a certain amount of data.

CD-ROM :

CD drive Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) is a device which use for
reading the CDs.

CD-RW drive :

Compact disc Read/Write drives support the creation of CD-R and CD-RW discs, on
which data is write and R/ Write and also function as CD-ROM drives.

DVD-ROM drive
Digital Video/Versatile Disk Read Only Memory (DVD-ROM) device. Which is used
for reading the DVDs.

DVD-RW drive

This drive is used for Writing the data on DVDs.

Printer :

A printer makes marks on paper. It can print images and text.

Scanner

A scanner is a device for digitizing paper documents into images that may be
manipulated by a computer. The two main classes of scanner are

Digital cameras

Digital cameras allow you to take digital photographs. The images are stored on a
memory chip or disk that can be transferred to your computer. Some cameras can also
capture sound and video.

Cards ?

Cards are components added to computers to increase their capability. When adding a
peripheral device make sure that your computer has a slot of the type needed by the
device.

Sound cards allow computers to produce sound like music and voice.

Video cards allow computers to display video and animation. Some video cards
allow computers to display television as well as capture frames from video. A video
card with a digital video camera allows computers users to produce live video. A high
speed connection is required for effective video transmission.
Network cards allow computers to connect together to communicate with each
other.

Computer Assemble Step-by-Step

The following step should be taken in step bye step for building your own PC.

1. Preparation

Before starting to build your new PC, there are a number of things you need to do, such that
work can proceed smoothly without too much interruption. Follow these steps before moving on
to the next section.

Work Area

Find a large, clean, well-lit work .You will need space for your monitor, keyboard and mouse
and to lay your case on its side, such that you can fit the components etc.

Tools

Collect together the necessary tools nearby, such that they are close to hand. It is advisable at this
stage to set up your anti-static precautions.

Equipment

Make a collection of all your new components (still in their packaging) and place them nearby,
ready for use.

2. PC Case

Unpack the PC case and place it right way up on the work surface Open the Case. Check your
case instructions to determine how to remove the outer casing (or in some styles, side cover
panel). This should give you clear access to the inside such that you can fit all your new
equipment. Once this is done, carefully lay the case on its side, so that the opening faces up.
You must have PC Case Fitting Kit which have following Things:

Coarse-Threaded Screw

Count the 'ridges' down the stem of the screw, coarse-threaded screws will have

around four or five turns.

Fine-Threaded Screw

Tricky to count, but will have around ten or eleven turns and is slightly smaller.

Standoffs / Spacers

These will prevent the back of the motherboard coming into contact with the metal

mounting plate inside the PC Case.

Configuration Jumpers

Small plastic caps that can be placed across two pins to set hardware options.

Fan Screws
Larger in diameter and having a more coarse thread than the standard screws, these are used to
attach fans to the PC Case.

3. Fitting the Motherboard

Unpack the Motherboard which is pack in a special anti-static bag. Try to keep the motherboard
inside this bag until it is needed.

You will notice, in various places on the motherboard, there are small holes with bare metal
'rings' around them. These can be used to fix the motherboard to the inside of the PC Case.

Find the corresponding points inside the case and fit the standoffs as appropriate to allow you to
screw the motherboard into place. The standoffs should raise the motherboard around half an
inch off the metal mounting plate, preventing a short-circuit.

Look closely at the Motherboard shown here. You will notice a collection of coloured 'blocks'
along the top right edge. These are the connectors for the Keyboard, Mouse, USB etc. The
Motherboard should always be fitted such that these are accessible to the rear of the case.

4. Fitting PCI/AGP/PCI-Express Adapter Cards

Now that the Motherboard is fitted, we can proceed to install the adapter cards. Note: If your
motherboard has video and/or sound adapters built in, you may skip this step as necessary.

You will notice at the back of the PC Case, there are a number of thin strips of metal held in by a
screw. These are Blanking Plates. In order to fit adapter cards (video / sound cards etc.) it is
necessary to remove these plates as necessary. At this stage, it is wise to remove all of them, and
store them nearby.

On the Motherboard itself you will see a number of plastic 'slots' with very small metal pins
inside as shown below:

Unpack your adapter card taking extra care to handle it by the edges and not touching any of the
components. You will notice that it has a plate at one end very similar to the blanking plates as
discussed earlier.

It should be possible to gently push the card into the matching slot, such that the plate on the card
fits into one of the blanking plate holes at the back of the PC Case. You can then use the original
screw that held in the blanking plate to secure the card to the case.

5. Fitting the CPU

By now you will have successfully fitted your motherboard and installed your Adapter Cards.
The Processor and Memory can now be installed as follows.
Unpack the CPU (Central Processing Unit). Make sure at this stage that you have your anti-static
measures in place and even briefly make contact with both hands on the metal of the case to
make sure. Try not to touch any exposed metal pins or components.

If you take a look at both the CPU pins and the holes in the socket you will see that in one or
more corner there are some missing pins (examine the upper and lower right corners of the black
socket in the picture below.) This is the 'keying' method for this type of CPU.

Gently lift the free end of the 'arm' on the edge on the socket until it stands upright. Align the
'missing CPU pins' with the 'missing socket holes' and carefully drop the CPU into the socket.

Be very careful not to bend any of the CPU pins. They are extremely delicate, and should one be
moved out of alignment, it will not be possible to fit the CPU.

6. Fitting the RAM

Unpack the RAM (Random Access Memory). Make sure at this stage that you have your anti-
static measures in place and even briefly make contact with both hands on the metal of the case
to make sure. We are going to make the assumption that since your

7. Fitting The Floppy and Hard disk And CD / DVD

You will notice, on the front panel of your PC case, there is an opening the same size as the
floppy drive's front panel (if there is a plastic cover plate fitted, just gently push it out from
behind.)

Slide the floppy drive into the opening backwards such that its front panel becomes flush with
the front of the PC case. Clear any obstructions to this insertion from inside the case if necessary.
Same Procedure is used for CD/ And DVD if any.

After This, Fit The Hard drive In side of The casing in any panel down the CD/DVD panel.

8. Connecting the PC Case Front Panel

With all the hardware installed correctly, follow these steps to connect the internal cabling.

You will have noticed during the previous work, that the PC Case itself has some cables.
These are for the Front Panel Display. These are usually labeled as the following;

?SPK - Speaker - Small speaker mounted in the PC Case

?PWR SW - Power switch - System power on/off

?RST SW - Reset switch - Reset system

 ?PWR LED - Power LED - Light shows when system is on (usually green)

?HDD LED - HDD LED - Light shows when system is accessing HDD (usually red)

?SLP LED - Sleep LED - Light shows when system is suspended (in 'sleep' mode)

Basically, these connectors slide onto a set of grouped pins on the Motherboard. Owing to the
many variations of Motherboard, it will be necessary to refer to your Motherboard manual for the
connection method of these cables.

