UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA

FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN

Course: GGGE 6313

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

Assignment I
 Group Members
Vivien Lau Sue Yen P89273

Gabrielle Goh Enn Enn P98271

Diana binti Suhaimi P89268

Program: TESL

Lecturer: Dr Maslawati Mohamad

Session: Sem II 2016/2017

Date: 25th May 2017

1. Overview on ADHD

Children with disability are defined as children with activity limitation or

participation restriction experienced as a reason of having physical or mental condition
or health problems (Mc Conachie, 2006). These children face lots of environmental and
social challenges that have a negative effect on their psychological functioning (Chau,
2012).

ADHD is a well-known childhood disorder that can continue up to adulthood.

According to Anuradha (2010):

ADHD is a Disruptive Behaviour Disorder characterized by the presence of a set

of chronic and impairing behaviour patterns that display abnormal levels of inattention,
hyperactive, or their combination.

This disorder caused difficulty on learning effectively as a reason of unknown factors

that affect the brains ability to receive and process information (Wodka, 2008). It
mostly appears when a child has difficulties on speaking, reading, writing, solving a
math problem, communicating or paying attention in class (Weston, 2011). Most
characteristics of ADHD are hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention, impatience,
difficulty staying seated, talking excessively, and acting without thinking, climbing on
things and jumping off things and running inappropriately (J. Anuradha, 2010)
2. Profile of the GP

The name of the GP is Asri Bin Saleh or Asri. Asri is 10 years old and currently
enrolled in the special education integration programme in one primary school in Bera,
Pahang. Asri was previously placed in the mainstream classroom of the same school
since Year 1 and during those years, Asri had displayed several characteristics of
ADHD, both hyperactivity and inattentive. Zentall (2006) stated that easily recognized
in students with ADHD is excessive motor activity. This can be seen when Asri usually
left his seat in classroom just about 15 minutes after task was assigned to him. He will
start walking around the classroom, teasing other kids and taking away their belongings
without permission which reflects one impulsiveness of ADHD, interrupts or intrudes
on others. He would also walk out of the classroom and going around the school
compound without any purpose. Besides, Asri had difficulty waiting in lines or awaiting
turns in games or group situations. As told by his teachers, his impulsivity was seen
during the school prize giving ceremony as Asri was not involved as prize receiver but
he was agitated when he saw other kids lining up to receive the prize and he would
quickly join the line thus, the teachers had to prepare another prize for him in order to
avoid him throwing tantrum.

As mentioned above, Asri had merely short attention span during the lesson,
between 10 to 15 minutes which reflects one characteristic for inattentive, often has
difficulty sustaining attention in tasks and play activities thus, severely impacted his
academic performance as evident in his examination result slip (See Appendix 1). This
is supported by Burns (2010) as children who have difficulty attending to classroom
instruction may fail to acquire a wide array of academic skills and knowledge and
research has shown that children with ADHD are more likely to receive lower classroom
grades and test scores in reading and mathematics. On December 2015, Asri was then
referred to medical practitioner for diagnosis. Based on the diagnosis result, (see
Appendix 2 & 3), Asri is diagnosed for autistic spectrum disorder with ADHD
component and he needs to be accommodated in special education class. In order to
reduce his temper tantrums, Asri is prescribed with stimulant medication, 5 mg OM of
methylphenidate which helps him to concentrate better and lessen his hyperactivity.
Starting January 2016, Asri is placed in the special education classroom and his teachers
responded that the medication does reduce his hyperactivity and he is now more calm
and able to listen and respond to the instruction quite well as compared to his previous
condition (before diagnosis).

3. GP major problems and issues related to language learning

Based on the discussion with the teachers, there are two major problems
currently facing by Asri related to language learning which are;

