LAB 6

Consistency is the term used to describe the ability of the soil to resist rupture and deformation. It is
commonly describe as soft, stiff or firm, and hard.

Water content greatly affects the engineering behavior of fine-grained soils. In the order of
increasing moisture content, a dry soil will exist into four distinct states: from solid state, to
semisolid state, to plastic state, and to liquid state. The water contents at the boundary of these states
are known as Atterberg limits. Between the solid and semisolid states is shrinkage limit, between
semisolid and plastic states is plastic limit, and between plastic and liquid states is liquid limit.

WHAT IS LIQUID LIMIT OF SOIL?

When water is added to dry soil, it changes its state of consistency from hard to soft. If we add water to a fine
grained soil, then water will change its consistency from hard to semi hard. If we continue to add more water then
again the soil will change its state of consistency from semi hard to plastic and finally reach a liquid consistency
stage. When the soil reaches liquid consistency state, it has remain no cohesive strength to retain its shape under
its own weight. It will start to deform its shape. So the amount of water which is responsible for this state of
consistency of soil is called liquid limit of soil. In other words we can define liquid limit as

From test point of view we can define liquid limit as follows.

Liquid limit is defined as the minimum water content at which a pat of soil cut by a groove of standard
dimension will flow together for a distance of 12 mm (1/2 inch) under an impact of 25 blows in the device.

WHY TO KNOW LIQUID LIMIT OF SOIL?

1. Liquid limit of soil is a very important property of fine grained soil (or cohesive soil)
2. Value of liquid limit is used to classify fine grained soil.
3. It gives us information regarding the state of consistency of soil on site.
4. Liquid limit of soil can be used to predict the consolidation properties of soil while calculating allowable bearing
capacity & settlement of foundation.
5. Liquid limit value of soil is also used to calculate activity of clays and toughness index of soil.

HOW TO DETERMINE LIQUID LIMIT OF SOIL?

There are two different methods are available for determining liquid limit of soil. These two methods are as given
below.

1. Liquid limit test of soil using casagrande apparatus

2. Liquid limit test of soil using cone penetrometer apparatus

1. LIQUID LIMIT TEST OF SOIL USING CASAGRANDE APPARATUS

This test is done using casagrande apparatus. In this test a soil paste is formed using soil sample passing 425
micron sieve and water. This paste is then placed in the cup of casagrande device. The soil pat is then divided into
two halves by making a groove using the grooving tool. Then the cup is dropped by turning the crank until two
halves of the soil cake come in contact with each other. The test is repeated by adding different amount of water
with the soil. Finally by plotting a graph we can determine the liquid limit of soil.
SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS
Soil used for liquid limit determination should not be oven dried prior to testing.
In LL test the groove should be closed by the flow of soil and not by slippage between the soil and the cup
After mixing the water to the soil sample , sufficient time should be given to permeate the water throughout out
the soil mass
Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left open in the air, the
container with soil sample should either be placed in desiccators or immediately be weighed.

Theory:
The liquid limit of a soil is the water content at which the soil behaves practically
like a liquid, but has small shear strength. It flows to close the groove in just 25
blows in Casagrandes liquid limit device.

The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the oven-dried soil, at the
boundary between the liquid and plastic states of consistency.

LAB 7

The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight of the oven-dry soil, at the
boundary between the plastic and semisolid states of consistency. It is the moisture content at which a soil will just
begin to crumble when rolled into a thread in. (3 mm) in diameter
Plastic Limit of Soil
The plastic limit signifies the percentage of moisture at which the soil changes, with decreasing wetness,
from a plastic to a semi-solid state, or with increasing wetness, from the semisolid to the plastic state. It is
the lower limit of the plastic state. It is the moisture content at which a thread of soil can be rolled
without breaking until it is only 3 mm in diameter, when it just begins to crumble under pressure exerted
by the hand. A small increase in moisture above the PL will destroy cohesion and shear strength of the
soil.

Theory:
The plastic limit of a soil is the water content of the soil below which it ceases to be
plastic. It begins to crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm diameter.

Consistency of Soil (Atterberg Limits)

Consistency is the term used to describe the ability of the soil to resist rupture and deformation. It is
commonly describe as soft, stiff or firm, and hard.

Water content greatly affects the engineering behavior of fine-grained soils. In the order of
increasing moisture content, a dry soil will exist into four distinct states: from solid state, to
semisolid state, to plastic state, and to liquid state. The water contents at the boundary of these states
are known as Atterberg limits. Between the solid and semisolid states is shrinkage limit, between
semisolid and plastic states is plastic limit, and between plastic and liquid states is liquid limit.

Atterberg limits, then, are water contents at critical stages of soil behavior. They, together with
natural water content, are essential descriptions of fine-grained soils.