9. Floppy cable connection:

A thirty-four pin plastic cable is connected from one end in the main board and other in the back
of floppy drive.

You can see the Pink coloured wire in the 'ribbon' in the floppy cable.

However, to ensure that it is correctly fitted, we must locate pin 1 (the pink line), and fit the
cable such that the pink line is on the left hand side as we look directly at the back of the floppy
drive.

Once this connection is made, locate a similar socket on the motherboard (black, 34-pin socket)
and connect the other end of the Floppy Drive cable to this socket.

10. Connecting The CD/DVD

Almost exactly the same procedure is used here to connect the CD-ROM as we use in floppy.
Take the wider, '40way Ribbon' cable and connect one end (either will do - no twist this time) to
the 40 pin connector on your CD-ROM. Note this time that the pink line must be next to where
the CD-ROM Power connector is located. The Power connector on the CD-ROM is a deep black
socket with 4 big pins inside.

Once the connection to the CD-ROM is made, locate the specific connector on the Motherboard
for Secondary IDE. Your Motherboard manual will help you find this. In this case, the CD-ROM
must be connected to the Secondary IDE socket. Again, the connector will be 'keyed' for correct
alignment.

11. Connecting a Hard Disk Drive

If your Hard Drive is what is known as 'ATA33' type, then it is connected in exactly the same
way as the CD-ROM.

If, however, you have an 'ATA66/100' type, then the connection procedure is still the
same, but the ribbon cable must be a special '80way' kind. '80way ATA66/100' cables look
similar to their 'ATA33' counterparts, but have 80 wires instead of 40. They often have colour-
coded connectors as follows;

?Blue connector - to Motherboard

?Grey connector - to 'Slave' Device

?Black connector - to 'Master' Device

Note that connector colours may vary depending on manufacturer.

In both cases, it is important to note that the Hard Drive IDE cable must be connected to the
Primary IDE connector on the Motherboard if it is to be the main/only HDD in the PC.

12. Connecting the Device Power Cables

These will supply each device in the PC with its power requirements.

Ensure that your PSUs connection to the mains socket is switched off at the wall, and gather up
the collection of power cables from the PSU.

Each device will have its own power connector which will receive a cable from the PSU.
The HDD and CD-ROM will generally use a large connector each and the FDD will usually use
a small connector.

If you have any other devices which require power, remember to connect these also.

13. Connecting the Main Power Cable

Once everything else is connected up, we can go ahead and make the final connection -
providing power directly to the Motherboard itself.

Ensure that your PSU is disconnected from the mains wall socket, and locate the main power
connector cable from the PSU.

ATX Power connectors

Newer type of power connector found on ATX power supplies

The ATX-style connector is 'keyed' and should 'clip' into place when correctly seated.
Safe Lab Procedures and tools

Safe Lab Procedures

When we work in Computer Lab then we must follows the some instruction which make safe the
lab for our work.

We must make Clean, organized, and properly lit workspace.

We must have enough knowledge about Proper procedures for handling equipment.

Proper disposal or recycling of components containing hazardous materials.

Most companies require reporting any injuries, including description of safety procedures
not followed.

Damage to equipment may result in claims for damages from the customer.

Power supplies and monitors contain very high voltage. Do not wear the antistatic wrist
strap when repairing power supplies or monitors.

Some parts may become very hot when in use and other parts may contain very high
voltages.

Know the location of fire extinguishers, how to use them, and which to use for electrical
fires and for combustible fires.

Have an escape route in case a fire gets out of control

Know how to contact emergency services quickly.

Static electricity is the buildup of an electric charge resting (hidden) on a surface. This
buildup may destroy component and cause damage.

At least 3,000 volts of static electricity must build up before a person can feel ESD
(Electrostatic Discharge), but less than 30 volts of static electricity can damage a
computer component.

So Preventing ESD Damage we must take some measurers:

 Use antistatic bags to store components

Use grounded mats on workbenches

Use grounded floor mats in work areas

Use antistatic wrist straps when working on computers.

AC power fluctuations can cause data loss or hardware failure:

To help shield against power fluctuation issues, use power protection devices to protect
the data and computer equipment for example UPS.

Tools for the Job

Anti-Static Device

A must have when handling Static-sensitive devices. These will help to disperse static electricity
that may build up. Anti-static wrist straps are probably the most convenient and cost effective.

Posidrive / Philips Screwdriver

This is the most useful tool in PC building/repair since the majority of fixings in a PC case are of
this type.

Cable Ties

Where necessary, keep things tidy by carefully tying back loose cabling inside the PC Case. This
will also help airflow around the machine. Be sure to use plastic ties only.

Small Wire Cutters

Useful for all manner of things, wire cutters are particularly handy when using cable ties, to
neatly clip off the excess.

Long-Nose Pliers

When fingers are just too big for the job, these will help manipulate very small parts like IDE
configuration jumpers.

Small Torch/Flashlight

It can get dark inside a PC Case once everything is fitted. This should throw some
light on the subject.
Preventive maintenance and Troubleshooting
Preventive maintenance is a regular and systematic inspection, cleaning, and replacement of
worn parts, materials, and systems. Preventive maintenance helps to prevent failure of parts,
materials, and systems by ensuring that they are in good working order.

Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to locating the cause of a fault in a computer system.

A good preventive maintenance program helps minimize failures. With fewer failures, there is
less troubleshooting to do, thus saving an organization time and money. Preventive maintenance
can also include upgrading certain hardware or software such as a hard drive that is making
noise, upgrading memory that is insufficient, or installing software updates for security or
reliability.

Troubleshooting is a learned skill. Not all troubleshooting processes are the same, and
technicians tend to refine their troubleshooting skills based on knowledge and personal
experience. Use the guidelines in this chapter as a starting point to help develop your
troubleshooting skills.

Explain the Purpose of Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance reduces the probability of hardware or software problems by

systematically and periodically checking hardware and software to ensure proper operation.

Hardware
Check the condition of cables, components, and peripherals. Clean components to reduce the
likelihood of overheating. Repair or replace any components that show signs of damage or
excessive wear.

Use the following tasks as a guide to create a hardware maintenance program:

Remove dust from fan intakes.

Remove dust from the power supply.

Remove dust from components inside the computer.

Clean the mouse and keyboard.

Check and secure loose cables.

Software

Verify that installed software is current. Follow the policies of the organization when installing
security updates, operating system updates, and program updates. Many organizations do not
allow updates until extensive testing has been completed. This testing is done to confirm that the
update will not cause problems with the operating system and software.

Use the tasks listed as a guide to create a software maintenance schedule that fits the needs of
your computer equipment:

Review security updates.

Review software updates.

Review driver updates.

Update virus definition files.