Letters recognition
Short-term retention on vocabulary learning

3.1 Letters recognition

3.1.1 The struggles of the GP

According to Tannock, Martinussen and Frijters (2000) as cited in Zentall

(2006), children with ADHD are much slower and less accurate in naming letters even
when controlling for phonological skills and vocabulary. For Asri, he is currently able
to recognize and name 11 letters which cover all vowels and 6 consonants which are
letter f, g, k, r, s and t out of 27 letters in the English alphabet system. Teaching letters
to Asri has been the main priority during the language class both Bahasa Melayu and
English and it started since his enrolment in the special education programme back in
2016. Zentall (2006) discussed that what is difficult for students with ADHD are
attentional requirements of holding verbal information in mind, especially over time
when interferences occur or information must be organized, categorized or associated
with other information. Therefore, learning letters for Asri is a tedious process as there
were times that he was having difficulty to remember some of the letters accurately
even though the same letters are repeated countless times throughout the lesson. For
example, if in the previous week Asri was introduced with the letters f and g and a week
later he learnt the letters k and r, he ended up in confusion when the teacher tested him
to name all the four letters simultaneously in the next lesson. As Asri is still in the stage
of recognizing letters, he is unable to read any Malay words, be it in English even one
syllable word. This is because Asri is yet to acquire the skill in blending phonemes and
pronouncing one syllable words.

Sanderud et al. (2016) demonstrated that ADHD children may apply

mechanisms like restlessness, hyperactivity and hypervigilance. Studies by Dutta and
Sanyal (2016) affirmed that ADHD learners, [including Asri bin Saleh, our GP], are
most likely having difficulties in their overall cognitive, conative and affective growth
and development as they are with lowered self-esteem through the possibilities of
having suffering from academic failures. Halder and Mahato (2017) demonstrated that
those ADHD learners struggles in giving and sustaining attention tends to make them
easily distracted as they find it difficult to monitor and concentrate on the stimulus
existing in their surroundings. Asri, as Harvey, et al. (2015) stated, also showed verbally
based and cognitively complex symptoms like excessive talking and task planning/
organization difficulties, and, non-verbal based, less complex symptoms like being
restless/ on the go and being easily distracted. Symptoms that goes with varying
expectations and contexts, for instance, leaves seat, doesnt listen, misplaces items,
difficulty playing quietly, interrupt-intrudes and blurts out responses, to name a few,
were also observable (Harvey et al., 2015). It was suggested by Dutta and Sanyal (2016)
that ADHD diagnosed learners also have struggles in organization, preserving proper
sequence, weak form perception, inappropriate emotional expressions, and
inappropriate usage of directions and space. According to Klein, et al. (2014)
observation, regulating behavioural complications may be multifactorial and some of
the ADHD symptoms observed encompass mood disorders, temperamental differences,
post-traumatic stress disorders, anxiety disorders, attachment difficulties, language
difficulties and learning disabilities, and, etcetera.

As observed during our time with Asri, Hamilton and Astramovichs

observations were easily applicable. In the words of Hamilton and Astramovich (2015),
ADHD learners struggle in their academic success as they usually encounter problems
such as interpersonal and academic difficulties. Findings from their research revealed
that their subject had only shown slight raise in intelligence as the subjects educational
success was still being hindered by ADHD symptoms since the subject operated below
his supposed potential even with continual support from psychostimulant medication
and the application of organizational strategies. It was largely due to inhibitions that
concerned with interpersonal conflict, inattention to detail, time management, lack of
strategic planning and self-regulatory issues (Hamilton & Astramovich, 2015).
3.1.2 Strategies conducted for letters recognition

Normal Pencil Tracing

As mentioned in the profile section of the GP, Asri scored well in both of his art
and music subject. Therefore we decided to take advantage on Asris interest in putting
the strategies together. According to Waite (2010), ADHD children can also have some
special, admirable qualities symptoms such as creativity and intuition. In addition, there
are sensitive in problem solving and visual learning. They are energetic and their
weaknesses can be converted to strength if they motivated to concentrate, improve the
level of alertness once they learn how to use their unique symptoms in appropriate
direction (Wilens TE, 2008). Therefore, we use this opportunity to use his weakness in
order to reach his full potential.