Liquid Limit, LL
Liquid limit is the water content of soil in which soil grains are separated by water just enough for the
soil mass to loss shear strength. A little higher than this water content will tend the soil to flow like
viscous fluid while a little lower will cause the soil to behave as plastic.

Plastic Limit, PL
Plastic limit is the water content in which the soil will pass from plastic state to semi-solid state. Soil
can no longer behave as plastic; any change in shape will cause the soil to show visible cracks.

Shrinkage Limit, SL
Shrinkage limit is the water content in which the soil no longer changes in volume regardless of
further drying. It is the lowest water content possible for the soil to be completely saturated. Any
lower than the shrinkage limit will cause the water to be partially saturated. This is the point in which
soil will pass from semi-solid to solid state.

Determination of Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits

Casagrande Cup Method for Liquid Limit Test

Casagrande Cup
Courtesy of MOHAN LAL AND SONS

The semispherical brass cup is repeatedly dropped into a hard rubber base from a height of 10 mm
by a cam-operated crank.

The dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water turning it into a paste. The soil paste is then
placed into the cup to a thickness of about 12.5 mm and a groove is then cut at the center of the paste
using the standard grooving tool. The crank operating the cam is turned at the rate of 2 revolutions
per second lifting the cup and dropped it from a height of 10 mm. The liquid limit is the moisture
content required to close a distance of 12.5 mm along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows.
The required closure in 25 blows is difficult to achieve in a single test. Four or more tests to the same
soil at varying water contents are to be done for 12.5 mm closure of the groove. The results are then
plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph with moisture content along the vertical axis (algebraic scale)
and number of blows along the horizontal axis (logarithmic scale).

The graph is approximated by the best fit straight line, usually called the flow line and sometimes
called liquid state line. The moisture content that corresponds to 25 blows is the liquid limit of the
soil.

The slope of the flow line is called flow index and may be written as

Flow index, FI=w1w2log(N2/N1)FI=w1w2log(N2/N1)

where w1 and w2 are the water content corresponding to number of blows N1 and N2, respectively.

Plastic Limit Test

The plastic limit can easily be found by rolling a small soil sample into thin threads until it crumbles.
The water content at which the threads break at approximately 3 mm in diameter is the plastic limit.
Two or more tests are made and the average water content is taken as plastic limit. In this test, soil
will break at smaller diameter when wet and breaks in larger diameter when dry.
Fall Cone Method for Liquid and Plastic Limit Tests

Cone Penetrometer
Courtesy of SAIGON ISC

Fall cone method offers more accurate result of liquid limit and plastic limit tests. In this method, a
cone with a mass of 80 grams and an apex angle of 30 is suspended above so that its pointed part
will just in contact with the soil sample. The cone is permitted to fall freely under its own weight for a
period of 5 seconds. The water content that allows the cone to penetrate for 20 mm during this
period defines the liquid limit of the soil.

Like the cup method, four or more tests are required because it is difficult to find the liquid limit in a
single test. The results are then plotted into a semi-logarithmic paper with water content along the
vertical axis (arithmetic scale) and penetration along the horizontal axis (logarithmic scale). The best
fit straight line is then drawn and the water content that corresponds to 20 mm penetration defines
the liquid limit.
The plastic limit can be found by repeating the test with a cone of similar geometry but with a mass
of M2 = 240 grams. The liquid state line of this cone will be below the liquid state line of the M1 = 80
grams cone and parallel to it.

The plastic limit is given as

PL=LL2wlog(M2/M1)PL=LL2wlog(M2/M1)

Shrinkage Limit Test

The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a porcelain dish 44.5
mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven dried. With oven-dried soil still in the dish, the
volume of shrinkage can be determined by filling the dish with mercury. The volume of mercury that
fills the dish is equal to the shrinkage volume. The shrinkage limit is calculated from

SL=m1m2m2(V1V2)wm2SL=m1m2m2(V1V2)wm2

where m1 = mass of wet soil, m2 = mass of oven-dried soil, V1 = volume of wet soil, V2 = volume of
oven-dried soil, and w = density of water.

Other Formulas
Shrinkage ratio

SR=m2V2wSR=m2V2w
Specific gravity of solids

G=11SRSL100

LAB 8

Shrinkage Limit of Soil (SL)

Shrinkage limit is the limiting moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the soil, at
which a further reduction in the moisture (by evaporation) will not cause any further decrease in the
volume of the soil mass but at which an increase in the moisture content will cause an increase in the
volume of the soil mass. Evaporation of water causes shrinkage in a soil up to a certain degree beyond
which decrease in volume does not occur ; at this stage the soil has reached its shrinkage limit. The SL
represents the moisture content at the point at which the soil passes from the semi-solid to the solid state
and is a means of describing the pore space present in a soil after it has been allowed to compact itself to
the maximum density obtainable by shrinkage.
The SL considered in relation to the natural moisture content of soil in the field indicates whether or not
further shrinkage will take place if the soil is allowed to dry out. The lower the SL of the soil, the greater is
the possible volume change corresponding to a given variation in the moisture content of the soil. For
friable soils, the SL may be anywhere between the LL and 50 per Cent of the LL, and for feebly plastic, 25
to 30 per cent ; for medium plastic, 20 to 25 per cent ; for highly plastic, 15 to 20 per cent. There is no
definite relation between the Plastic Limit and the Shrinkage Limit.