Scan for viruses and spyware.

Remove unwanted programs

Scan hard drives for errors.

Defragment hard drives.

Benefits
Be proactive in computer equipment maintenance and data protection. By performing regular
maintenance routines, you can reduce potential hardware and software problems. Regular
maintenance routines reduce computer downtime and repair costs.

A preventive maintenance plan is developed based on the needs of the equipment. A computer
exposed to a dusty environment, such as a construction site, needs more attention than equipment
in an office environment. High-traffic networks, such as a school network, might require
additional scanning and removal of malicious software or unwanted files. Document the routine
maintenance tasks that must be performed on the computer equipment and the frequency of each
task. This list of tasks can then be used to create a maintenance program.

The following are the benefits of preventive maintenance:

Increases data protection

Extends the life of the components

 Increases equipment stability

Reduces repair costs

Reduces the number of equipment failures

IDENTIFY THE STEPS OF THE TROUBLESHOOTING PROCESS

Troubleshooting requires an organized and logical approach to problems with computers and
other components. A logical approach to troubleshooting allows you to eliminate variables in a
systematic order.

Asking the right questions, testing the right hardware, and examining the right data helps you
understand the problem. This helps you form a proposed solution to try.

Troubleshooting is a skill that you will refine over time. Each time you solve another problem,
you will increase your troubleshooting skills by gaining more experience. You will learn how
and when to combine, as well as skip, steps to reach a solution quickly.

The following troubleshooting process is a guideline that you can modify to fit your needs.

Explain the purpose of data protection.

Identify the problem.

Establish a theory of probable causes.

Test the theory to determine an exact cause.

Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution.

Verify full system functionality, and if applicable, implement preventive measures.

Document findings, actions, and outcomes.

Laptops and portable Devices

A laptop, also called a notebook, is a personal computer for mobile use. A laptop integrates most
of the typical components of a desktop computer, including a display, a keyboard, a pointing
device (a touchpad, also known as a trackpad, and/or a pointing stick) and speakers into a single
unit. A laptop is powered by mains electricity via an AC adapter, and can be used away from an
outlet using a rechargeable battery.
As portable computers became smaller, lighter, cheaper, more powerful and as screens became
larger and of better quality, laptops became very widely used for all sorts of purposes.

The most significant feature of a laptop is its compact size. The design of the laptop places the
keyboard, screen, and internal components into a small, portable case.

Another popular feature of the laptop is its portability. A rechargeable battery allows the laptop
to function when it is disconnected from an AC power source.

The first laptops were used primarily by business people who needed to access and enter data
when they were away from the office. The use of laptops was limited due to expense, weight,
and limited capabilities compared to less expensive desktops.

Today, laptops have lower prices and increased capabilities. A laptop is now a real alternative to
a desktop computer.

Here are some common uses for the laptop:

Taking notes in school or researching papers

Presenting information in business meetings
Accessing data away from home or the office
Playing games while traveling
Watching movies while traveling
Accessing the Internet in a public place
Sending and receiving e-mail in a public place.

Classification

The term "laptop" can refer to a number of classes of small portable computers:

Desktop Replacement:

The first classification is as a desktop replacement where performance is what you are looking
for. It is less portable than the other kinds and has a large screen which is about 15 inches and
above. A desktop replacement laptop has most of the capabilities of a desktop computer and can
comparatively perform in the same level. The drawback to these laptops is that the operation
time of the batteries is shorter and there are those that have no battery at all, requiring it to be
plugged to an electrical outlet.

Standard Laptop: -

The next classification is the standard laptop which balances portability and features. It is not as
powerful as the desktop replacement laptop in terms of features and capabilities but it
compensates by being more compact and lightweight with a 13 to 15 inch screen only and has a
longer battery life.
Sub Notebook: -

The last classification is the subnotebook which is more concerned with portability than features.
Subnotebooks are smaller and lighter than standard laptops with a 13 inch or smaller screen and
have very long battery life.

Advantages of Laptops:

Laptop computers are portable and can be used in many locations.

Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus
desktop PCs. Portability means that a laptop can be used in many places not only at
home and at the office, but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in
lecture halls and libraries, at clients' location or at a meeting room, etc. The portability
feature offers several distinct advantages:

Productivity:

Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC can not be used, and at times that would
otherwise be wasted. For example, an office worker managing their e-mails during an
hour-long commute by train, or a student doing his/her homework at the university
coffee shop during a break between lectures.

Immediacy:

Carrying a laptop means having instant access to various information, personal and
work files. Immediacy allows better collaboration between coworkers or students, as a
laptop can be flipped open to present a problem or a solution anytime, anywhere.

Up-to-date information:

If a person has more than one desktop PC, a problem of synchronization arises:
changes made on one computer are not automatically propagated to the others. There
are ways to resolve this problem, including physical transfer of updated files (using a
USB flash memory stick or CDRs) or using synchronization software over the
Internet. However, using a single laptop at both locations avoids the problem entirely,
as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.

Connectivity:
A proliferation of Wi-Fi wireless networks and cellular broadband data services
(HSDPA, EVDO and others) combined with a near-ubiquitous support by laptops
means that a laptop can have easy Internet and local network connectivity while
remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at
university campuses.

Size:

Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium,
for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be
closed and put away.

Low power consumption:

Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses
20?90 W, compared to 100?800 W for desktops.

Quiet:

Laptops are often quieter than desktops, due both to the components (quieter, slower
2.5-inch hard drives) and to less heat production leading to use of fewer and slower
cooling fans.

Battery:

A charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected
by short power interruptions and blackouts. A desktop PC needs a UPS to handle
short interruptions, blackouts and spikes; achieving on-battery time of more than
20?30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large and expensive UPS.[44]

All-in-One:

Designed to be portable, laptops have everything integrated in to the chassis. For

desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is divided into the desktop, keyboard, mouse,
display, and optional peripherals such as speakers.

Disadvantages Of Laptop:

Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following fields:

Performance: -
While the performance of main stream desktops and laptops is comparable, and the
cost of laptops has fallen more rapidly than desktops, laptops remain more expensive
than desktop PCs at the same performance level. The upper limits of performance of
laptops remain much lower than the highest-end desktops (especially "workstation
class" machines with two processor sockets), and "bleeding-edge" features usually
appear first in desktops and only then, as the underlying technology matures, are
adapted to laptops.

Upgradeability: -

Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to desktops, which are thoroughly

standardized. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Optical
drives and internal expansion cards may be upgraded if they follow an industry
standard, but all other internal components, including the motherboard, CPU and
graphics, are not always intended to be upgradeable.

The reasons for limited upgradeability are both technical and economic. There is no
industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; each major laptop manufacturer
pursues its own proprietary design and construction, with the result that laptops are
difficult to upgrade and have high repair costs.