In the KSSR curriculum of special education for basic 3M skills (literacy and
numeracy), one of the Content Standards that the pupils in the special education class
need to achieve is Pupils will be able master fine motor skills prior to writing. For this
strategy, we are applying the traditional pencil tracing where we prepare 5 sheets of
alphabet tracing worksheet. Then we pin an alphabet flashcard on the board. Show
students how to trace the alphabets using correct grip. At the same time, we ask students
to name the picture at the side of the flashcard, after that we show them how to trace
the word that begins with the letter of the words. Students will be given time to do
complete their worksheet, teacher also constantly remind them to follow the order of
tracing shown on the worksheet. Due to the time constraint, this strategy was only
conducted once and it was for thirty minutes. Ten letters are chosen for the flashcards
which are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, i, k, m and n.
Alphabet Pebble Tracing

According to Asris teacher, like most ADHD children, Asri wasnt a strong verbal-
linguistic learner. Teachers could repeat their instruction and reprimand, but Asri
wouldnt respond if he doesnt want to. Asri prefer to have freedom in learning
environment as he loses concentration when they are forced to sit. Furthermore, Asri
was the kind of kid who needed to relate to his learning tactilely, hence the constant
urge to touch everything, including his classmates. Therefore, we eventually learned
how to best relate to Asri, is to introduce tactile strategies.

The hands-on approach was a strategy in to teach Asri, we felt that it was necessary to
teach Asri in the ways he learned best, that is to say, using his learning strength and not
only ours. Hence we came out with an Alphabet Pebble Tracing activity to cater his
learning style needs. Since we do not want to limit the space of movement for the
students, we instruct everyone to be on the floor, students were given colourful pebbles.
Using the same flashcard which are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, i, k, m and n, students are instructed
to trace the selected alphabet using pebbles on a white paper. Teacher however
demonstrate the process first in order to show the students how it is done. Teacher then
releases one flashcard at a time and monitor students finish their task.
3.1.3 Strengths and weaknesses of the strategies

For the strength of this strategy, the teacher commented that the flashcard used are
alphabet Asri and his friend were taught before. However, due to the short-term memory
retention, Asri is needed to prompt in order to remember what is taught. Asri showed a
positive attitude towards the activity, however it took him some time to complete his
work because since perfectionism is one of ADHDs characteristic (Killeen, 2013).
From our observation, Asri took time to trace his alphabet carefully in order to achieve
the exact alphabet as in the flash card. The teacher also commented that she notice Asri
was constantly comparing his work with his other peers, kids with ADHD often use
attention-seeking behaviors to mask difficulties. (Jacobson, 2012) The teacher also
highlighted that, even though this activity is the traditional way of teaching children in
writing alphabet, she still believe that is a good drilling activity that repetition would
eventually promote long-term retention for Asri.

On the other hand, the observation indicates that, like most ADHD children, Asri wasnt
a strong verbal-linguistic learner. Teacher could repeat their instruction and reprimand,
but Asri wouldnt respond if he doesnt want to. We observed that Asri prefer to have
freedom in learning environment as he loses concentration when they are forced to sit.
Furthermore, Asri was the kind of kid who needed to relate to his learning tactilely,
hence the constant urge to touch everything, including his classmates. Through this
activity, Asri shows great interest in doing the task, moreover he even guided his peers
in doing it. The teacher also added that Asri was able to utter the alphabets after tracing
them and also memorize which alphabet he was tracing after the flashcard was shown.
However, the weaknesses of this activity is that it was too time consuming as Asri still
seeks for perfections in this activity. Asri even asked for the flashcard to be place under
the white paper so he could trace the alphabets accordingly. In addition, even before the
activity, Asri has actually divided the pebbles according their colours because he wants
his alphabet to be in one colour
3.1.4 Recommended strategies to empower letters recognition learning

(i) Dance and Creative Movements

It can be seen from the struggles of ADHD students mentioned in above section
that they are very much tactile-based learners. Numerous kinaesthetic learners,
including those with ADHD, challenged their teachers by display behaviours like
difficulty facing the front of their class, staying seated, and frequently fidget
unnecessarily (Skoning, 2008). Hence, incorporation of teaching tools like dance and
creative movement [in order to ensure letter recognition, for instance] will cater to a
variety of learners, particularly kinaesthetic ADHD learners, as this meaningfully
benefits them who typically have struggles communicating via writing or oral means
(Skoning, 2008).