Theory:
The shrinkage limit is the water content of the soil when the water is just sufficient to
fill all the pores of the soil and the soil is just saturated. The volume of the soil does not
decrease when the water content is reduced below the shrinkage limit. It can be
determined from the relation

Where = initial wet mass,

= initial volume

= dry mass

= volume after drying.

 SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST

NEED AND SCOPE

As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by artificial means in laboratory it changes
from liquid state to plastic state to semi-solid state and then to solid state. The volume is also reduced by the
decrease in water content. But, at a particular limit the moisture reduction causes no further volume change. A
shrinkage limit test gives a quantitative indication of how much moisture can change before any significant
volume change and to also indication of change in volume. The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils
undergo large volume changes when going through wet and dry cycles (e.g. earth dams)

PLASTIC RANGE
The range of stress values at which a materials deformation is permanent, and it no longer returns to its original form when
the applied force is removed.

Shrinkage limit[edit]
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume
reduction.[2] The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less
commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits.

Plastic limit[edit]
The plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface.
The procedure is defined in ASTM Standard D 4318. If the soil is at a moisture content where its behavior is plastic,
this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter. The sample can then be remolded and the test
repeated. As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will begin to break apart at larger diameters.
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about
1/8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture possible.

Liquid limit[edit]

Casagrande cup in action

The liquid limit (LL) is conceptually defined as the water content at which the behavior of a clayey soil changes
from plastic to liquid. However, the transition from plastic to liquid behavior is gradual over a range of water
contents, and the shear strength of the soil is not actually zero at the liquid limit. The precise definition of the liquid
limit is based on standard test procedures described below.
The original liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 10
12 cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times
against the palm of one hand. Casagrande subsequently standardized the apparatus and the procedures to make
the measurement more repeatable. Soil is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a groove is made
down its center with a standardized tool of 13.5 millimetres (0.53 in) width. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10 mm
onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120 blows per minute, during which the groove closes up gradually as a result
of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded. The moisture content at which it takes 25
drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of 13.5 millimetres (0.53 in) is defined as the liquid
limit. The test is normally run at several moisture contents, and the moisture content which requires 25 blows to
close the groove is interpolated from the test results. The Liquid Limit test is defined by ASTM standard test
method D 4318.[3] The test method also allows running the test at one moisture content where 20 to 30 blows are
required to close the groove; then a correction factor is applied to obtain the liquid limit from the moisture content.[4]
Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the fall cone test, also called the cone penetrometer test. It is
based on the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized cone of specific mass. Although the
Casagrande test is widely used across North America, the fall cone test is much more prevalent in Europe due to
being less dependent on the operator in determining the Liquid Limit.[5]

Derived limits[edit]
The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close relationship between the limits and
properties of a soil such as compressibility, permeability, and strength. This is thought to be very useful because as
limit determination is relatively simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Thus the Atterberg
limits are not only used to identify the soil's classification, but it allows for the use of empirical correlations for some
other engineering properties.

Plasticity index[edit]
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of the range of water
contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0
(non-plastic) tend to have little or no silt or clay.
Soil descriptions based on PI[6]

(0)- Nonplastic
(<7) - Slightly plastic
(7-17) - Medium plastic
>17 - Highly plastic
Liquidity index[edit]
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. It can be
calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit, and liquid limit: LI=(W-PL)/(LL-PL)
where W is the natural water content.

Consistency index[edit]
The consistency index (CI) indicates the consistency (firmness) of a soil. It is calculated as CI = (LL-W)/(LL-
PL) , where W is the existing water content. Soil at the liquid limit will have a consistency index of 0, while soil at
the plastic limit will have a consistency index of 1.
Consistency limits

The strength of connections between soil particles changes with water content in soils containing clay
minerals. Therefore, these soils behave differently with different water content depending on the (quantitative
and qualitative) clay mineral content.

The original condition of soils changes in contact with water. Higher water content makes soils liquid, drying
soils slowly leads to plastic consistency, reaching at the end the firm condition of constant volume. These
transitions are continual.

Water contents where soils show specific properties are called consistency limits. For determination of
consistency limits disturbed, kneaded soil samples are used. An interpretation of consistency limits is shown
in Figure 1.3.

The determination of consistency limits is performed on saturated soil samples by equipment and methods
described in international standards.