Printer And Classification Of Printer

Printers are hardware devices which help to take print out of documents from the
computer and there are a lot of advantages in using Printers. Printers are efficient
devices connected to a computer. They allow the users to print text and images on
paper. There are wide varieties of printers which suit all kinds of people. Printers are
classified based on the printing materials they use and the way they obtain data from
the computer and quality.

The four printer qualities of most interest to most users are:

Color: Color is important for users who need to print pages for presentations or maps
and other pages where color is part of the information. Which user who want to print
document and picture in color shape they must be change Color printers can also be
set to print only in black-and- black. Color printers are more expensive to operate
since they use two ink cartridges (one color and one black ink) that need to be
replaced after a certain number of pages.

Resolution: Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on paper) is usually
measured in dots per inch ( dpi ). Most inexpensive printers provide sufficient
resolution for most purposes at 600 dpi.

Speed: If you do much printing, the speed of the printer becomes important.
Inexpensive printers print only about 3 to 6 sheets per minute. Color printing is
slower. More expensive printers are much faster.

Memory: Most printers come with a small amount of memory (for example, one
megabyte ) that can be expanded by the user. Having more than the minimum amount
of memory is helpful and faster when printing out pages with large images or tables
with lines around them (which the printer treats as a large image).

Types of printer:

Line Printer :-

Line printers have a spinning horizontal drum that stretches the full width of the paper
which is separated from it by an inked ribbon. The drum is made up of 132 thin
cylinders each having a complete set of characters. Behind the paper is a row of 132
hammers that strike the paper at the right moment to select the required character from
the corresponding cylinder. In this way it is able to print a complete line at a time.
Line printers are used for high volume low quality output and are very noisy. They are
obsolete now.

Dot Matrix: -

Dot matrix printers have a horizontally moving head with a vertical line of pins
mounted inside. An inked ribbon is located between the head and the paper and as the
head moves the pins strike the ribbon to form each character as a series of dots. The
best quality printers have heads with 24 pins and low quality ones have 9 pins
(although by making two passes and shifting the head half a pin pitch between them
they can effectively act as as a 18 pin head). As these printers can produce small dots
anywhere on the paper most support graphics and have software fonts. Dot matrix
printers are quite noisy but can be cheap. They are mostly for low to medium quality,
low volume personal use. They are obsolete now.

Daisy Wheel: -

On a daisy-wheel printer the complete set of characters is held on a removable wheel

which consists of a central collar radiating out from which are a set of spokes, each
ending in a single character. The wheel spins round to align the required character
with a single hammer. The hammer and wheel assembly move across the paper
striking it through an inked ribbon. These printers can produce high quality output but
are limited to the range of characters on the wheel. Changing wheels is simple, this
provides alternative fonts, but is no substitute if a wide range of fonts is required.
They are quiet noisy and are used for low volume office work.

Laser: -

In a laser printer, paper is given an electro-static charge by passing it over a charged

drum and then a laser scans it discharging all clear areas. Next the paper is passed
over a tray of powdered ink (toner) which is attracted to the charged areas. Finally the
ink is bonded to the paper by heat or pressure. Laser printers are quiet and are used for
high quality low or high volume work. We have a number in the department including
PS9 (a Postscript printer near 615) and PS4 (a double sided Postscript printer outside
room 663).

Camera Copy: -

In this case laser light writes directly onto film inside a camera to make very high
quality full colour output. Again the process is expensive and the volume low. OUCS
have a camera copy service that takes Postscript format files.

Ink Jet: -

Ink jet printers have a movable head that can spray fine drops of ink directly on to the
paper. Some have multiple heads carrying coloured inks with the best ones providing
a wide range of colours. As the paper and the head never come into contact they are
very quiet. However they are also rather slow. They are generally cheaper than laser
printers and are suitable for all types of high quality low volume work.
What Is Scanner And Its Different Types
A scanner is an electronic device that scans printed or handwritten text documents,
images, or a particular object to convert them into a digital file format. Most of the
scanners use CCD, (charge-coupled device) or CIS, (Contact Image Sensor) as the
image sensors. The common types of scanners we see today are flatbed scanners,
handheld scanners, sheetfed scanners, etc

Flatbed Scanner: -

A flatbed scanner is made up of a glass sheet and a moving optical CIS or CCD array.
The sheet is illuminated with the help of bright light planted inside it. The image
which is to be scanned is then placed on the glass pane. The sensor and the source of
light move across the glass pane to scan the document and produce its digital copy.

Sheetfed Scanner: -

In sheetfed scanners, the document that is supposed to be scanned is fed into the
horizontal or vertical slot provided in the scanner. The vital components of sheetfed
scanner are the sheet-feeder, scanning module and calibration sheet. Such scanners are
most often used to scan single page documents. It can't be used to scan thicker objects,
like books, which turns out to be its major drawback.

Handheld Scanner: -

A handheld scanner is a small manual scanning device which is moved over the object
that need to be scanned. For instance, if a document needs to be scanned, the handheld
scanner has to be dragged over the document. Using a handheld scanner can prove to
be a cumbersome task, as the hand needs to be steady all the time. Slight movement of
the hand can lead to distortion of the image. One of the most utilized handheld
scanner is the barcode scanner, typically used in shopping stores to valuate goods.

Photo Scanner: -

Photo scanners are mostly used to scan photographs. High resolution and color depth
are the most vital requirements for scanning photographs, and photo scanner provides
the same. If the motive of buying a scanner is to digitize film negatives and slides,
then the photo scanner is the best option. They are specially designed to work on
slides and negatives. The in-built software in some photo scanners can also help in
cleaning old photographs.
Film Scanner: -

A film scanner is utilized to scan photographic films directly into a computer. The
photographer has direct control over certain aspects, such as cropping, ratio of original
image on the film, etc. Some film scanners have specialized software through which it
is possible to minimize scratches and improve color quality. Low-end film scanners
most often accept 35 mm film strips while the high-end scanners have interchangeable
film loaders which can accept 35 mm strips or 120 mm ones, or individual slides.

Portable Scanners: -

Being small in size, portable scanners can be easily carried with oneself anywhere.
Some scanners are as small as your PDAs, hence, can be easily carried in the pockets.
Such scanners are useful for text document scanning. The drawback of these scanners
is their limitation as far as resolution is concerned. They cannot be used for scanning
photographs or other such applications which require high resolution scanning.

These were the different types of scanners being widely used today. Over the last
few years, these machines have become an important element of computer
technology, wherein vast amount of data is required to be converted to digital format
everyday.

What is Operating System?

The most important program that runs on a computer is operating system. Every
computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems
perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to
the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers.
It is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that different programs and users running at the
same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible
for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system

Operating system is not single program. It?s a collection of group of some program.
Operation system creates relation ship between computer and user. Operating system
provide an environment in which user may execute the program. The primary goal of
operating system is that make the computer system easy to use and secondary goal of
operating system is use the computer hardware in efficient manner.
Classification Of Operating System
Basically Operating system divided in to two categories.