(ii) Visual Cues (i.e. Alphabet Tracing)

Visual cues are employed to demonstrate precise sequence and formation of all
26 alphabetic letters as exhibited with D and L, and, the visual cues, over time, can
be eliminated as seen with O (Datchuk, 2015). Precise synchronization between vision
and fine-motor movement is needed in writing correctly formatted alphabets so having
visual cues is proven to be an alphabet learning solution in terms of letter formation,
including space, size, direction, and shape (Datchuk, 2015).
 Huang et al. (2013) proposed the application of Alphabet Tracing, an iPad app
that instructs students on ways to write alphabet letters so to eventually aid in
distinguishing alphabetical letters via visual cues. The apps animated characters would
say the letter name first then instruct students the way to trace upper and lower case
letters stage by stage with dot to dot writing activity as well as labels and pictures of
real life objects in regards to the traced letter (Huang, et al., 2013). After the letter is
correctly written, the app will again say the letter name (Huang, et al., 2013). Huang, et
al. (2013) stated that Alphabet Tracings distinction from paper-based alphabetic trace
is that students could hear, write, read, and verbalise the letters simultaneously.

(iii) Outdoor and Tactile Activities

Arreguin-Anderson, et al. (2016) proposed that learners can be encouraged to

produce alphabet letters with images and words that arise from outdoor activities where
learners discover about their world. Employing clay, finger tracing letters in sand or
rice, and air writing by applying different position of hand/arm in the air are activities
intended by Datchuk (2015) to involve motor senses and tactile processes. Datchuks
suggestion goes in line with the teachers recommendation to apply sand (for tracing
purposes) in place of pebbles to save time while having Azri experience tactile and
kinaesthetic hands on activities.
(iv) Matching Letter Game (Flashcards)

Neal and Ehlert (2007) suggested utilizing alphabet cards that contain both
upper and lower case letters and recommended teachers to utilize large, bold printed
alphabet letters of about 6 6 inches with no pictures and other distraction while they
seat their students across from themselves at a table with appropriate height for students
so to avoid students looking up at an angle. In Huang, et al (2013), after the ADHD
students grasped all alphabets and letter sounds, matching game was applied for
students reinforcement on letter-sound association, letter identification and upper and
lower case alphabetic letters differentiation. The student may pick an uppercase letter
flashcard, the teacher (or the student) verbalise the letter, and the student matched it to
the lowercase letter flashcard. Only a few uppercase letters and their respective lower
case letters will be given for each round. The teacher will give praises when they
identified correctly whereas if the student failed in choosing the correct match, indirect
hints are to be given as a guide for them to correctly match them. When the students are
slightly advanced, the teacher would ask the student for a word that started with the
selected letter. Say, if the letter was D, the teacher would ask the student for a word like
dog.
3.2 Short-term retention on vocabulary learning

3.2.1 The struggles of the GP

Turketi (2010) stated that typically, both speech input and output of children
with ADHD are impaired, making the process of language acquisition rather
challenging and confusing for such learners. For Asri, his vocabulary acquisition is very
limited as English is a foreign language for him. According to his teachers, Asri is able
to greet in English which is good morning as the teachers always wish the greeting
both in Malay and English every morning before the lesson begins. The teacher also
mentioned that Asri has learned the words father, mother, brother and sister under
the theme family members and colours such as black and white. However, as Asri
is unable to read both in Malay and English, he depends a lot on his memory to identify
and pronounce the words with the scaffolding from the teacher. He also has high
tendency to easily forget the newly learnt vocabulary like the teacher said, learn today,
forget tomorrow. Asri desperately needs the stimuli to help him recall the words with
the teacher prompting him. For example, when the teacher points to his hair, he would
quickly identify it as black or when the teacher shows a picture of a mother, he would
utter the word mother. Asris short-term retention reflects one of the 12 things listed
by Bailey (2005) in Vaughn, Bos and Schumm (2011) that students with ADD/ADHD
would like their teachers to know which is; I really do forget things. Im not trying to
be difficult. Sometimes I just dont remember.

In the KSSR curriculum of special education for basic 3M skills (literacy and
numeracy), one of the Content Standards that the pupils in the special education class
need to achieve is Pupils will be able to say words and speak confidently. Therefore,
it is arguable that confidence in speaking could only be achieved when one has
developed fluency on the spoken language. Yoshimura and MacWhinney (2007) stated
that there is a strong link between automatic processing and fluency and regardless of
individual working-memory capacity, the automatic processing of language frees up
capacity for other information, which results in fluent use of language. Short-term
retention on vocabulary learning that Asri is currently facing might slow down the
process of automaticity thus, the objective of the Content Standard could hardly be
achieved. Hence, the aim for Asri is to promote automaticity by getting him to
automatically be able to recall the words or when he sees the concrete object describing
the words without much need of scaffolding and prompts from the teacher.