Figure 1.3: Interpretation of consistency limits (Mecsi, 2009)

Liquid limit

Liquid limit ( ) is the water content separating liquid and plastic condition. The practical meaning of liquid
limit is that soils at the consistency of liquid limit slip down a slope of approximately 10.

The liquid limit can be determined using the so-called Casagrande method see Figure 1.4 and Video 1.1.

A groove is made with a standardized tool in the soil sample placed into the metal cup of this equipment and
the cup is repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base, during which the groove closes up gradually as a
result of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close for 10 mm is recorded, and the water
content of the soil is determined. The test must be repeated at higher water content (by adding water to the
soil sample). A relationship between the number of blows and water contents can be graphed, and the liquid
limit can be read from this graph. The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the
groove to close is defined as the liquid limit.

This value of water content is considered as liquid limit very typical of soil types and of connections between
soil particles and water - and it varies usually between 35% and 100%.

The physical background of determination of liquid limit is looking for the moisture content at which soils show
definite deformation against certain impact.

Experience shows that the number of blowswater content curves (the so-called liquid lines) of soils of
different plasticity are parallel lines drawn in a semilogarithmic coordinate system.

Figure 1.4: Determination of liquid limit using Casagrande equipment

VIDEO 1.1

Video 1.1: Determination of liquid limit using Casagrande equipment

New European standards recommend another method: the so-called cone penetrometer test (Figure 1.5). It is
based on the measurement of penetration into the pulpy soil of a standardized cone of specific mass in 5
seconds time. Liquid limit is the water content where this penetration is equal to 10 or 20 mm. It can be
determined by the graphing method already known from Casagrande method. Practical experiences show
that cone penetrometer tests give more accurate results for low plasticity soils. An additional advantage is that
the liquid limit can be theoretically determined based on one point (one test)

Plastic limit
Plastic limit ( ) is the water content at which soil starts to transform from plastic to rigid condition, in other
words from kneadable to brittle. The plastic limit is defined as the water content of soil when the soil sample
can be rolled to a diameter of 3 mm and it just begins to crumble.

Determination of the plastic limit is based on this definition: we try to roll the soil sample to a thread of 3 mm. If
the sample is about to break up, the water content of the soil sample is exactly on the plastic limit
(Figure 1.6, Video 1.2), so the plastic limit can be determined by the calculation of the water (moisture)
content of this thread.

Figure 1.6: Determination of plastic limit

VIDEO 1.2

Video 1.2: Determination of plastic limit

The plastic limit is of great importance in engineering aspects. Performing soil tillage or earthworks is the most
economical and the simplest in this condition, when both manual and mechanical grading require the least
amount of power. Dirt roads are passable, and embankments can be most easily compacted (reaching the
smallest possible void ratio) when the water content of the soil is at its plastic limit.

Plasticity index

The plasticity index ( ) is the difference between the water content of the liquid limit and the plastic limit.

A small plasticity index refers to water-sensitive soils while a higher value means higher water absorbent
capacity, and thus the quantity and quality of clay minerals can be characterized indirectly.

The plasticity index is also a measure of the cohesion ability of soils. A higher plasticity index usually means a
higher expected value of cohesion (by the same compactness).

The plasticity index has an important role both in soil classification and in empirical formulas.

Experience obtained during determination of the value of plasticity index result in several empirical
correlations.
Shrinkage limit

When drying a liquid or plastic soil mass, reduction of volume occurs to the same extent as water leaves.
Shrinkage is caused by the capillary forces acting on the surface of the soil clod. At a certain water content
these forces can not cause further volume reduction, volume ceases to change, the saturated soil becomes
slowly unsaturated, and air phase substitutes moisture phase in the pores (see Figure 1.3).

The water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume reduction is called
the shrinkage limit ( ) or ( ).

The finer-grained soil and the higher content of clay minerals results in the higher value of shrinkage. The
quality of clay mineral content (Na-montmorillonite vs. Ca-montmorillonite), the lattice structure of clay
minerals, and the thickness of the diffuse double layer are particularly important to the measure of shrinkage.

Activity

As above, consistency limits are highly influenced by clay mineral content. Soils with the same clay content
can show different behaviour, thus we have to distinguish between clay content and clay mineral content.
Clay content is the rate of the particles smaller than 0.002 mm ( ), while clay mineral content
is the quantity of clay minerals in the soil sample. Determination of the clay mineral content of a soil sample is
not enough to draw conclusions about the behaviour of the soil, because there is a difference in its behaviour
depending on the principal clay mineral (e.g. montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite). This property is particularly
important in environmental protection for the determination of water and contamination retention
capability. Skemptons Activity value ( ), is especially useful for evaluating this behaviour. Skemptons
Activity is not a consistency parameter, but affects the values of consistency limits.

The value of activity can be calculated from the plasticity index ( ) and :