1. General Operating System

2. Special Purpose Operating System

General Purpose Operating System: -

General purpose Operating System used for multi purpose. General purpose Operating
System support large number of utility such that compiler, assembler, editor
debugging, packages, word processor and a file system for long term storage of
information.

Special Purpose Operating System: -

These types of Operating Systems are used for special purpose. In simple word we say
that these operating system are design for unique purpose.

These two system are further divided in to following types:

1) Real-Time Operating System:

Real-time operating systems are systems that respond to input immediately. They are
used for such tasks as navigation, in which the computer must react to a steady flow
of new information without interruption. Most general-purpose operating systems are
not real-time because they can take a few seconds, or even minutes, to react.

Real time can also refer to events simulated by a computer at the same speed that they
would occur in real life. In graphics animation, for example, a real-time program
would display objects moving across the screen at the same speed that they would
actually move.

Another example is to present visualizations of the weather as it constantly changes.

2) Multi-user Operating Systems:

The operating systems of this type allow a multiple users to access a computer system
concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they
enable a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time.
3) Single-user Operating Systems:

Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable

by a single user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows
operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network
administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for
two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user
operating system.

3) Single Task Operating Systems:

This type of OS is just better version of Real time OS ,where one User can use the
computer to do one thing at a time, which means that doing thing more than one thing at
a time is difficult in this type of OS. The handhelds or the palmtop computers are good
examples of this type of systems. For Example Windows mobile, MS DOS etc.

3) Multi-tasking Operating Systems:

Multitasking is the ability of a computer to run more than one program, or task , at the
same time. Multitasking contrasts with single-tasking, where one process must entirely
finish before another can begin. MS-DOS is primarily a single-tasking environment,
while Windows 3.1 and Windows NT are both multi-tasking environments.

On a single-processor multitasking system, multiple processes don't actually run at the

same time since there's only one processor. Instead, the processor switches among the
processes that are active at any given time. Because computers are so fast compared
with people, however, it appears to the user as though the computer is executing all of
the tasks at once. Multitasking also allows the computer to make good use of the time it
would otherwise spend waiting for I/O devices and user input--that time can be used for
some other task that doesn't need I/O at the moment.

4) Multi Processing System:

A multiprocessing operating system is one that can run on computer systems that
contain more than one processor. Windows NT is a symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
system, meaning that it assumes that all of the processors are equal and that they all
have access to the same physical memory. Therefore, Windows NT can run any
thread on any available processor regardless of what process, user or Executive, owns
the thread. It is also called parallel processing system. A multiprocessing computer
can manage. Large amounts of information and can process it have great speed,
Multiprocessing system are most commonly used in mainframe, mini computers and
super computers

5) Multithreading Operating System: -

Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute the different parts of
the program, called threads, simultaneously. The program has to be designed well so
that the different threads do not interfere with each other.

The multithreading is a technology that allows a single microprocessor to act like two
separate processor. In this way operating system run more then two (rather the one)
concurrent stream (or threads) of instruction. Having two streams of execution units to
work on allows more work to be done by the processor during each clock cycle. To
the operating system, the hyper-threading microprocessor appears to be two separate
processors.

6) Distributed Operating System:

An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them
appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. The
development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with
each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried
out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they
make a distributed system. Windows 2003 + application server (IIS&PWS) and Linux
(apache server) is example of Distributed System.
Chapter No 3

Storage Devices

MEMORY

Memory is electronic circuitry that holds data and program instructions until they
processed. Memory devices responsible for storing the information permanently and
temporary during the processing.

Computer memory is mainly divided in to two types.

Primary Memory

Secondary Memory

Primary Memory:

Primary memory stores the information in form of binary coded data. Primary
memory holds the input data (before processing), result for output purpose (after
processing) and also provides the permanents storage as requested. It is usually refer
to main memory and also known as Internal Memory.

Main memory consists on RAM, ROM, and Cache Memory.

There are three types of primary memory: RAM, ROM, CMOS memory.

a) Random Access Memory (RAM):

RAM is an abbreviation for Random Access Memory. It usually refers to "temporary"

memory, as when the system is shut down, the memory is lost. This is why the
memory is referred to as being "random," as any piece of information can be
circulated through the memory regardless of its location and its relation to any other
information within the RAM. The first of the many RAMs to come in the future was
created in 1951 and was used until the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Types OF RAM:

The most widely used RAMs today are SRAMs (static RAMs), which stores data in a
state of a flip-flop, or DRAMs (dynamic RAMs), Flash, and EPROM, which stores
data as a charge in a capacitor. Another well known type of RAM, a ROM, is a type
of a RAM that has permanently enabled/disabled selected transistors by using a metal
mask. ROMs thus cannot store any further charges.

Flash memory is also widely used. Because SRAMs and DRAMs are known to be
highly volatile, many new products adopt the flash memory technology. Some
examples of devices using flash memory include portable music players, scientific
calculators, mobile phones, and even certain types of personal computers such as the
One Laptop per Child (OLPC) devices.

In today's computers, RAMs are shipped in a form of module known as DRAM

modules or memory modules. It is about the size of a chewing gum and with the Plug
n Play technology, these can easily be replaced by taking it out of the port and
replacing it with a new one. Not to forget, there is also an extremely small amount of
RAM (known as SRAMs) within CPUs, motherboards, hard drives, and other parts of
the system.

b) CMOS Memory:

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) memory hold data, but requires
very little power to retain its contents a CMOS chip is usually powered by battery,
CMOS stores data about computer configuration. All configuration such as how many
floppy drives are there in computer or the size of hard disk etc, all this data retain in
CMOS memory.

If you change your computer configuration, you must change the data in CMOS
memory.

c) Read Only Memory (ROM):

ROM is a set of chips that contains instructions to help a computer prepare for
processing tasks. The instructions in ROM are permanent and you can not change
them.- For what purpose the ROM is used for? When computer is turn on, the
processor receives electrical power and is ready to begin executing instructions. But
the computer was just turn on, RAM is empty; it does not contain any instruction for
processor to execute. Although the programs are available on hard disk, the processor
does not have any instructions to tell 'it how to access hard drive and load programs.
ROM contains a small set of instructions to tell the computer how to access hard drive
and load operating system.

d) PROM : -

Short for programmable read only memory, a memory chip on which data can be
written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there
forever. Unlike RAM, PROM retains their contents when the computer is tern off. The
difference between the PROM and ROM (read only memory) is that a PROM is
manufacturing as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the
manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device
called a PROM programmer or a PROM burner. The process of programming a
PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.

e) EPROM :-

An EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory) is a special type of PROM

that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once it is spread, it can be
programmed. EEPROM is a similar to a PROM, but is requires only requires only
electricity erased.