3.2.2 Strategies conducted for short-term retention on vocabulary learning

i) Concentration Strategy using Flashcards

As mentioned in the profile section of the GP, Asri is currently prescribing

stimulant medication, 5 mg OM of methylphenidate which helps him to concentrate
better and lessen his hyperactivity. Barkley (2006) as cited in Vaughn, Bos and Schumm
(2011) argued that even though about 70% to 80% of children with ADHD respond
positively to stimulant medications, but using medications is only one aspect of the
treatment plan and should be paired with behavioural and/or academic interventions.

Sabet et. al (2015) conducted a study on the use of flashcards through four focus
strategies to teach vocabulary to eight ADHD female students (inattentive type) in
junior high school. The background of the study is in Iran as the students learn English
as foreign language. The flashcards used in the study were described as colourful and
showing the pictures and spelling of the words. One of the focus strategies practised in
the study is concentration in which new words were taught through showing the pictures
by flash cards one by one and after showing each picture, the students were asked to
close their eyes, make a focus and repeat three times after the teacher modelled the
picture. For further research, this study recommended to test the focus strategies on
hyperactivity or combined type of ADHD which is more common in boys especially in
elementary schools. Therefore, as Asri is a boy with combined type of ADHD, this
concentration strategy is chosen and adopted for the vocabulary teaching in this project.

Due to the time constraint, this strategy was only conducted once and for thirty
minutes. Ten letters are chosen for the flashcards as they are the same letters that were
taught in the strategy for letter recognition problem which are a, b, c, d, e, f, g, i, k, m
and n. The words for each letter are monosyllabic words because Sabet et.al (2015)
argued that the words with more than two syllables are difficult for elementary levels.
The list of the words is presented in Table 1:
 a : ant g : goat
b : ball i : ink
c : cup k : king
d : dog m : mat
e : egg n : nose

Table 1

The words are chosen based on the theme in the basic 3M skills syllabus such as Things
at Home, Things in the Classroom and Animals. Each flashcard contains one letter, one
word of the letter and a picture of the word. The choice of font and its size is designed
to be similar with the flashcards used for the teaching Malay vocabulary as to avoid
confusion and increase familiarity in learning using flashcards. The flashcard is
presented in Diagram 1:

Diagram 1

The strategy started by introducing the first five words in alphabetical order. The
teaching involved all the four kids in the class but the focus was still on Asri. Firstly,
the flashcard with letter a was shown and the kids were asked to pronounce the letter.
Then, they were asked to name the picture on the flashcard in Malay. After that, the
teacher introduced the English word by saying, a for ant and quickly translated the
word in Malay, ant, semut. Then, the teacher repeated the whole phrase a for ant
for two or three times until all the kids were able to pronounce the word accurately. This
process was then repeated for the other four letters. Vaughn, Bos and Schumm (2011)
stated that one of the educational interventions for students with ADHD is the activities
conducted should include movement and postures as part of the activity rather than only
sitting. Hence, throughout the lesson, the movement took place when the teacher asked
the kids to touch their nose when they learned the word nose, making animals sound
such as dog for the word dog and pointed at the mat on the floor when they learned
the word mat.

The concentration strategy then began by showing the first flashcard (letter a)
to the kids and the teacher asked them to focus on the picture for three seconds. Then,
the kids closed their eyes while the teacher pronounced the word in the flashcard three
times and they followed after the teachers pronunciation such as, mat, mat, mat or
king, king, king. Lastly, the kids opened their eyes and look at the flashcard again for
confirmation. This process was then repeated for the other four letters. As the attention
span of ADHD kids is between 10 to 15 minutes, the lesson stopped after 15 minutes.
After 10 minutes of break, the lesson continued for the other five words, following the
same process as the first five words.

ii) Flashcards song

In terms of Asris interest in learning, the teacher stated that Asri loves music
very much. His favourite children songs are the Didi and Friends songs which he is able
to memorize all the songs together with the gestures. Thus, the teacher manipulates his
interest in music by integrating music in the lesson such as teaching new words through
song. Dunbar (2014) as cited in Marks (2016) stated that an intervention that is seeing
more use lately, with associated positive outcomes, is the use of music therapy for
children with ADHD. There are two types of music therapy that are in use today, passive
and active. In active music therapy, participants are involved with music by playing
instruments, improvisation, receptive listening, writing lyrics and use of imagery and
this strategy is considered as active music therapy because Asri will sing along to the
song with gestures and not merely listening.