Cache Memory:

Another factor that affects the performance of a microprocessor is cache, memory. A

high-speed microprocessor can process data so quickly that it often waits for data to
be delivered from RAM, and this slows processor. Cache memory is special high-
speed memory that gives the microprocessor more fast access to data. As you begin a
task, the computer predicts what data you are likely to need for this task and loads it
into cache memory. When an instruction calls for data, the microprocessor first checks
to see if the required data is in the cache. If the data is there, the microprocessor takes
the data from the cache, instead of fetching it from the slower RAM* Cache memory
can be built into the microprocessor chip or located elsewhere on the main board.

Flash memory is memory, which retains its contents even after power is removed.

Secondary /auxiliary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is also called auxiliary storage and is used to store data and
programs when they are not being processed. Secondary storage is more permanent
than main memory, as data and programs are retained when the power is turned off.
The needs of secondary storage can vary greatly between users. A personal computer
might only require 20,000 bytes of secondary storage but large companies, such as
banks, may require secondary storage devices that can store billions of characters.
Because of such a variety of needs, a variety of storage devices are available. The two
most common types of secondary storage are magnetic tapes and magnetic disks.

1.Magnetic Tape Storage

Magnetic tape is a one-half inch or one-quarter inch ribbon of plastic material on

which data is recorded. The tape drive is an input/output device that reads, writes and
erases data on tapes. Magnetic tapes are erasable, reusable. They are made to store
large quantities of data inexpensively and therefore are often used for backup.
Magnetic tape is not suitable for data files that are revised or updated often because it
stores data sequentially. Following are the different types of tapes.

Tape cartridge: -

A Tape cartridge shape like small plastic box and contain large strip of magnetic tape
on which a permanent program is stored. Manufacture install data on the tape
cartridge, which is only readable by the user (user can?t save any thing on it) as it
behave like a ROM. Therefore it is known ROM cartridge.

Tape cassettes: -

A tape a cassette also comprises of a magnetic reel on a plastic box, which is shape, is
exactly like an audiocassette. The data store on this cassette is also in sequential order
to reach a specific point need to pass through all the data before that point. This
cassette is similar to audiocassette but differ in the way the data is recorded on it
instead of music. Data is recorded on the audiocassette in the form of audio tones
where on magnetic tape on the form of magnetic sports that represent binary number 0
and 1.

2.Magnetic Disk Storage

Magnetic disks are the most widely used storage medium for computers. A magnetic
disk offers high storage capacity, reliability, and the capacity to directly access stored
data. Magnetic disks hold more data in a small place and have faster data access
speeds. Types of magnetic disks include diskettes, hard disks, and removable disk
cartridges, floppy disk, compact disk (CD)

a) Floppy disk: -

Floppy disk a soft disk. It is called floppy because it flops if you wave it (at least, the
5?-inch variety does). Unlike most hard disks, floppy disks (often called floppies or
diskettes) are portable means small and lightweight. Because you can remove them
from a disk drive. Disk drives for floppy disks are called floppy drives. Floppy disks
are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they are much
less expensive. And most importantly, they are portable.

Floppies come in three basic sizes:

8-inch: The first floppy disk design, invented by IBM in the late 1960s and used in
the early 1970s as first a read-only format and then as a read-write format. The typical
desktop/laptop computer does not use the 8-inch floppy disk.

5?-inch: The common size for PCs made before 1987 and the predecessor to the 8-
inch floppy disk. This type of floppy is generally capable of storing between 100K
and 1.2MB (megabytes) of data. The most common sizes are 360K and 1.2MB.

3?-inch: Floppy is disk, are covered in an inflexible envelope. And store the small
amount of data on it from 512K to 1.4MB of data. The most common sizes for PCs
are 720K (double-density) and 1.44MB (high-density).

b) Hard disk: -

A magnetic disk on which you can store large amount of computer data. The term
hard is used to distinguish it from a soft, or floppy, disk and also this magnetic disk
covered in Hard Mattel Box. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy
disks. A hard disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 to more than 100
gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a maximum storage capacity of 1.4 megabytes.

A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two
read/write heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single
access arm so that they cannot move independently. Each platter has the same number
of tracks, and a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. For
example, a typical 84-megabyte hard disk for a PC might have two platters (four
sides) and 1,053 cylinders.

In general, hard disks are less portable than floppies, although it is possible to buy
removable hard disks.

c) Compact disk: -

It is a plastic disk of 4.75 inches in diameter. It provides read only secondary storage.
This media is capable of sorting 650M of digitally encoded computer data, or 75
minutes of music. All of which can be made available interactive on the computer
display. Therefore this storage media is termed as CD_ROM. The data is read through
CD-ROM disk drives. The drive contain circular optimize to locate data at high speed.
CD players only locate the beginning of audio track and after then they play
sequentially.

d) Disk Cartridges

Removable disk cartridges are another form of disk storage for personal computers.
They offer the storage and fast access of hard disks and the portability of diskettes.
They are often used when security is an issue since, when you are done using the
computer, the disk cartridge can be removed and locked up leaving no data on the
computer

3) MAGNETIC DRUM

Like the magnetic disk, the magnetic drum is another example of a direct-access
storage device. Although the magnetic drum was once used as main (or primary)
storage, it is now used as secondary (or auxiliary) storage. Unlike some disk packs,
the magnetic drum cannot be physically removed. The drum is permanently mounted
in the device.

Magnetic drum storage devices consist of either a hollow cylinder (thus, the name
drum) or a solid cylinder that rotates at a constant velocity (from 600 to 6,000 rpm).
The outer surface is coated with an iron-oxide material capable of being magnetized.
4) USB drive

A USB drive also known as a flash drive or keychain drive -- is a plug-and-play

portable storage device that uses flash memory and is lightweight enough to attach to
a key chain. A USB drive can be used in place of a floppy disk, Zip drive disk, or CD.
When the user plugs the device into the USB port, the computer's operating system
recognizes the device as a removable drive and assigns it a drive letter.

Unlike most removable drives, a USB drive does not require rebooting after it's
attached, does not require batteries or an external power supply, and is not platform
dependent. Several manufacturers offer additional features such as password
protection, and downloadable drivers that allow the device to be compatible with
older systems that do not have USB ports. USB drives are available in capacities
ranging up to about 65 gigabytes (GB), depending on manufacturer, in a
corresponding range of prices.

With a USB drive, data can be retained for long periods when the device is unplugged
from the computer, or when the computer is powered-down with the drive left in. This
makes the USB drive convenient for transferring data between a desktop computer
and a notebook computer, or for personal backup needs.