Asris teacher responded that songs eventually assist Asri in pronouncing the
words accurately and memorizing the words better as compared to only listen to and
follow after the teacher. This response reflects the case studies conducted by Dunbar
(2014) as cited in Marks (2016) that music therapy can increase desirable behaviours
while simultaneously reducing unwanted behaviours in children with special needs.
Furthermore, the gains found from the implementation of music therapy is specifically
a decrease in the incidence of hitting and screaming behaviours and an increase in
appropriate communicative behaviours. (De Mers et al., 2009 cited in Marks, 2016).

The song that was chosen was adapted from the ABC alphabets song in which
the teacher used the minus one version of the song, changed the lyrics and sang the song
by herself. Then, the teacher produced the video of the song by inserting all the
flashcards taught in the first strategy in which the teacher converted the Word format of
the flashcards into JPEG format. The duration of the song is one minute and the lyrics
are as presented in Table 2:

FLASHCARDS SONG
a, a, a for ant, ant, ant
b, b, b for ball, ball, ball
c, c, c for cup, cup, cup
d, d, d for dog, dog, dog
e, e, e for egg, egg, egg
g, g, g for goat, goat goat
i, i, i for ink, ink, ink
k, k, k for king, king, king
m, m, m for mat, mat, mat
n, n, n for nose, nose, nose

Table 2

The video was shown after the concentration strategy ended. At first, the video was
played with the audio muted as the purpose was to test Asris retention of the words.
The video was paused at every word and the teacher will ask Asri to identify the picture
in the flashcard. He was able to identify two words out of ten without assistance which
are ball and dog and his ability to identify the word ball could be due to the
pronunciation of ball is almost similar with the Malay translation which is bola.
After that, Asri listened to the video first in order to introduce him to the tune of the
song. Then, the song was played for three times with Asri singing along to the song
together with the teacher. The whole lesson for vocabulary teaching took about forty
minutes.

3.2.3 Reflection, strengths and weaknesses of the strategies

For the strengths of the concentration strategy, the teacher commented that the
words chosen for this strategy begin with the same letters as used in the letter
recognition strategy which is a good way to promote long term retention of the letters
and to avoid confusion if different letters are used. The teacher also praised with the
effort that the latest syllabus of the special education was referred in choosing the words
based on the themes instead of simply picking up words randomly. She also added that
all the one-syllable words listed the flashcards are manageable for Asri to articulate and
memorize. On the other hand, the teacher argued that teaching ten words to Asri within
an-hour lesson could be too tedious and burdensome for him. This is because Asri is
unable to process a lot of information at one time, let alone to expect him to memorize
all the words after the lesson. The teachers argument is supported by Hughes and
Cooper (2007) that the deficits associated with ADHD mean the child has a problem at
the processing level and therefore has limitations with short-term memory. Therefore,
as the recommendation, the teacher suggested to break the lesson into several parts and
each part will focus on two to four vocabulary in order to promote long-term retention.

Meanwhile, for the flashcards song, the teacher stated that she could see that
Asri enjoyed the song and able to sing along to the tune together with the correct
pronunciation. This could be due to his familiarity to the tune of the song and the pace
of the song is not too fast for Asri to catch up. The teacher also added that Asri loves
the kind of tune used for the song and the song is suitable for the teacher to introduce
new words to Asri. There was no weakness given and one recommendation that the
teacher suggested is to insert other letters and produce a complete video of alphabets
vocabulary as to be used for future learning.
4. Conclusion

Children with ADHD are individuals who need an individual framework for
their social and educational development and these developments could be achieved
through appropriate, sustained intervention and support largely from the teachers and
parents. For successful interventions to happen in teaching the ADHD children, it is
always necessary for the teachers to equip themselves with relevant knowledge and
skills in understanding of what is required, pedagogically, in a specific situation. When
teachers are able to implement and adopt effective interventions in scaffolding the
children, they are eventually helping the children to be competent in ways of
minimizing their difficulties and learn the rules of society as well as ensuring that the
children receive the education that they deserve.
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