Microprocessor

Microprocessor or processor is the heart of the computer and it performs all the
computational tasks, calculations and data processing etc. inside the
computer. Microprocessor is the brain of the computer. In the computers, the most
popular type of the processor is the Intel Pentium chip and the Pentium 1V is the latest
chip by Intel Corporation. The microprocessors can be classified based on the
following features.

Instruction Set

It is the set of the instructions that the Microprocessor can execute.

Bandwidth

The number of bits processed by the processor in a single instruction.

Clock Speed
 Clock speed is measured in the MHz and it determines that how many
instructions a processor can process.

Microprocessor is also called CPU central processing Unit.

CPU is mainly divided in to three parts:

4. Control Unit.

5. ALU

6. Cache Memory

Control Unit:

Control Unit controls operations of other parts of CPU as well as all parts of computer
by sending a control signal, e.g.

Control sequence of instruction to be executed.

Control flow of data among all parts of computer.

Interpret instructions.

Regulate timing of processor.

Send control single to and receive control single from peripheral devices

ALU (Arithmetic And Logic Unit):

Arithmetic and Logic Unit consists of a complicated set of logic circuit and
accumulator.

It is mainly responsible for

Calculation

Logical comparison and decision

Cache (pronounced cash):

Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a
computer?s central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip. The
CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run
programs, improving overall system speed. The advantage of cache memory is that
the CPU does not have to use the motherboard?s system bus for data transfer.
Whenever data must be passed through the system bus, the data transfer speed slows
to the motherboard?s capability. The CPU can process data much faster by avoiding
the bottleneck created by the system bus.
Video Display Adapters

A video display adapter contains the circuitry to support the display of text and
graphics on the monitor. It is sometimes built into the main board, but more often it is
a graphics card high-speed video cards can move data between the microprocessor
and the video card as faster as the microprocessor can process it.

Parallel Ports

A parallel port provides a connection for transmitting data eight bits at a time over a
cable with eight, separate data lines. The parallel ports are relatively fast. These are
usually used to send data to the printer. To connect the printer to the computer, both
the computer and the printer must have a parallel port.

The parallel port is either built into the main board or mounted on an expansion card.

Serial Ports

A serial port provides a connection for transmitting data one bit. at a time. A serial
port connects the computer to a device like modem, which requires two-way data
transmission, or to a device like mouse, which requires only one-way data
transmission.

To connect a peripheral device to the computer through a serial port, both the devices
must have, a serial port. The serial port is either built into the main board or mounted
on an expansion card.
Chapter No 4

Software design and Computer Language

Computer Software
Software is the general term for information that's recorded onto some kind of
medium. For example, when you go to the video store and rent or buy a tape or DVD,
what you're really getting is the software that's stored on that tape or disk. Your VCR
or DVD player are hardware devices that are capable of reading the software from a
tape or disk and projecting it onto your TV screen, in the form of a movie.

Your computer is a hardware device that reads software too. Most of the
software on your computer comes in the form of programs. A program consists of
"instructions" that tell the computer what to do, how to behave. Just as there are
thousands of albums you can buy on CD for your stereo, and thousands of movies you
can buy to play on your VCR or DVD player, there are thousands of programs that
you can buy to run on your computer.

If you do purchase a specific program, it would be to perform some specific task. For
example, you might use a graphics program to touch up photos, or you might use a
word processing program to write text. You're using your Web browser program right
now to read this text (assuming you're not reading a printed copy on paper). Just as
there are umpteen different brands of toothpaste, there are umpteen different brands of
word processing programs, graphics programs, and Web browsers.

Software in general refers to different, sorts of programs. But majority, computer

software are divided into three categories:

1. Languages

2. System Software
 3. Application Software

1) Computer Languages:

Language is the source of communication among human beings. Similarly, in order to

communicate with the computer user also needs to have a language that should be
understood by the computer. For this purpose different languages are developed for
performing different- types of work. Languages are divided into two categories.

A. Low Level Language

B. High Level Language

A) Low Level Language: -

Low-level languages are machine codes. Computer cannot understand instructions

given in English. It can only understand and execute instructions given in the form of
machine language i.e the language of 0 and 1. There are two types of low-level
language.

Machine Language

Assembly Language

Machine Language: It is the lowest and most elementary level of programming

language and was the first type of programming language to be developed Machine
language is basically the only language which computer can understand Machine
language is represented inside the computer by a string of binary digits 0, 1. the
symbol 0 stands for the absence of an electric- pulse and 1 for the presence of an
electric pulse. Since a computer is capable of recognizing electric signals, therefore it
understands machine language.

ADVANTAGES:

It makes fast and efficient use of the computer.

It requires no translator to translate the code.

DISADVANTAGES:

All machine codes have to be remembered.

It is difficult to find errors in a program written in the machine language .

Assembly Languages: It was developed to overcome some of the many problems of

machine language. This is also a low level language but it is very important. This
language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master it. This language
mainly helps in compiler orientation. The instructions of the Assembly language will
also be converted to machine codes by language translator to be executed by the
computer.

ADVANTAGES:

It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine, language.

It is easy to locate errors.

It is modified easily.

DISADVANTAGES:

It is also machine dependent.

The programmer should have the knowledge of hardware also.

B) High Level Language:

High-level language gives formats close to English language and the purpose of
developing high-level languages is to enable people to write programs easily. High
level languages are basically symbolic: languages that use English words and
mathematical symbols rather than codes. Each instruction in high level language is
translated into machine codes. Some high level languages are BASIC, PASCAL, C,
and COBOL etc.

ADVANTAGES:

These are user-friendly.

These are easier to learn.

They require less time to write.

They are easier to maintain.

These are independent of machine.

2) SYSTEM SOFTWARE: -

System software are the programs which hold instructions related with the working of
the hardware and software of the computer system. System software behaves like an
in charge and performs the responsibility of overall supervision of input, processing
and output of data. It keeps track of all the peripherals equipment attached with the
computer, and monitors their activities. It is the necessary software that administer
and mange the computer resources and operations in the best way. System software
are divided into -following categories:

A. Operating System

B. Translators

C. Device Drivers

D. Utility Programs

A) Operating Systems: - The operating system manages the basic operations of the
computer. These operations include booting the computer and management of storage
media. Another feature is the user interface, which may be command-driven,
graphical or network. Other operations are managing computer resources and
managing files. The operating system also manages tasks through multitasking, time-
sharing or multiprogramming.

B) Device Drivers: - When you purchase a new peripheral device, such as a CD-ROM
drive, a mouse or a printer, you need to install software that tells the computer how to
use the device. This type of system software is called Device Driver. When you
purchase a hardware device, you also receive a disk containing a; device driver.

C) UTILITY PROGRAMS: - Utility programs either enhance existing

Functions or provide services not performed by other system software. They include
backup, data recovery, file defragmentation, disk repair, and virus protection. Most
computers come with utilities built in for free as part of the system software, but they
may also be bought separately as external utility programs.
Backup: A backup utility makes a duplicate of every file on your hard disk on
diskettes.

Data Recovery: A data recovery utility is used to save or undelete a file or

information that has been accidentally deleted.

Disk Defragmentation: Fragmentation is the scattering of portions of files about

the disk in nonadjacent areas, thus greatly access to the files. A defragmentation
utility program will find all the scattered files on your hard disk and recognize them as
continuous files.

Disk Repair: - A disk repair utility will check your hard disk drive for defect and
make repairs on the spot or mark the bed areas.

Virus Protection: - Viruses consist of hidden programming instruction that are

attached with an application or system programs. The copy themselves to other
program causing destruction.

D) TRANSLATORS :-

Translator is a program that converts source program into object program. Translators
are programs, which convert instructions in assembly language, or high-level program
into machine language, because computer can only understand machine language.
Since it is difficult to write programs in machine language, therefore, it is more easy
to use translation software, to convert the programs in machine codes.

Types Of Translators:
There are three types of translators:

a) Assemblers

b) Compilers

c) Interpreters
a) Assemblers: Assembly language instructions will be converted to machine code
with the help of an assembler. Assemblers are translator program, which converts an
assembly language program into machine codes, as computer can understand it only.
Firstly, whole program is typed in the assembly language, then assembler-converts all
the instructions at a time from assembly language to machine language.

b) Compilers: A compiler is a complex program, which translates a program written

in a high level language to an equivalent machine program. This process of translation
is called Compilation. The whole program is translated completely with a compiler
before the machine program is executed

c) Interpreters: It is another type of compiler used for translating high-level

languages. This program converts the high level language such as BASIC statements
into machine codes. Interpreters are widely used on small computers having limited
memory. These interpreters waste a lot of time and efforts in case the program
contains any errors.

3. APPLICATION SOFTWARE:

Application software are also known as packages that help the user to -get his required
output. These are the software developed by experts in high/low level languages for
non-experts. After getting initial training in packages, a layman can also handle his
work very easily and can be effective for the society. Another purpose of making this
software is to facilitate all the fields of life. For e.g.

Word Processors: Word Star, Word Perfect, MS Word Spread Sheets: Lotus 123,
Quattro_Pro,

Databases: Database, Fox Pro, FoxBASE

Graphics: Haward Graphics, Instant Artist

Games: Prince, Dave

Programming Languages & Their Types

A programming language is used to write computer programs. A program is written as
a series of human understandable computer instructions that can be read by a compiler
and linker, and translated into machine code so that a computer can understand and
run it.
A programming language is a computer language programmers use to develop
applications, scripts, or other set of instructions for a computer to execute.

Language are classified in to two types

Low Level Language

High level Language

Low Level Language

Low level language is a computer programming language that is close to machine

language. Machine language is at the lowest level, because it is the actual binary code
of 1s and 0s that the computer understands. Assembly languages are low- level
languages which are translated into machine code by an assembler. Each assembly
language instruction corresponds to one machine language instruction, but assembly
language is easier notation for the programmer to use than machine code.

High level Language:

A high level language is a language for programming computers which does not
require detailed knowledge of a specific computer, as a low-level language does.
High-level languages do not have to be written for a particular computer, but must be
compiled for the computer they will work with. High-level languages are closer to
human language than low-level languages, and include statements like GOTO or
FOR, which are regular words.

Following are the different type of High-level language.

Procedural Programming Languages:

Procedural programming specifies a list of operations that the program must complete
to reach the desired state. This one of the simpler programming pettern a program is
represented much like a cookbook recipe. Each program has a starting state, a list of
operations to complete, and an ending point. This approach is also known as
imperative programming.
Procedures, also known as functions, subroutines, or methods, are small sections of
code that perform a particular function. A procedure is effectively a list of
computations to be carried out. Procedural programming can be compared to
unstructured programming, where all of the code resides in a single large block. By
splitting the programmatic tasks into small pieces, procedural programming allows a
section of code to be re-used in the program without making multiple copies. It also
makes it easier for programmers to understand and maintain program structure.

Two of the most popular procedural programming languages are FORTRAN and
BASIC.

Structured Programming Languages:

Structured programming is a special type of procedural programming. It provides

additional tools to manage the problems that larger programs were creating.
Structured programming requires that programmers break program structure into
small pieces of code that are easily understood.

One of the well known features of structural programming is that it does not allow the
use of the GOTO statement.

Structured programming frequently employs a top-down design model, in which

developers map out the overall program structure into separate subsections. A defined
function or set of similar functions is coded in a separate module or submodule, which
means that code can be loaded into memory more efficiently and that modules can be
reused in other programs. After a module has been tested individually, it is then
integrated with other modules into the overall program structure.

The most popular structured programming languages include C, Ada, and Pascal.

Object-Oriented Programming Languages:

A type of programming in which programmers define not only the data type of a data
structure, but also the types of operations (functions) that can be applied to the data
structure. In this way, the data structure becomes an object that includes both data and
functions. In addition, programmers can create relationships between one object and
another. For example, objects can inherit characteristics from other objects.
One of the principal advantages of object-oriented programming techniques over
procedural programming techniques is that they enable programmers to create
modules that do not need to be changed when a new type of object is added. A
programmer can simply create a new object that inherits many of its features from
existing objects. This makes object-oriented programs easier to modify.

The most popular object-oriented programming languages include Java, Visual Basic,
C#, C++, and Python.

Programming Tools
Following are the programming tools for the programmer with he help of which he
can write a perfect program.

Algorithms

Flow charts

Pseudo code

Algorithms: -
Algorithm is a collection of those steps, which are written, in a simple language to
solve any problem. These steps always written in sequence and every step have a line
number and line number must in an access ending order.

These steps should be defined in such a way that they reflect, a clear picture of the
solution of a given problem.

Flow Charts: -
A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation of the logic or sequence of steps that
solve a problem. Flow chart is a tool for the programmer to analyses organize and
solve a problem and describes the nature of each step i.e. whether it is the input,
processing or output. It helps the programmer to divide the program into more
elementary steps. A representation of a sequence of operations by conventional
symbols, showing the flow of information in a solution to a problem. The relationship
between the different, types of operations are shown in a series of steps. This helps a
programmer design an effective program.

ADVANTAGES:

1. They are brief and to the point.

2. They express clearly the logic of a given procedure.

3. They are unambiguous.

4. They show readily whether all eventualities are covered.

There are two types of flowcharts.

Example Of Flowchart:

A system flowchart shows the major inputs, outputs and processes of a system. It is
not like program flowchart, which is very detailed. System flowchart symbols are
shown in fig: