Journal of International Students (Vol 7 No 4 2017)

JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS
JOURNAL OF
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS
A Quarterly Publication on International Education
Vol. 7/No. 4 October/November 2017

Access this journal online at https://jistudents.org/
ISBN 978-1-387-36409-1
90000
Krishna Bista
9 781387 364091
JOURNAL OF
INTERNATIONAL
STUDENTS
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
A Quarterly Publication on
International Education
Access this journal online at: https://jistudents.org/

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ISSN: 2162-3104 Print/ ISSN: 2166-3750 Online
Volume 7 Number 4 October/November 2017
Journal of International Students
http://jistudents.org/
EDITORIAL TEAM
Founding Editor: Dr. Krishna Bista, Morgan State University, USA
Associate Editors:
Dr. Chris R. Glass, Old Dominion University, USA
Dr. Charlotte Foster, Sylvan Learning, USA
Dr. Danilo M. Baylen, University of West Georgia, USA
Dr. Diana B. Carlin, Saint Louis University, USA
Dr. Keri Dutkiewicz, Davenport University, USA
Dr. Sandria Officer, University of Toronto, Canada
Dr. Shyam Sharma, Stony Brook University, USA
Dr. Rai Farrelly, American University of Armenia, Armenia
Dr. Rosalind L. Raby, California Colleges for International Education, USA
Dr. Vera V. Chapman, Colgate University, USA
Assistant Editors/Copy Editors
Dr. Barry Fass-Holmes, University of California, San Diego, USA
Dr. Charles R. Harris, Stony Brook University, USA
Dr. Christina W. Yao, University of Nebraska- Lincoln, USA
Dr. CindyAnn Rose-Redwood, University of Victoria, Canada
Dr. David Comp, Columbia College, USA
Dr. Dorota Silber-Furman, Tennessee Tech University, USA
Dr. Hugo Garcia, Texas Tech University, USA
Dr. Jiaqi Li, Wichita State University, USA
Dr. Lisa Kahle-Piasecki, Tiffin Univesity, USA
Dr. Ji Zhou, USC Marshall School of Business, USA
Dr. Luchen Li, University of New Hampshire, USA
Dr. Miguel H. Lpez, California State University, San Bernardino, USA
Dr. Mingsheng Li, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
Dr. Nicholas D. Hartlep, Illinois State University, USA
Dr. Uttam Gaulee, Morgan State University, USA
Book Review & Reflection Editors
Dr. Yi Luo, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Ms. Joy Bancroft, Daytona State Collage, USA
Ms. Kerri Bennett, Arkansas State University, USA
Dr. Misato Yamaguchi, Georgia Regents University, USA
Dr. Paige E. Sindt, The Middlebury Institute of Intl Studies at Monterey, USA
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Dr. Cattriona Gribble, Deakin University, Australia
Dr. Amany Saleh, Arkansas State University, USA
Dr. Howard Wang, Duke Kunshan University, China
Dr. Amy Dagley, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
Dr. Don Jones, Belhaven University, USA
Dr. Rahul Choudaha, DrEducation.org, USA
Dr. Russ Hannah, Arkansas State University, USA
Dr. Janet B. Ilieva, Education Insight, UK
For more information: http://jistudents.org/board
Copyright 2017 by Journal of International Students
All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced
or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of
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or scholarly journal.
Printing: 2017
Print ISSN 2162-3104
Online ISSN 2166-3750
Disclaimer
Facts and opinions published in Journal of International Students (JIS)
express solely the opinions of the respective authors. Authors are
responsible for their citing of sources and the accuracy of their references
and bibliographies. The editors cannot be held responsible for any lacks or
possible violations of third parties rights.
October/November 2017 Volume 7 Number 4
An interdisciplinary, peer reviewed publication, Journal of International Students
(Print ISSN 2162-3104 & Online ISSN 2166-3750) is a professional journal that
publishes narrative, theoretical and empirically-based research articles, student
reflections, and book reviews relevant to international students and their cross-
cultural experiences and understanding. Published quarterly, the Journal encourages
the submission of manuscripts from around the world, and from a wide range of
academic fields, including comparative education, international education, student
affairs, linguistics, psychology, religion, sociology, business, social work,
philosophy, and culture studies.
All articles published in the Journal of International Students are indexed
and listed in major databases and sources:
Authors and Submissions
The Journal audience includes international and domestic students, faculty,

administrators, and educators engaged in research and practice in international
students in colleges and universities.
a) Peer-reviewed Article - includes manuscripts that focus on the
interpretation, implication, or significance of research work related to
international students and scholars from various disciplines (between 4,500
to 7,500 words).
b) Research in Brief includes manuscripts that focus a specific topic or
question using new data or conceptual framework that does not require a
full-length manuscript; up to two figures/tables, and maximum 5-
8 references (1,500-2,000 words).
c) Study Abroad/Reflection - includes descriptions and perceptions from
students and scholars concerning another culture, language, people and
society from an insider or outsider perspective (between 1,000 to 2,500
words).
d) Book/Dissertation/Film Review - includes reviews and critiques of the
written work of scholars from a number of disciplines related to
international students (between 750 to 1,200 words).
Please e-mail your manuscript to the Editor, Dr. Krishna Bista at

contact@jistudnets.org. Include your full address with email and telephone number.
Follow APA 6th edition in your citation and references. Double space. Times New
Roman with 12 font size.
This Journal is a non-profit publication and has been operating through the
voluntary services of editors, copy editors, reviewers and guest editors. All positions
in the Journal are unpaid. There is no fee for submission or publication.
For further information
Krishna Bista
Founding Editor Journal of International Students
http:/ /jistudents.org/
E-mail: contact@jistudents.org
Volume 7 Number 4 October/November 2017
THE ROLE OF STUDENT AFFAIRS IN

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT TRANSITION AND SUCCESS
Guest Co-Editors:
Christina W. Yao and Chrystal A. George Mwangi
Editor-in-Chief: Krishna Bista
Special Issue Reviewers
Amir Reza (Babson College)

Ann-Margaret Themistocleous (Anderson University)
Carine Ullom (Ottowa University)
Christine Fiorite (Joliet Junior College)
Christopher Sullivan (University of Missouri-St. Louis)
Daniel Dickman (Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana)
David Starr-Glass (SUNY Empire State College)
Dongmei Li (University of Texas at Austin)
Eun Jeong Park (The Ohio State University)
Fujuan Tan (Morehead State University)
Gwendolyn Williams (Auburn University)
Hannah Covert (Tulane University)
Juanjuan Zhao (Independent Scholar)
Lesley Robinson (St. Edward's University)
Manjet Kaur Mehar Singh (Universiti Sains Malaysia)
Meggan Madden (George Washington University)
Ourania Katsara (University of Patras)
Prabin Shrestha (Independent Scholar)
Regine Lambrech (International Education Consulting)
Santiago Castiello (University of Arizona)
Sora H. Friedman (SIT Graduate Institute)
Takahiro Sato (Kent State University)
Yolanda Palmer-Clarke (University of Saskatchewan)
Yukari Amos (Central Washington University)
Volume 7, Number4 October/November (2017)
http://jistudents.org
Special Issue on the Role of Student Affairs in International Student

Transition and Success
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial I-III
Empirical:
1. Racializing Experiences of Foreign-Born and Ethnically 925-943

Diverse Black Male Engineering Graduate Students: Implications
for Student Affairs Practice, Policy, and Research
Brian A. Burt, Alexander Knight, Justin Robeson
2. Academic Advisors and Their Diverse Advisees: Towards More 944-962

Ethical Global Universities
Yuko Ikegami Lee, Amy Scott Metcalfe
3. Supporting Chinese Undergraduate Students in Transition at U.S. 963-989

Colleges and Universities
Kerrie A. Montgomery
4. International Students Cocurricular Involvement at a University 990-1009

in South Africa
Sapna Naik, Matthew R. Wawrzynski, Joelle Brown
5. Exploring the Influence of Student Affairs on Adjustment and 1010-1029

Adaptation for Indonesian Graduate Students
David J. Nguyen, Jay B. Larson
6. Problematic areas of host university support services for short- 1030-1047

term mobility students
Adriana Perez-Encinas, Jesus Rodriguez-Pomeda,
Mikulas Josek
7. The Role of Student Affairs in a New University in a 1048-1064

Conflict Zone
Enakshi Sengupta
Practitioner:
8. Strategies and Initiatives in Acculturation: Voices from Ghana 1065-1079

Susan Boafo-Arthur, Dzifa A. Attah, Ama Boafo-Arthur,
Thomas D. Akoensi
9. A Collaborative Programming and Outreach Model for 1080-1095
International Student Support Offices
Peter Briggs, Ravichandran Ammigan
10. Peer support for international doctoral students in managing 1096-1103

supervision relationships
Sherrie Lee
11. Ivy League Experience: Increasing care, increasing engagement 1104-1112

Silvester G. Mata, Jr.
12. Providing Culturally Relevant Services for International Black 1113-1125

African Collegians in the United States: A Guide for Student
Affairs Professionals
Ifeyinwa Uchechi Onyenekwu
13. Troubling Metaphors and International Student Adjustment: 1126-1134

Reflections from a Transnational Place
David Starr-Glass
14. Recurring Themes Across Fractal Issues Facing International 1135-1151

Students: 2016 Dissertations and Theses
Krishna Bista, Uttam Gaulee
Book Review:
15. Developing the Global Student: Higher Education in an Era of 1152-1156

Globalization Internationalization in Higher Education Series
Roger Mitch Nasser, Jr.
Invited Editorial

Volume 7, Number 4, October/November (2017) pp. I-III
Role of Student Affairs in International Student

Transition and Success
Guest Co-Editors:
Christina W. Yao and Chrystal A. George Mwangi
International student mobility has grown significantly in recent years, with

over 4.1 million students in 2013 who studied abroad around the world
(Institute of International Education [IIE], 2016). With the changes in
student demographics and increased mobility, student affairs professionals
are in a unique role to support international student transition and success.
Unfortunately, current research and practice in higher education tends to
place a high level of responsibility on the international student to
successfully transition to a new campus environment or places the
responsibility on the international student affairs/student services office to
solely work with these students. Given the multi-faceted needs of
international students, we argue that it is critical for student affairs
professionals across functional areas to be prepared to support this diverse
population.
In this special issue, scholars and practitioners from around the
world provide insight on how different functional areas and professionals
can contribute to the transition, inclusion, and success of international
students in postsecondary education. We define student affairs broadly as a
profession or university unit(s) that advances the mission of higher
education institutions via curricular and/or co-curricular functions, supports
student learning and development (e.g., academically, emotionally,
socially), and encompasses administration, management, advising, and/or
counseling services for students (Manning, Kinzie & Schuh, 2014; Nuss,
2003).
We start with Burt, Knight, and Robeson, who provide insights on
the racializing experiences of foreign-born Black graduate students in
Engineering, which is a population often omitted from the international
I
student literature situated in the United States. Nguyen and Larson continue
the theme of supporting graduate students, as they explore the role of
student affairs on the academic adjustment and adaptation for Indonesian
graduate students. Lee then takes us to New Zealand in a practitioner
narrative that discusses the importance of peer networks for international
doctoral students.
Authors also address undergraduate international students
experiences with student affairs. Perez-Encinas, Rodriguez-Pomeda, and
Josek highlight the challenges facing short-term mobility students in
Europe, with implications for student support services at host institutions.
International student support is also emphasized in Montgomerys empirical
article that illuminates the importance of supporting Chinese first-year
students in their transition to U.S. colleges. Naik, Wawrzynski, and Brown
examine the outcomes of cocurricular involvement on international students
in South Africa, an understudied population in the literature.
Several authors in this special issue provide insights on the role of
student affairs and functional areas on international student experiences.
Sengupta shares findings related to student expectations of student affairs at
the American University of Kurdistan, a new institution developed in a
conflict zone. We then learn from Lee and Metcalf about how institutional
expectations of academic advising personnel are limited when considering
how the student populations in Canada and the U.S. are becoming more
internationalized. In a review of Developing the Global Student: Higher
Education in an Era of Globalization, Nasser discusses the books premise
that campus administrators should focus on better preparing U.S. students to
engage with international students and a global world as a means of creating
a more positive college environment for international students.
Practitioner voices illuminate practical solutions for addressing
international students needs. Boafo-Arthur, Attah, Boafo-Arthur, and
Akoensi share personal narratives on how they navigated their host nations
as international students from Ghana, with suggestions for student affairs
practice. Onyenekwu stresses the importance of culturally relevant services
for Black African college students in the United States, with seven helpful
suggestions for student affairs professionals. Briggs and Ammigan share an
effective collaborative model for structuring a successful international
student support office that was implemented at two large U.S. universities.
Mata continues the sharing of effective practices, with his recommendations
situated in an Ivy League institution. Finally, Starr-Glass takes us on a
conceptual reflection on the potentially negative effects of labeling students
international and how metaphoric labels may limit students transition and
adjustment to their host campus.
While much of the institutional support for international students is
provided from International Student Affairs/Services offices, this special
issue demonstrates that all functional areas in Student Affairs have a
responsibility to ensure that international students feel supported and
included on their college campus. The articles present a fuller understanding
of the diverse experiences of international students and the many ways in
which student affairs practitioners can engage in targeted work with this
student population. We hope that the selection of work presented here helps
to inform future research and practice on university resources, programs,
and staffing structures that can foster the success of international students.
We want to acknowledge and thank our graduate students, Victoria
K. Malaney, Kaleb L. Briscoe, and Crystal E. Garcia, for assisting us with
copy editing and general support for this special issue.
References
Institute of International Education. (2016). Project Atlas- Current Infographics.

Washington, D.C.: Institute of International Education.
Manning, K., Kinzie, J., & Schuh, J.H. (2014). One size does not fit all: Traditional
and innovative models of student affairs practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Nuss, E.M. (2003). The development of student affairs. In S.R. Komives & D.B.
Woodard, Jr. (Eds.) Student services: A handbook for the profession (4th
ed., pp. 65-88). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
CHRISTINA W. YAO, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Educational

Administration at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. She studies student
engagement and learning in higher education, operationalized through three
connected topical areas: international education, teaching and learning, and graduate
education. Email: cyao@unl.edu
CHRYSTAL A. GEORGE MWANGI, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Higher

Education at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Her scholarship centers on
1) structures of opportunity and educational attainment for underrepresented
populations along the P-20 education pipeline; 2) impacts of globalization and
migration on U.S. higher education and 3) African and African Diaspora
populations in higher education. Email: chrystal@educ.umass.edu
III
Peer-Reviewed Article

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 925-943
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1029487
Racializing Experiences of Foreign-Born and

Ethnically Diverse Black Male Engineering
Graduate Students: Implications for Student Affairs
Practice, Policy, and Research
Brian A. Burt
Iowa State University, USA
Alexander Knight
Justin Robeson
ABSTRACT
Despite a growing body of work on the experiences of Black collegians, the
higher education knowledge base lacks scholarship focused on Black men in
graduate programs who are foreign-born and/or identify ethnically as other
than African American. In this article, we provide a domain-specific
investigation (i.e., based on students field of study), centering on nine Black
men in engineering graduate programs. Three themes emerged regarding
students racialized experiences and effects of racialization: (1)
racialization as a transitional process; (2) cultural identity (dis)integrity;
and (3) racialized imposter syndrome. We conclude with implications for
developing and implementing promising practices and activities that aid
students throughout graduate school. Such targeted efforts might also
improve the likelihood of students remaining in the engineering workforce.
Keywords: Black males, foreign-born, graduate students, engineering,

racialized experiences
925
Several efforts have been made to mitigate the effects race has on Black
students educational outcomes (e.g., Meyerhoff Program (Maton &
Hrabowski, 2004); the PROMISE Program (Carter-Veale et al., 2016)). Yet,
Black students continue to report that the college environment fosters
hostility and isolation. Assuming that all Black students experience racism
in the same way leads educators and student affairs professionals to
overlook opportunities to support students both personally and
academically. When college community members (e.g., educators, student
affairs professionals, peers) fail to dismantle the monolithic Black male
mystique (the assumption that all Black men are the same) (Burt,
forthcoming), and by default perpetuate that assumption (Dancy, 2014;
Dancy & Brown, 2008), all Black students do not get adequately served.
While there is a small but growing body of work on the experiences of those
who are foreign-born and those who identify with ethnicities other than
African American (Fries-Britt, George Mwangi, & Peralta, 2014; George
Mwangi, Fries-Britt, Peralta, & Daoud, 2016; George Mwangi, 2014;
Griffin, Cunningham, & George Mwangi, 2016), the higher education
knowledge base lacks scholarship focused on such students in graduate
programs. A domain-specific investigation (i.e., based on students field of
study) centering on Black men who are foreign-born and/or hold ethnic
identities other than African American in engineering graduate programs
would provide educators and student affairs practitioners with information
to help develop and implement better practices to aid students throughout
graduate school. Such targeted efforts might also improve the likelihood of
those students making it to, as well as remaining in, the engineering
workforce. In this article, we explore the lived experiences of nine foreign-
born and/or ethnically diverse Black male graduate students in engineering.
We investigate their racialized experiences and how racialization influences
their educational pathways, and trace their perspectives on their long-term
participation in engineering. We conclude with recommendations for
educators and student affairs practitioners committed to improving the plight
of foreign-born students.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature related to the experiences of foreign-born Black men in

engineering graduate programs is lacking. Thus, to begin this discussion, we
first situate their experiences in the broader international student landscape.
926
According to the Institute of International Education (IIE), between 2006

and 2016, there has been a 50% increase in the number of international
students enrolled in United States (U.S.) colleges and universities (IIE,
2016), from 564,766, or nearly 2.8% of enrolled students in 2006, to
1,043,839, or 5% of enrolled students in 2016. These statistics highlight a
steady growth in international student numbers that is likely to continue.
International students benefit from the strong academic programs at U.S
colleges and universities (Lee, 2015) and tend to be stellar students who
contribute to the U.S. knowledge economy both during school and after
graduating (Cantwell & Lee, 2010). Thus, international student enrollment
in U.S. schools is mutually beneficial. Yet, despite their invaluable
contributions to U.S. classrooms, laboratories, and scientific discoveries,
international students face a myriad of adversities (Lee, 2015; Renn &
Reason, 2012; Yao, 2016). Those most commonly discussed include issues
with cultural adaptation, language barriers, and finances (Lee, 2015; Sherry,
Thomas, & Chui, 2010).
Some might argue that to cope with the challenges of transitioning
into U.S. educational institutions, international students should assimilate to
U.S. norms and values. However, pressures to assimilate pose psychological
challenges (Chen, 1999; Constantine, Anderson, Berkel, Caldwell, & Utsey,
2005; Lee, 2015; Yao, 2016). Further, encouraging students to adopt
practices of cultural departure via assimilation is not conducive to their
academic achievement. Tierney (1999) argues that achievement occurs
when ones culture is treated as an asset; he rejects the idea that institutions
should press international students to assimilate to U.S. educational culture.
International students of color face additional barriers related to
intersections of nationality and race. When enrolled in U.S. colleges and
universities, they find themselves in new cultural contexts and racial
climates (Constantine et al., 2005; Fries-Britt et al., 2014; George Mwangi
et al., 2016; Massey, Mooney, & Torres, 2007; Nadal et al., 2014). In a
study of 24 Black undergraduate and graduate students in physics, George
Mwangi et al. (2016) report that foreign-born and native-born Black
students described having different educational experiences. They found
students perceived differences in experiences to be a function of
intersections of race and nationality. Similarly, Griffin et al.s (2016) study
of 43 Black immigrant and native Black undergraduate students found that
Black immigrant and native-born Black students perceived campus racial
climates differently. Both groups recognized that racialized experiences
927
occurred, but their views on these experiences varied by race and

nationality.
Across the growing corpus of scholarship on international students
of color, there is a commonality: international students of color appear to
share a minoritized identity with native-born students of color (Fries-Britt et
al., 2016). However, the cultural barriers that distinguish foreign-born from
native-born students of color need to be understood (Griffin et al., 2016).
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
To better understand how foreign-born students and/or those who identify

ethnically as other than African American become racialized and make
sense of their racialized experiences, we apply tenets of Critical Race
Theory (CRT). CRT aims to illuminate and transform power relations
surrounding race and racism (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012; Ladson-Billings
1998; Solrzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000; Tate, 1997). CRT originated in the
Critical Legal Studies movement, which aimed to examine and deconstruct
power dynamics and structures ingrained in U.S. legal statutes. These power
dynamics were theorized to be at the root of the dramatic inequities
experienced by communities of color during all stages of legal proceedings.
This movement spread to other disciplines, where power dynamics
surrounding race and racism could be analyzed and deconstructed. This
focus on the effects of race in all aspects of society became what scholars
now recognize as CRT. While we acknowledge various conceptualizations
of CRT tenets, there are two tenets (based on Delgado and Stefancics 2001
conceptualization) most germane to our study. One is racial realism,
which acknowledges that race is a social construct, and that it produces a
hierarchy with distributed advantages. The second tenet is
essentialism/anti-essentialism, or the understanding that while oppression
has essential moving parts, there are nuanced experiences based on identity;
thus oppression is intersectional, not monolithic. In combination, these two
tenets were useful in making sense of the varied ways Black men from
foreign-born and ethnically diverse backgrounds experienced racialization in
their engineering graduate programs.
CRT recognizes that race and racism are real phenomena.
Racialization is a social process of entering into spaces based on the
historical legacy of race and racism in the U.S. (Shams, 2015). Utilizing
CRT, the following research questions guide this article: (1) What are the
racializing experiences of Black male engineering graduate students who are
928
foreign-born and/or identify ethnically as other than African American? (2)

What effects do racialization and changes in racial context have on students
transitional and educational experiences?
METHOD
Participants
This article originates from a larger study of the experiences of 32
Black men in engineering graduate programs at predominantly White
institutions. To address this articles research questions, however, we focus
exclusively on participants who self-identified as foreign-born and/or
identified ethnically as other than African American (e.g., Nigerian,
Jamaican, Ghanaian). Table 1 includes participants pseudonyms and
demographic information. We acknowledge that there can be multiple
realities based on individuals lived experiences, rather than a singular
truth (Creswell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Thus, we do not suggest
that the men in this study are representative of all Black men in engineering
graduate programs who are foreign-born or hold ethnically diverse
identities.
Table 1: Demographic Data for Study Participants
Pseudonym Class Engineering Ethnicity Origin Undergraduate Career

Level Specialization Country Origin Intention
Chris 5th Chemical Nigerian U.S. PWI Industry
Daniel 1st Industrial Nigerian U.S. PWI Unsure
Jalen 1st Mechanical Jamaican Jamaica PWI Faculty
James 4th Biomedical West U.S. PWI Faculty
African
Marcus 3rd Mechanical Jamaican Jamaica PWI Uncertain
Paul 4th Electrical Ethiopian Ethiopia PWI Uncertain
Quentin 5th Electrical Nigerian Nigeria PWI Uncertain
Samuel 5th Civil Togolese Togo PWI Faculty
Terrence 2nd Material Ghanaian Ghana Intl Uncertain
Note. Class Level refers to the number of years a student has been in graduate school.
Undergraduate Origin refers to the designation of students undergraduate institution:
Predominantly White Institution (PWI) or an International institution (Intl).
929
Data Collection Procedures

Data were collected by the principal investigator (the first author)
between 2010 and 2016 at three Midwestern institutions that belong to the
Association of American Universities (AAU), which represents the leading
research universities in North America. Each school of engineering in this
study is ranked in the top 60 (US News and World Reports), which suggests
that the students in the sample are among the most talented and most likely
to succeed and persist. In addition, each institution offers similar programs
and services: advising and counseling (generally related to academic
transitions, intercultural communication, student safety, and crisis
intervention); cultural immersion trips; and, immigration and compliance
support. Further, the Black graduate student population at each institution
was less than 5%.
Participants were contacted based on recommendations by
institutional insiders: administrators, peers, or students who had already
agreed to participate. After granting consent, participants completed an
eight-item demographic form before responding to semi-structured one-on-
one interviews conducted by the principal investigator. Interviews ranged
from one hour to more than two hours and were audio recorded and
transcribed verbatim to capture participants vernacular.
Data Analysis
The principal investigator first open coded transcripts to identify
small chunks of text that explained the experiences of Black men in
engineering graduate programs (Merriam & Tisdell, 2013). Then, the
research team (all authors of this study) reread the transcripts of participants
who identified as foreign-born and/or ethnically other than African
American. During this second reading, we focused on these students
racialized experiences, identifying passages where they described their
initial understandings of race in the U.S. context, how race and racism
manifested in their educational communities (e.g., campus, college of
engineering, department, research groups), and how they traversed these
hostile experiences. Finally, we categorized the identified passages into
themes that explain students racialized experiences and the effects of
racialization on their experiences in engineering.
Several steps were taken to ensure the trustworthiness of the
findings (Creswell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). First, the same
interview protocol was used across participants and institutions. This
protocol allowed for general consistency in the questions asked, but also
930
afforded opportunities to probe more deeply into participants lived

experiences. Second, to establish rapport, the protocol was designed to be
general at first before probing into more sensitive questions. This allowed
participants to view the exchange as a conversation, rather than an
interview, which resulted in longer interviews and richer data than
anticipated. Third, all transcripts were checked against the audio recordings
to ensure accuracy and ensured that what participants said was captured in
the ways they intended. When questions arose, we revisited the transcripts
and audio recordings to verify students meanings; it was important to hear
participants speaking, inflection, and at times sounds of pain to fully
understand the experiences they conveyed. Fourth, the researchers engaged
in several conversations during data analysis to provide checks to early and
ongoing interpretations of the data; codes and themes were negotiated until
consensus was achieved. Finally, throughout the research process, memos
tracked procedural decisions, potential relationships between interviews,
research questions, and prior research.
We were reflexive regarding how potential positionalities and
subjectivities might affect our interpretations of data (Cooper, Jackson,
Azmita, & Lopez, 1998). For example, the principal investigator is a Black
(African American) man and faculty member in the social sciences (not
engineering). The second and third authors are White and Black (African
American) men, respectively, graduate students also in social science. We
discussed instances when our interpretations were influenced by our own
social identities (e.g., native-born, African American or White, intersections
of gender and race within a U.S. context). As examples of our discussions,
we pondered why participants struggled with transitions, how their
challenges differed, and why they did not draw more on support from their
Black male peers. Through our discussions, we tried to control our biases
and assumptions (Peshkin, 1988).
FINDINGS
Three themes emerged that explain students racialized educational

experiences: (1) racialization as a transitional process; (2) cultural identity
(dis)integrity; and (3) racialized imposter syndrome. While we discuss these
themes independently for the purpose of clarity, it should be noted that they
often intersect.
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Racialization as an Ongoing Transitional Process

To convey experiences of racialization, participants highlighted both
their prior cultural contexts and their perceptions of the current climate in
the U.S. Understanding students prior cultural environments contextualizes
their perceptions of Blackness and the societal expectations that come along
with their experiences. Chris, a fifth-year doctoral candidate in chemical
engineering from Nigeria, reflected on his decision to pursue education:
From talking with fellow Nigerian friends that I have there [in Nigeria],
its like, getting an advanced degree isexpected. In Chriss experience,
part of his ethnic and cultural heritage included pursuing and achieving
academic excellence. Like Chris, Marcus, a third-year doctoral student in
mechanical engineering from Jamaica, reflected on early influences toward
education broadly and engineering specifically: I didnt have any
engineering role models. But when I looked around meI saw Black people
in power. Unlike Chris, Marcus did not recall conversations with peers
about pursuing an education. However, he did not describe that as a deficit
because the people from his culture whom he did see were in positions of
power. Education, for Marcus, became the mechanism by which to achieve
power to give back to his community in ways demonstrated by his
hometown models.
Students transitions included adjusting to a new cultural
environment. Several reflected on their transitions, which highlighted their
perceptions of racialization. Samuel, a fifth-year doctoral candidate in civil
engineering from Togo, stated:
When I go somewhere here the U.S. is a country of White
and Black. When I go somewhere and then I see people that
look like me, I feel more comfortable when there are more
of us at least five to six. I feel more comfortable,
compared to [when Im around] my White counterparts.
Paul, a fourth-year doctoral candidate in electrical engineering from
Ethiopia, also commented on his perceptions of race:
I am Ethiopian. I have my brothers, and we are all Black,
right. The problem there is a completely different problem
[than here in the U.S.]. There you dont have access. Here
you have access but the things that happened in the past are
still you know dragging you down in a way.
In this comparison, Paul highlights his historical knowledge of race and
racism in the U.S. From a CRT perspective, Pauls comment illustrates how
essentialism works to oppress Black people. He acknowledges that both
932
Ethiopians and African Americans are oppressed, but delineates how their
oppression is differently enacted. In addition, both Samuels and Pauls
accounts reflect on the tenet of racial realism. Their interactions with others
provide examples of racialization occurring, and both describe how the
construct of race is a real phenomenon. Further, they indicate that there are
differences across races (Samuel) and within race (Paul).
Language barriers are a consistent concern raised by international
students (Lee, 2015; Renn & Reason, 2012; Yao, 2016). For those whose
first language is not English, there may be challenges in effectively
engaging in two-way communication, as well as personal frustration and
stigma. Both experiences are racialized because these students feel
othered in comparison to native-born students, and/or those for whom
English is their primary language. Some described challenges with language
as a racializing factor in their transitions. Marcus mentioned, I guess I took
it for grantedjust being able to run, play certain jokes or being able to talk
patois. He described the common yet taken-for-granted experience of
speaking his native dialect called patois, showing that language not only
plays a role in communication, it also promotes cultural bonding. An
absence of cultural bonding contributed to Marcuss racialization; he
realized that he was different and that people spoke in cultural ways
different from his own. Chris also explained how ways of communicating
made him feel different in the U.S. context: When I tried to understand
what people were saying, I didnt really pick it up. Or I was a slow talker
and they were talking fast. Here, we see Chris comparing the way he
speaks (I was a slow talker) to others, and internalizing his
communication style as a form of deficit. These findings highlight how
language influences students perceptions of what is acceptable. It also
implicitly or perhaps even explicitly, depending on a students experience
reinforces that their differences may be perceived as less than desirable.
Cultural Identity (Dis)integrity

Participants descriptions of their transitions revealed several
tensions. Some wanted to better understand and adapt to African American
cultural norms. Others, however, were not interested in adapting if it meant
simultaneously losing their own cultural norms and values. We refer to these
tensions as cultural identity (dis)integrity to denote participants attempts
to reconcile Blackness in different cultural contexts.
Marcus shared how his transition was influenced by his comfort
with interacting with people outside of his nationality:
933
Ive always had the comfort of being around Caribbean

people. Being around other Jamaicans who talk like me
you know look like me, act like me, so I can like, let
loose. But now I am kind of in a different area, with a
different set of people now. So you know thats beena
social adjustment.
Marcus recognized that there are differences between the
Caribbean/Jamaican people he was used to and those in the U.S. Samuel
similarly shared: People from my country, we just get together and then do
things. But here, I don't have that. The food that I eat, my roommate, they
are from a different country. For Marcus, Samuel, and others, it was
uncomfortable not having peers who shared similar cultural ways of being.
To be clear, Marcus did not say he could not relate to African Americans as
a member of the larger Black diaspora. But he did say he was able to feel
most comfortable with people who shared his ethnicity and cultural
background. It is these subtle differences that racialized students and
reminded them that they were different (a different kind of Black individual
than African Americans in the U.S.).
Chris, too, mentioned examples of how African Americans were
different from people from Nigeria. These differences contributed to the
recognition that he [has] stereotypes about African Americans. He
described various ways he perceived Nigerian culture to be different from
that of his African American peers:
There were certain brands I wouldnt wear, that kind of
thing. They would go to certain events I didnt do a lot of
so more being not used to those kinds of things, I felt that I
couldnt really fit in. Not that I didnt really fit in, but I
didnt really get involved becauseI wasnt use to those
things so I didnt do it. So I think thatreinforced that
these people, African Americans, act a different way than
when I was growing up. So, its just too much for me to
change the way I am to do what they do.
Chriss quotation above is complex. Most apparent is his discussion of the
different styles of dress and social expectations (i.e., attending social
functions) that reminded him that his perceptions of Black maleness were
different than those of his African American peers. At the conclusion of his
quotation, we see cultural agency whereby Chris determines not to change
to fit in with his new context. Despite these differences, he makes it plain
that to some extent, he is still a part of the larger Black population (i.e., Not
934
that I didnt really fit in). The tension displayed here (i.e., being a part of
the Black community, yet refusing to fully adapt to African American
norms) is illustrative of Chriss cultural identity (dis)integrity.
Not all students responded to tensions like Chris. To address the
differences in his cultural identity, Quentin, a fifth-year doctoral candidate
in electrical engineering from Nigeria, suggested, I should really sit back
and understand how people who look like me here are treated so I dont do
things that make me look out of place. Quentin not only recognized that he
behaved differently than his native-born Black peers, he also began thinking
about how to adapt his behaviors (i.e., how to act like an African American)
to fit in. Or rather, so he would not stand out (i.e., continue to feel othered).
Drawing on CRT is helpful in making sense of students voices. Through an
anti-essentialism lens, we see how some struggled to negotiate between
maintaining their culture or adopting U.S. culture, as if adopting a U.S.
culture were a key to success.
Racialized Imposter Syndrome

The concept of impostor syndrome refers to psychological
feelings of inadequacy or inferiority to those around one (Clance, 1985;
McGee et al., 2016). The effects of imposter syndrome can include
emotional instability, performance anxiety, burnout, and lack of confidence.
Participants described stressors in navigating graduate school. In addition to
some feeling as if they did not belong in the Black community, several
described feeling like they did not belong in their classes, departments, nor
field of study. Marcus explained how his course taking and interactions with
class peers made him question am I really good enough. While imposter
syndrome is not uncommon in U.S. higher education (Clance, 1985; McGee
et al., 2016), it is compounded and complicated by race, racism, and
racializing experiences, particularly when students transition to a new
cultural environment. Part of students feeling like they did not belong
related to their racial and ethnic underrepresentation, as Samuel indicated, I
don't see a lot of people of color in my field.
Students felt like imposters not only in the classroom, but also
during interactions with others in the engineering community. For example,
Quentin discussed feeling like an outsider:
When you walk into a place, lets say a meeting, and
someone feels like Oh, you dont be youre Black, but
youre here? Theres always that odd feeling that just
935
because youre Black, that youre really not supposed to be

an engineer. Thats something that really needs to change.
Quentins words describe a typical racialized experience among our
participants. Paul similarly mentioned, When I meet someone, the chance
of them you know guessing that I am a Ph.D. student in engineering is
zero. Many described being questioned about their legitimacy as graduate
students in engineering. There was no subtlety in their understanding that
such comments were racialized. These frequent comments, or puzzled looks,
made students feel as if they did not belong in engineering. Racial realism
acknowledges that hierarchies are by-products of race and racism.
Participants were consistently othered in engineering, based on race, which
led to a heightened sense of imposter syndrome. To mitigate these feelings,
students like Jalen, a first-year doctoral student in mechanical engineering
from Jamaica, described how they dealt with feeling like imposters: [I have
to] stand outto break the glass ceiling. This finding may relate to what
Fries-Britt and Turner (2001) refers to as the proving process: the
phenomenon of high-achieving students of color feeling obligated to prove
they are good enough in predominantly White educational spaces.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The goal of this study was to provide empirical evidence to aid educators
and student affairs practitioners in creating promising practices for the
success of Black men in engineering graduate studies who identify as
foreign born and/or hold ethnic identities other than African American.
Using tenets of CRT (racial realism and essentialism/anti-essentialism), we
explored the experiences of students to better understand the effects of
racialization and change of racial context on their educational experiences.
The findings indicate that students racialization was pre-existing. Before
they entered graduate school, they had already experienced racialization (our
data do not pinpoint when the racialization began, or the circumstances that
facilitated it). Our data also indicate that students experienced present and
ongoing racialization in their educational environments.
Based on our findings, experiencing racialization and cultural
dissonance seemed inevitable for these participants. All participants
acknowledged U.S. norms and values, and ideas about what it meant to be
Black in the U.S. Most germane to this studys focus, however, was how
they made sense of the differences of their Blackness and maleness in the
U.S. versus in their home country. We liken this internal conflict to
936
struggling to interpret a compass. True north (i.e., what it means to be

Black and male) is different in the U.S. than in their home country, and/or
according to ethnic norms that guide their worldview. Some experienced an
internal conflict regarding whether or not to adapt to U.S. norms and values;
others deemed it necessary to reject notions of a monolithic U.S. Black male
image imposed upon them. Both options appeared to be coping strategies to
make sense of racialized experiences in graduate school.
Our findings, however, provide more nuance to existing discourse
on imposter syndrome. While participants acknowledged general feelings of
not being good enough, they also expressed comparisons to African
American peers, which at times exacerbated feelings of imposter syndrome.
This finding contributes to existing conversations about within-group
experiences that intensify Black foreign-born students feelings of otherness
(Griffin et al., 2016).
Based on our findings, we suggest several directions for promising
practices, policy, and future research. Because students experience ongoing
racialization, there are opportunities for student affairs practitioners working
in orientation programs to design more expansive services. Specifically,
orientation services at the graduate level are often one-stop-shops, where
students receive a day of sessions targeted towards their transition. We
suggest that orientation programs take a more sustained approach to account
for students ongoing needs during their transition. With an expanded
vision, targeted programming could last from one to two years, and be
attuned to students transitions and not solely to their matriculation.
To address students cultural (dis)integrity, we offer
recommendations for orientation staff, international programming offices,
counselors, and advisors of foreign-born Black men (both advisors in
international programming offices and academic advisors). To be clear, we
value the existing work of international programming offices (where they
exist, and if they do not exist, we suggest their creation). Further, we
encourage these offices (in conjunction with orientation services) to
continue offering informational sessions pertaining to immigration, visas,
and other regulatory policies. However, we suggest a more expansive menu.
Sessions could include conversations with foreign-born students about the
cultural (dis)integrity they will likely experience to help them realize that
they may experience disequilibrium and that such discomfort does not mean
they need to reject their ethnic cultural norms and values. This messaging
should take place early in students matriculation, and frequently, to help
with ongoing transitional needs and feelings of imposter syndrome. To
937
accomplish this promising practice, program staff, counselors, and academic

advisors should not over rely on referring students to campus affinity
organizations (i.e., referring a Nigerian student to the Black Cultural Center,
the African Student Association, or to a Nigerian campus colleague).
Instead, educators and student affairs practitioners should be trained in
strengthening cultural integrity. Such training would be framed from a
strengths-based perspective that helps students understand that what they are
experiencing is normal and that they already possess a host of valuable
assets (Tierney, 1999).
Related to policy, a major challenge for this study was deciding who
is or should be included in the descriptor foreign-born (George
Mwangi, 2014). Educators and student affairs practitioners should continue
to complicate this label. While it is necessary to design classifications to
help with policy creation and implementation, labels of convenience do not
necessarily capture the complexities of students racial and ethnic identities.
Thus, while some foreign-born Black male students may be getting served
through international programming offices, first-generation U.S. citizens
who still identify with an ethnicity other than African American may be
further marginalized and isolated during graduate school.
Finally, it is important to reiterate that this article represents the
experiences of nine graduate students at three institutions in the field of
engineering. Attempts to generalize our findings could be damaging to other
students. Thus, Black male students should be asked directly what their
needs are and which services and resources would best facilitate their
success (Burt, forthcoming; Burt et al., 2016), rather than solely consulting
with fellow program staff. The participants in this study made it clear that
they are rarely if ever asked about their experiences within their colleges
of engineering. Their responses might be surprising, and might sound like an
indictment of unsuccessful current practices. Additionally, if asked for their
input, students will expect to see resulting changes. If no changes are made,
they may be reluctant to share their experiences in the future. However,
honest feedback put to good use would serve them, their peers, and future
generations of Black male foreign-born students.
Our study was not without limitations. First, students experiences
vary due to a host of factors (e.g., institutions they attend, engineering
specializations and the norms and values of their home departments, and
differences in students ethnicities). For example, a student with a Nigerian
background may interpret and thus, make sense of his racialized
experiences differently than a student with a Jamaican background. Also, as
938
previously noted, it was challenging to determine who was considered

foreign-born and native-born. For instance, some students were born outside
of the U.S. but lived most of their lives here, (e.g., attended elementary,
middle, high school, undergraduate studies). By some designations, these
students are still considered foreign-born. Others may have been born in
the U.S. but strongly identify with (and practice the customs and traditions)
of their parents ethnic culture. We used a dichotomous labeling system. A
more narrowly defined system (for example, visa-holding foreign-born
international students, immigrants, U.S. citizens, and permanent residents)
may tease out these differences and result in more nuanced results. Future
research should also consider how many years a student has spent in the
U.S., although that data point should not be used to determine a students
level of acculturation.
Given these limitations, a number of critical research questions
remain. Specifically, more information is needed on the origins of students
interest in engineering (or STEM more broadly); how ones ethnic
background informs ones approach to education; the relationship between
ethnic background and persistence strategies; and interpretations of societal
and local racial incidents and their implications for students persistence.
When comparing and contrasting, however, we do not promote positioning
native-born and African American students as the standard to foreign-born
and ethnically diverse Black students as within-group neo-minorities. Such
an approach is divisive and could lead to further marginalization and
isolation of Black students. We encourage scholars, educators, and student
affairs practitioners to begin asking these complicated questions. We
emphasize the importance of foregrounding students foreign and native-
born statuses (for example, not assuming that all Black students are the
same). More nuanced analyses will provide better understandings of
similarities and differences between Black male foreign-born and native-
born students educational experiences. Additionally, for a more expansive
view of Blackness, future research might consider the work of BlackCrit,
which focuses on specific ways that Black bodies become marginalized, and
the ways that marginalization shapes Black peoples lived experiences.
BlackCrit would provide a lens through which to study Blackness and the
Black condition (Dumas & Ross, 2016, p. 417). Such a framework could
be useful in thinking about Black within-group racialized experiences.
As educators and student affairs professionals, we must
acknowledge how our colleges and universities, including the people within
these communities, operate as systems of power and oppression. One way
939
this happens is through the development and implementation of well-

intentioned catch-all policies and programs aimed at assisting Black men
in engineering graduate studies that may not be appropriate for all Black
male students. Based on the present findings, it is clear that educators and
student affairs practitioners must resist pressing foreign-born students, and
those who identify as other than African American, to adapt (i.e., assimilate)
to U.S. cultural norms and traditions. While students need to become
knowledgeable about U.S. customs for the purpose of successful navigation,
expecting them to reject their own customs and traditions (which are the
values that assisted them with successful admission to college in the first
place) may be detrimental to their interest in STEM, and perhaps more
important, to their personhood. Instead, we must become equipped with
knowledge of who our students are, including the unique social identities
and the characteristics they bring with them to college.
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BRIAN A. BURT, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Higher Education at Iowa State

University. His research interests include learning and achievement of
underrepresented graduate students of color in STEM fields. Email:
burt@iastate.edu
ALEXANDER KNIGHT is a recent graduate of the Student Affairs program at

Iowa State University. He served as a graduate assistant in the International
Students and Scholars Office, tasked with planning International Student
Orientation. Email: alec.knight3@gmail.com
JUSTIN ROBERSON is a Masters student in the Student Affairs in Higher

Education Program at Iowa State University. He is interested in researching how
black men navigate predominantly white spaces and the manifestation of resilience
against oppression. Email: jrobe@iastate.edu
Manuscript submitted: April 1, 2017

Manuscript revised: June 21, 2017
Accepted for publication: August 1, 2017
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Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 944-962
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1029675
Academic Advisors and Their Diverse Advisees:

Towards More Ethical Global Universities
Yuko Ikegami Lee
University of British Columbia, Canada
Amy Scott Metcalfe

University of British Columbia, Canada
ABSTRACT
In this comparative content analysis, job postings for academic advising
personnel from U.S. and Canadian higher education institutions were
examined to ascertain expectations for job candidates in terms of skills and
duties, educational requirements, and compensation. Fifty-three job
descriptions from 18 research-intensive, public universities were collected
for this study. The findings show that institutions expect academic advisors
to be multitalented and skilled professionals, but that calls for experience
working with international students are limited, despite the rising
importance of internationalization in higher education.
Keywords: academic advising, diverse students, international students
The number of international students arriving at U.S. and Canadian

university campuses is steadily increasing (Canadian Bureau for
International Education [CBIE], 2016; Institute of International Education
[IIE], 2016; Kunin, 2012). In Canada, the number of international students
at the university level reached 177,290 in 2015. This number reflects a 92%
increase in international students in Canada between 2008 (184,170) and
2015 (353,570) for all levels of education (CBIE, 2016, p. 18). Similarly,
the United States also saw a rise in its international students enrollment on
944
a larger scale. In the 2015/2016 academic year, a combined total number of

the U.S. undergraduate and graduate international students reached 811,248
(IIE, 2016). This was an increase of 7.1% and 6% for undergraduate and
graduate students respectively from the year before. While international
student enrollments in both countries have increased, the current global
political climate, marked by rising nationalism and xenophobia in countries
such as the United States and the United Kingdom, Trumps America First
policy and Brexit to name a pair, may have an impact on international
students global mobility in the future. However, a fair number of colleges
and universities are paying closer attention to factors that enhance
international students retention including strategically-distributed
scholarship opportunities and financial incentives for international students
(Bolsmann & Miller, 2008). A key motivation for international students to
seek university education abroad is to secure their favorable economic and
social status at home and potentially in the host nation upon graduation
(Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). During their university study, international
students face many issues related to unmet expectations, racial stereotyping,
and discrimination (Lee, 2010). These factors affect their academic
performance and undermine their original objective of attending foreign
universities. While many institutions offer academic advising to all students,
academic advisors are ideally positioned to support international students
educational and broader future successes. However, the role of academic
advisors is often not clearly defined or not proportionally and specifically
assigned to the growing international student population. In this aspect,
internationally well-versed academic advisors are needed to support the
increasingly diversifying international student body of the Anglophone
universities in the United States and Canada that strategically recruit
international students.
The function of academic advisors can be different from one unit to
the other, but they all work behind the scenes to support students academic
success. Thus, the role of academic advisors is often not fully understood by
students, professors, and administrators, which hinders the effectiveness of
this academic service role. Therefore, the aim of this study was to
distinguish the roles, functions, and expectations of academic advisors who
are non-faculty, professional staff members and examine how their role may
serve as a holistic support for international students.
BACKGROUND
945
Higher education institutions and their service mechanisms have evolved

over the last several centuries as enrollment has shifted from elite to mass
and universal access (Trow, 1972, 2007). This growth has resulted in large
classrooms and higher teacher-student ratios that make the traditional
academic mentoring more difficult, even at private liberal arts colleges
(Paris, 2013). Student composition has also changed drastically over the
years (El-Khawas, 2003). As well, institutions have changed operationally.
With the increase of a more academic capitalistic profession (Rhoades &
Slaughter, 1997; Slaughter & Leslie, 1997), institutions have become used
to hiring non-faculty professionals for cheaper alternatives to faculty labor
as a cost saving measure. Therefore, many institutions are now
systematically relying on a non-tenured workforce versus tenured professors
to manage many aspects of institutional operations including educational
services and student enrollment. Finally, Anglophone universities in the
countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia
have seen an influx of international students who seek English education
to improve their social mobility. The birth of the internet simply accelerated
the monopoly of the English language in any global affairs including higher
education.
Definition of Academic Advising and Academic Advisors

For this study, we define academic advisors as non-faculty staff
members whose main responsibility is providing holistic academic-oriented
support services to college and university students. Such services include
academic advising, academic and career coaching, academic remedial
support, academic performance evaluations, graduation checks, and any
related matters that affect students academic and emotional well-being. The
initial form of the academic advising position emerged in the United States
in response to a need to provide support for non-traditional and more diverse
students in the 1960s. Ever since, academic advising has focused on
providing holistic student support to all students including remedial support
for the marginalized and minority students on campus (King, 1993). One
result of widening access to higher education has been that there are more
students coming to universities with inadequate academic preparation or
financial challenges that severely undermine their chances of academic
success. While remedial academic support for at-risk students is certainly
the major focus for academic advisors, it should be noted that an unforeseen
946
crisis or emergency situation can occur to anyone, even otherwise

academically strong students.
Academic advisors are mandated to support students during their
studies, but this role can take various forms (Drake, 2011, 2013; Nuss,
2003). In this evolving field, the professional development literature outlines
three types of academic advising methods that are commonly practiced
(Donaldson, McKinney, Lee, & Pino, 2016). In prescriptive advising,
academic advisors guide students similar to the ways that a doctor prescribes
treatment for their patients. In developmental advising, academic advisors
follow the cues that are given by students, encouraging students to remain in
the driver seat in their own education. Thirdly, intrusive advising takes more
proactive approaches to add a systematic approach in the advisor-advisee
relationship such as regularly monitoring students progress and providing
proactive coaching. It is important to note that each technique is not
exclusive to one another and can be applied simultaneously or consecutively
with students. The Global Community for Academic Advising (NACADA)
and its regional groups offer training for academic advisors. Advanced
degrees in academic advising are also available. Resources such as
Academic Advising: A Comprehensive Handbook (Gordon, Habley, &
Grites, 2011) support the profession as well.
At a minimum, academic advisors must possess accurate knowledge
of the degree requirements and opportunities in order to advise students, but
it is also as important for them to possess a high degree of soft skills
(Crosbie, 2005) in order to engage advisees. Academic advisors also need to
be resourceful and acutely aware of alternative options for students who
may be required to interrupt or terminate their studies and move on.
Accumulation of professional skills, disciplinary knowledge, and
international experiences help academic advisors to holistically support
international students in time of a crisis. It is also helpful if they possess a
high level of resiliency and emotional intelligence (EI). Caruso and Wolf
(2001)s theory of EI in the workplace informs us that a managers own
emotional state can affect others in the workplace. If so, when advisees seek
advising, academic advisors EI should matter as academic advising occurs
in a setting that is similar to a workplace. Additionally, Marks and Wade
(2015) argued that faculty and staff who know and give emphasis to their
students strength can create positive expectations and suggested the
importance of acknowledging his [sic] difficulties (p. 12) while tapping
into advisees previous success as an example of how academic advisors can
develop a more engaging relationship with advisees.
947
Academic Advisors as Catalysts

Academic advisors are dynamic participants (Dalton, 2003) of a
campus community and are central to institutional strategies, especially
internationalization. In this notion, academic advisors act as catalysts on
campus. Therefore, they function best when the role receives buy-in from
the students, professors, and administrators of the unit where academic
advisors are assigned. Supporting international students typically requires a
high degree of on-the-ground coordination because of the added complexity
of this particular student group, whose domestic supports (e.g., family
members and larger community) are not nearby or immediately available.
To support the academic aspirations of students, one must be knowledgeable
of different academic options such as the logistics of course registration and
appropriate course load within the academic policies and regulations that
they observe. Furthermore, experienced academic advisors also look for any
tangible and intangible evidence during advising interactions that could help
in coming up with appropriate solutions, with the academic and greater
well-being of the students in mind. When it comes to academic advising, a
blanket approach usually leaves the most vulnerable feeling unsupported or
unfairly treated. International students from non-English speaking countries
often require extra attention by the institution and its personnel due to their
cultural, social, and emotional differences (Lee & Rice, 2007). As well, the
consequences for academic failure are higher for international students, as
their academic standing can affect their legal status in the host country. In
addition, some international students are sponsored by organizations such as
governments and corporations, which sometimes restricts their course
selections, meaning that registering for a wrong course could affect their
funding eligibility. All these added precautions must be understood by
receiving institutions, and especially their academic advisors, in order to
support such students. As such, academic advisors need to be trained and
supported to address the additional obstacles their international students face
when compared with their domestic student peers.
Furthermore, many scholars argued that international students need
additional support to overcome potential disadvantages in academic, social,
and emotional fronts when pursuing higher education in foreign countries
(Fox, 1994; Lee, 2010). In turn, those universities will benefit from having
them join the campus community for more ethical reasons than just for the
premium tuition fees. The evidence that connects academic advising and
student loyalty was also discovered by Vianden and Barlow (2015) through
948
their multi-institutional study. Understanding the position that academic

advisors are locating directly in-between institutions and international
students, academic advisors can be supported to be effective catalysts
towards a more ethical and humanistic higher education environment.
RESEARCH METHOD
We compared U.S. and Canadian job announcements in an effort to

understand how these two receiving countries of international students view
academic advisors who are hired to provide academic services to all
students, including international students. The U.S. institutions in the sample
were the top 10 of the U.S.-based public institutions listed in the 2015
Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU). As for the Canadian
case, we included the 13 Anglophone institutions in the U15, which are
understood to be the leading research universities in the country
(Appendices A and B). Many of these institutions possess a significant
number of international students in their undergraduate student body.
Among those institutions chosen, there is a significant difference in the
percentage of international student enrollment on campus between 8% and
29% (see appendices). The Canadian universities tend to be higher in
international student percentage (averaged at 18%) compared to the
American counterparts (averaged at 13%).
Applicable job postings were collected from the human resources
(HR) websites of each institution during the month of September in 2016. In
the initial data collection phase, the search terms of advisor, academic
advising, student affairs, and international were used. Fifty-nine job
postings, including 40 from the U.S. institutions and 19 from the Canadian
institutions, were collected from the institutional websites. Where possible,
further exploration of the HR sites was carried out in order to determine the
starting salaries of the postings. This additional review was necessary
because some job postings did not list the exact dollar figures but instead
mentioned the pay scale or pay grade.
During the primary screening phase, we looked for two key terms in
the position announcements: advisor and academic advising. Although
eligible job postings were collected at all of the 10 US institutions, only the
eight U15 institutions had eligible job postings after the screening. Finally, a
total of 53 job descriptions, 37 from the 10 U.S. institutions and 16 from the
eight Canadian institutions, were advanced for analysis in this study.
949
Upon initial observation of the 53 job postings, we found that a

typical job description included several key categories such as the general
information about the institution, unit/departmental overview, benefits and
salary compensation, job duties, skills and competencies, and disclaimers.
For the purpose of this study, we decided to divide these categories into two
sections: the human resource basic questions (Section 1) and the specific
jobs and the skills required (Section 2). Section 1 criteria were further
placed into six sub-categories such as the level of education required,
organizational scope, type(s) of advisees, starting salaries, and professional
development. Although Section 2 were divided into two categories only, the
job duties and the skills and competencies, Section 2 produced the majority
of data points for this study with up to 60 categorical variables. These
variables were purposefully sorted into clusters of similar items based on the
nature of the variables, and they were eventually reduced to the 26 job
duties and the 36 skills and competencies clusters. With the two sections,
over 7,500 data points were collected to produce the findings of this study.
FINDINGS
Starting Salaries and Required Education Level

In this study, the compensation rate (starting salary) was collected
from the job announcements. Canadian salaries were converted to U.S.
dollars (USD) for the purpose of comparison. In those cases, where salaries
were listed at hourly or weekly rates, we adjusted the figures to an annual
salary. The majority of the job postings indicated starting salaries between
$30,000 USD and $50,000 USD. According to the data published by the
Chronicle of Higher Education (2016), the average salary of the
Librarians/Ed. Services (Carnegie classification, high research institutions)
category between 2012 and 2016 was $50,231 USD. To provide a further
reference point for this figure, the average salary in 2015 in the United
States was $41,714 ($802 weekly) USD and $34,657 ($667 weekly) USD in
Canada. It is also important to note that salaries and wages of the same
occupation can vary depending on the geographic location in both and
between the two countries. This is largely due to the cost of living of the
particular location, but that is not all. In this study, as some institutions are
in urban areas and others are not, the face value of annual income does not
necessarily tell us the actual value of the income in relation to the
purchasing power. For example, the University of British Columbia campus
in Vancouver, BC, Canada, is affected by the skyrocketing housing price of
950
the city, making housing affordability one of the most important factors for
recruitment and retention of faculty and staff members. In the higher
education setting, other factors such as perceived organizational support
(POS) can also attribute to its staff members commitment for their
institutions and could influence their motivation or organizational loyalty
(Fuller, Hester, Barnett, & Relyea, 2006).
Each of the job descriptions in our sample mentioned educational
qualifications, mostly at the Bachelors or Masters degree levels. The
minimum education requirement roughly corresponded to the salary range,
with the higher earning positions requiring Masters degrees in specific
fields (Table 1). There is a stronger preference for the specific and
advanced degrees such as higher education and counseling psychology
among the U.S. institutions. This perhaps reflects a more established
professional environment for academic advising in the United States than in
Canada.
Table 1: Minimum education requirement and starting salaries (N=36)

Undergraduate Associate
Starting salary Masters degree degree/
degree
($US) HS
Specific General Specific General diploma
Below 30,000 0 0 1 1 0
30,001 - 40,000 1 0 6 11 1
40,001 - 50,000 1 0 9 3 1
50,001 - 60,000 0 0 0 0 0
60,001 - 70,000 1 0 0 0 0
While higher education attainment is preferred, the lowest education

requirement was also found among the U.S. institutions. A completion of a
high school diploma or an associate degree was mentioned in two U.S.
postings. On the other hand, the minimum educational attainment required
by the Canadian institutions was a bachelors degree. Eleven (11) out of 15
Canadian job postings listed their starting salaries between $30,001 and
$40,000 USD. In contrast, twenty (20) out of 21 jobs in the United States
listed the salaries between $40,001 and $60,000 USD. This wage gap
between the two countries might be partially explained by the favorable U.S.
currency exchange rate against Canadian dollars in recent years. In fact,
since the last time those currencies were at par in 2010, Canadian dollars
951
have been dropping and maintained its value roughly about 30% less to their
U.S. counterpart. As a snapshot, the published currency exchange rate was 1
USD to 1.33382 CAD as of June 2017. On the other hand, some Canadian
institutions may offer other forms of occupational compensation, including
pensions and health insurance that do not show as salary per se.
Job Duties
Although our central criteria for inclusion in the study were that the
job descriptions contain terms related to academic advising in their position
titles and job summaries, surprisingly a few of the job announcements did
not mention the term academic advising as an explicit job duty at all.
There were some job descriptions that did not entirely match the job titles.
Although 87.9% of the sample job announcements listed academic advising
as a distinct job duty (Table 2), a few job descriptions were more focused on
other duties, such as immigration counseling or student well-being. Our
sample also included job announcements with job titles such as graduate
student affairs officer (U.S.), enrollment information advisor (Canada), and
international student advisor (Canada). We see these varieties of job titles as
an indication that institutions are making an effort to accommodate different
needs of their students. Although the explicit job title international student
advisor was noted, it was a rarity in the sample.
Since international students require legal status to study in a foreign
country, having the proper support to ensure their status is essential.
However, it is unreasonable to expect that academic advisors serve as
immigration counselors. For instance, in Canada, the position of
international student advisor is largely treated as a synonym for regulated
Canadian immigration consultants (RCIC) or regulated international student
immigration advisors (RISIA), who are certified experts in immigration
consultation in Canada. This bundling of skills is becoming more common
and creating some confusion in terms of what international students need
and who will respond to those needs, but it is important to distinguish
academic advisors and immigration specialists who have different mandates.
With that foundation, it is most effective for academic advisors and
immigration specialists to work collaboratively.
952
Table 2: Top 10 job duties

Combined
Duties required U.S. Canada
average
Academic advising 87.9 94.6 81.3
Programming and delivery 87.4 81.1 93.8
Collaborate and refer 65.9 56.8 75
Recruitment and outreach 57 70.3 43.8
Research, data assessment, report 43.5 43.2 43.8
Career advising 42.1 40.5 43.8
Financial aid and awards 40.8 37.8 43.8
Website and social media 39.9 29.7 50
Admissions 39.4 35.1 43.8
Business development 35 32.4 37.5
(% of that group)
Table 3: Top 10 job skills

Combined
Skills required U.S. Canada
average
Communication skills 97.3 95 100
Knowledge in policies
(academic-related policies and 77.1 73 81.3
procedures)
IT proficiency 69.9 64.9 75
Decision making skills 67.2 59.5 75
Time management and
59.5 37.8 81.3
prioritizing
Ability to work with diverse
58.8 67.6 50
populations
Advising skills 55.7 67.6 43.8
Service oriented 48.4 40.5 56.3
Diplomacy, tact, and discretion 47.9 27 68.8
Multitasking 44.8 45.9 43.8
(% of that group)
Skills and Competencies

A list of categorical variables concerning skills and competencies
were produced, with communication skills being the most sought after
competencies for both countries (Table 3). Since we found over 60
categorical variables in this area, it was necessary to cluster them according
953
to their similarities. For example, communication was bundled with

written, verbal, public speaking and presentation skills. Similarly, we
combined sound judgment and decision making skills. While an
understanding of the academic discipline that academic advisors serve is
necessary, as this result shows, having superior communication skills
appears to supersede the technical disciplinary knowledge, from the
employers perspective. Perhaps this is to be expected, as the content experts
are the faculty members who teach the courses, but we note that academic
advisors are intended to interact with students in relation to class
assignments and overall comprehension of course material.
The job skills and competencies that were asked of the incumbents
were comprehensive. While some highly subjective attributes were required
in some of the postings such as a sense of humor or an advocacy for social
justice, others required very specific and technical skills that may not
directly associate with academic advising such as proficiency in Adobe
Creative Suite and Adobe InDesign. Overall observations of the skills and
competencies requested confirmed that academic advisors are required to be
multitalented or require skills that are not clearly defined. Interestingly, of
the skills that we think would be most useful to support international
students, the ability to work with diverse populations was not mentioned as
frequently in the job descriptions as more nuts and bolts understandings of
academic policy or proficiency with information technology. This possibly
can be explained by the invisible nature of the educational and student
services offered on campus by professional staff like academic advisors.
There may be some regional or national differences in these expectations, as
the soft skills of diplomacy, tact, and discretion were infrequently noted in
the U.S. sample (27%), but more frequently listed on the Canadian job
descriptions (68.8%).
A small number of the job descriptions examined in this study show
evidence of an interest in the job candidates soft skills and teaching
capabilities, as seen in the following examples:
Training of faculty advisors to ensure student progress through
course sequences by avoiding conflicts, promoting consistency, and
ensuring compliance with campus-wide policies. - Student
Academic Advisor, biological sciences program, U.S. institution
This position advises and orients visiting course instructors
regarding course-related academic policies and departmental
practices, grading processes, accommodation policies. Student
Advisor, undergrad business program, U.S. institution
954
Experience teaching and/or conducting workshops for college

students. Academic Counselor, engineering program, U.S.
institution.
Deliberate Hiring Efforts?

We also looked for the specific term international student in the
job announcements (Table 4). Although the number of announcements that
included international student was higher among Canadian institutions, we
found this was due to the countrys unique legal restrictions on who is
legally allowed to provide students with advice regarding their study visas
and descriptions of this certification in the job announcements. In Canada,
consultations that provide immigration advising, including study permit
matters, must be the members of the Immigration Consultations of Canada
Regulatory Council (ICCRC). ICCRC is a federally organized professional
association for the Regulated Canadian Immigration Consultants (RCICs)
and the Regulated International Student Immigration Advisors (RISIAs).
While they are important professional service providers to university
students, their field is already specialized enough and their mandates are
within the boundary of the professional association that they are different
from what academic advisors are expected to do. It is needless to mention
that all specialized advisors at higher education institutions work
collaboratively already, but it may be hard to differentiate those roles by
others on campus since they both work with international students in
separate, but also distinguished ways.
Table 4: The use of the term international student

Combined average
YES NO
(negative result only)
U.S. institutions 24 76
72
Canadian institutions 37.5 62.5
(% of that group)
DISCUSSION
As we conducted the content analysis of academic advisors job

descriptions, a few key factors emerged that deserve further discussion in
order to bring more attention to the ways in which academic advisors can
function more effectively in supporting international students. If institutions
955
are successful in supporting academic advisors to do their job more

effectively, satisfaction and outcome of international students academic
endeavors in their host institutions can be improved. As we discussed
before, supporting international students once they arrive on campus
requires a multi-layered support by many student services units and
personnel. Academic advisors could contribute at the foundation level of a
more ethical internationalization strategy. Academic advising requires long-
term interactions with international students compared to the one-time
recruitment phase upon which institutions often focus.
Soft Skills
First, throughout our review of the job descriptions, it became
apparent that soft skills are required to succeed in this role. Soft skills are
defined as personality traits, goals, motivations, and preferences that are
valued in the labor market, in school, and in many other domains by
Heckman and Kautz (2012). This definition is applicable to many of
academic advisors job duties that require their discretion, tact, and
diplomacy. The problem is that soft skills are difficult to measure.
Relationship building also requires intangible skills and genuine goodwill by
service professionals. Respecting the academic policies and regulations is
important in academic advising, but academic advisors must practice their
decision-making power with a thorough and deep understanding in culture,
history, and the current sociopolitical situation of the advisees in mind and
treat each case individually. Soft skills are important to elicit advisees
responses to better understand the individual situation of each advisee.
Otherwise, due to an insufficient awareness of the certain cultural and power
dynamics, academic advising may cause harm and reproduce inequity
despite the academic advisors intention (Stewart, 2012).
Intentional Hiring and Continued Training

While academic advisors should consider themselves professional
educational service providers, their skills and expertise also need to be
updated, as with any respected profession. For example, professional
organizations encourage academic advisors to familiarize themselves with
relevant educational theories in the fields such as youth and young-adult
cognitive development or university teaching and learning. Ryan (1992) and
other scholars (Drake, 2013; Miller & Alberts, 1994) argue that there are
similarities between academic advising and university teaching. From this
perspective, investment in academic advisors professional development
956
should be considered necessary for higher education institutions and the

environment and to do so should be built into university operations (e.g.,
academic study leaves or workshop attendance).
CONCLUSION
By raising awareness of the role of academic advisors, we hope to bring a

focus to an authentic support culture for the growing body of international
students and similarly increasing domestic students with diverse
backgrounds. Understanding the role of academic advisors and providing
effective support and professional development opportunities would
cultivate this culture.
Based on our findings, academic advisors are not only expected to
be highly trained, but also to be active agents in the higher education
context. We cannot overstate the importance of developing a trusting
relationship among every student services unit on campus as well as
between professors and administrators in order to support students
holistically (Schuh, Jones, Harper & Associates, 2010). In our view,
academic advisors are not only uniquely positioned to enhance this notion,
but also are vital to the success of institutional internationalization
objectives.
Many of the job descriptions we examined had entrusted academic
advisors with initiatives in several key student services areas such as
recruitment, admissions, degree audit, graduation, and career development
of their advisees. However, a few of the job descriptions fell far short of a
comprehensive understanding of the potential of this role. As well, we found
that explicit support for international students or an increasingly global
student population was rarely acknowledged.
From this analysis, we have some recommendations for ways that
universities can recognize academic advisors skills and for furthering their
professional development. For example, the academic advisors role could
become more professionalized along the lines of university librarians, who
often hold faculty status. Considering their tight work cycle and some
emotionally demanding matters of advisees that they encounter, academic
advisors would benefit from more systematic off-duty opportunities such as
a paid study leave or a mental health break that are built into their work
schedule. Opportunities to pursue further education are motivational and
could avoid burnout. Depending on the student populations they serve, it
could be useful for academic advisors to have professional development
957
opportunities abroad. We often emphasize the importance of study abroad

for students, and the same principles hold true for university employees.
This could be achieved in the form of participation in international staff
exchange and international student recruitment trips in foreign countries.
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services: A handbook for the profession. (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
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the entrepreneurial university. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins
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Stewart, D. L. (Ed.). (2012). Multicultural student services on campus: Building
bridges,re-visioning community. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, LLC.
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International Review of Education, 18(1), 61-84.
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Trow, M. (2007). Reflections on the transition from elite to mass to universal

access: Forms and phases of higher education in modern societies since
WWII. In J.J.F. Forest & P.G. Altbach (Eds.). International handbook of
higher education (pp. 243-280). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Vianden, J., & Barlow, P. J. (2015). Strengthen the bond: Relationships between
academic advising quality and undergraduate student loyalty. The Journal
of the National Academic Advising Association, 35(2), 15-27.
APPENDIX A
Sample of the U.S. institutions
The top ten public institutions were selected from the Academic Ranking World Universities
2016. Total enrollment and international student percentage data was taken from the Times
Higher Education World University Ranking website.
Name of institution Total enrollment International student

percentage
University of California, Berkeley 34834 16%
University of California, Los 38392 16%
Angeles
University of California, San Diego 28416 14%
University of California, San 3141 N/A
Francisco*
University of Colorado, Boulder 29741 9%
University of Michigan - Ann Arbor 41912 16%
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities 46625 13%
University of North California at 26412 8%
Chapel Hillof Washington
University 45162 15%
University of Wisconsin Madison 40048 12%
*Data was retrieved from the website on June 14, 2017 (https://oir.ucsf.edu/student-
enrollment-headcount).
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APPENDIX B
Sample of Canadian institutions
These institutions were selected from a group of research universities in Canada also known
as the U15 consortium. Two Francophone universities were excluded from this study due to
the language limitation. Total enrollment and international student percentage data was taken
from the Times Higher Education World University Ranking website.
Name of institution Total enrolment International student %
University of Alberta 33159 24%
University of British Columbia 51889 29%
University of Calgary 28047 18%
University of Dalhousie* 15293 19%
University of Manitoba 29111 13%
McGill University 30911 24%
McMaster University*, ** 27987 20%
University of Ottawa 34946 15%
Queens University 21015 11%
University of Saskatchewan* 19154 15%
University of Waterloo 31776 15%
Western University 28060 16%
University of Toronto* 68093 16%
*University HR sites were monitored, but no applicable postings were found during the data
collection period (September 2016).
**Retrieved from the website on June 14, 2017
(http://www.mcmaster.ca/opr/html/opr/fast_facts/main/about.html)
961
YUKO IKEGAMI LEE, M.Ed., is a practitioner-scholar at the University of

British Columbia. In her role as an International Student Advisor-Recruiter, she has
a keen interest in developmental academic advising and also promoting diversity
and inclusion on campus. Email: ikegamiyuko@gmail.com
AMY SCOTT METCALFE, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the Department of

Educational Studies at the University of British Columbia. Her research interests
focus on higher education policy, internationalization, and faculty labor and
identity. Email: amy.metcalfe@ubc.ca

962

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 963-989
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1029727
Supporting Chinese Undergraduate Students in

Transition at U.S. Colleges and Universities
Kerrie A. Montgomery
Florida International University, USA
ABSTRACT
The Chinese undergraduate student population currently represents 12.8%

of all international students enrolled in the United States (Institute for
International Education, 2015a). In an effort to understand the experiences
of this population in their first year of college in the United States, a
phenomenological study was conducted using a conceptual framework
comprising Schlossbergs Transition Model (Schlossberg, Waters, &
Goodman, 1995) and the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments
(CECE) Model (Museus, 2014). Three transition types were identified
academic, social/personal, and linguistic and participants preparation,
sources of institutional support, and coping strategies for moving through
these transitions were examined. Recommendations for practice include:
multi-faceted, mandatory orientation programs; ongoing workshops and
resources beyond orientation; and improvements to housing and residential
life opportunities and experiences.
Keywords: CECE model; Chinese undergraduate students; International

students; Transition model
International students currently account for 4.8% of students enrolled at all

levels in institutions of higher education in the United States (U.S.) (Institute
for International Education [IIE], 2015a). With nearly 5 million international
963
students estimated to be studying outside of their home countries worldwide,

the United States, hosting approximately 17% of these students, is
considered the top destination for those seeking degrees outside their home
countries at both the graduate and undergraduate levels (ICEF Monitor,
2014). In 2013, for the first time in over a decade, the number of
international students at the undergraduate level studying in the United
States exceeded those at the graduate level (IIE, 2013). Additionally, the
highest number of international students enrolled in the United States,
31.2%, were from China (IIE, 2015a).
The Institute for International Education (IIE) (2015a) reports that
in 2014/2015, international students contributed over $30.5 billion dollars to
the U.S. economy in the form of tuition, educational materials, housing, and
living expenses. They also add to compositional diversity on campuses and
provide diverse perspectives both inside and outside of the classroom
(Andrade, 2006; Choudaha, Chang, & Kono, 2013; Glass, Buus, &
Braskamp, 2013; Lee, 2008, 2010; Smith & Khawaja, 2011). As a result of
increased efforts to internationalize U.S. institutions, universities are
actively recruiting international students to provide cultural diversity,
enhance academics, and raise the reputation of the institution (Bodycott,
2009; Glass, Buus, & Braskamp, 2013). Considering the significant
financial impact international students have on U.S. institutions and their
local communities, and given the value these students bring to campus
through their cultural contributions, some scholars feel it is the obligation of
U.S. institutions to provide an appropriate level of support to aid them in
succeeding (Anderson, Carmichael, Harper, & Huang, 2009). Student affairs
departments and staff play a critical role in aiding international students
transitions to, and success at, U.S. institutions of higher education.
Statement of the Problem

Since 2009/10, Chinese students have continued to represent the
largest number of international students enrolled in U.S. institutions of
higher education each year (IIE, 2015b). U.S. institutions are attractive to
this population of students because of their strong academic reputations as
well as the increased chances for employability upon completion of the
degree (Pang & Appleton, 2004). Since international students are a
heterogeneous population, it was appropriate to focus this research on one
segment of the population to avoid generalizing the needs of such a diverse
population of students. As the population represents 12.8% of all
international students enrolled in the United States and is growing at a faster
964
rate than the Chinese graduate population (IIE, 2015b), Chinese

undergraduate students were selected for this study.
In undertaking this research, a gap in the literature regarding the
persistence rates of international undergraduate students in the United States
was identified. Furthermore, in spite of the continued growth of the Chinese
undergraduate population, little or no research could be found with regard to
understanding the experiences of this student group on campuses in the
U.S., and what they have, want, and need in order to succeed in their
transition and, ultimately, choose to persist at their institutions. As such, the
following research questions were used to guide the study: How do Chinese
undergraduate students experience the first year of college at an institution
in the United States?
(1) How do they describe their motivations for pursuing a
degree in the U.S.?
(2) In what ways do they feel they were prepared to navigate
the new environment?
(3) How do they describe the support they had from the
institution?
(4) What strategies were most helpful in their transition
process?
Although the literature suggests that international students
experience many of the same challenges as their domestic minority peers
(Hanassab, 2006; Kim & Kim, 2010; Lee & Rice, 2007; Reid &
Radhakrishnan, 2003; Watson, et al., 2002), the authors personal
observations at various U.S. institutions, and a lack of available literature on
the subject, suggest that the same kind of support is not routinely provided
for international students as a means of aiding in their transition to college
or supporting persistence. The purpose of the study, therefore, was to
identify solutions for providing appropriate and relevant support programs
and services for this population based upon their first-year experiences. This
research was intended to be a first step in beginning to develop such
interventions that may ultimately be useful to all international students on
U.S. campuses.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The United States has long been the top host country for international
students, and the continued growth of enrollment numbers is due to a variety
of push-pull factors (Mazzarol & Souter, 2002), those that push the
965
student from their home country and/or pull them toward the host country.
Among these factors are: reputation of U.S. higher education overall;
reputations of specific institutions; lack of access to higher education in the
home country; potential for enhanced employment opportunities at home or
in the host country; efforts of U.S. institutions to recruit qualified
international students to their campuses; and immigration/visa policies
(Altbach, 2004; Bodycott, 2009; Douglass & Edelstein, 2009; Goodman,
2009; Goodman & Gutierrez, 2011; IIE, 2013; Lee, 2008; Mazzarol &
Souter, 2002; McMurtrie, 2008).
Tan and Weidman (2013) assert that the trend of increasing numbers
of Chinese students in the United States, at both the graduate and
undergraduate levels, is likely to continue indefinitely. They attribute this, in
part, to a demand for more advanced academic credentials (p. 118), which
is the result of a highly competitive job market in China. These authors
further suggest that economic conditions in both China and the United States
make it more attractive for Chinese students to study in the United States,
and makes U.S. institutions more interested than ever in recruiting these
students who are able to pay their own expenses (Tan & Weidman, 2013).
As research on international student experiences in the U.S.,
particularly at the undergraduate level, was difficult to identify, the findings
of research conducted on international student experiences in English-
speaking host countries such as Australia, New Zealand, the United
Kingdom, and Canada, was also consulted. The extant literature shows that
these students experience many of the same issues encountered by U.S.
domestic minority students (Hanassab, 2006; Lee & Rice, 2007; Kim &
Kim, 2010; Reid & Radhakrishnan, 2003; Watson et al., 2002). Issues
related to the difficulty of domestic minority students in adjusting to the
campus environment, feelings of being discriminated against, lack of
support, and an expectation by non-minority students and faculty that they
are able to serve as informants on behalf of all other minority students are
not uncommon (Watson et al., 2002). Similarly, international students in
English-speaking countries outside the United States have reported that they
feel a lack of institutional support, have difficulty adapting to the new higher
education system, and, especially those from non-Western countries, are the
targets of bias and stereotyping primarily because of their difficulties with
the English language (Lee, 2010). In addition, issues of financial difficulty,
perceived discrimination, and adjusting to new pedagogical styles, were also
reported in research conducted at Australian institutions (Russell, Rosenthal,
& Thomson, 2010).
966
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A conceptual framework comprising Schlossbergs (1995) Transition Model

and Museus (2014) Culturally Engaging Campus Environment (CECE)
Model, and incorporating elements of Chinese culture, was employed. The
4 S System of Schlossbergs Transition Model - Situation, Self, Support,
and Strategies - refers to the resources available to an individual in their
transition process (Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995). These four
elements served as the backbone of the conceptual framework by providing
a foundation for understanding the common elements of individuals
transition experiences while respecting their unique personal circumstances.
Schlossbergs Transition Model

The element of Situation encompasses such factors as: things that
prompt a transition, the role the individual plays in the transition (i.e., their
choice in the situation), and their level of control in the situation
(Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995). The element of Self refers to
those personal resources an individual brings to a transition, including such
things as age, gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, outlook, and values,
each of which may position an individual to transition more or less
successfully depending on their circumstance (Schlossberg et al., 1995). The
element of Support includes those external resources available to an
individual in transition, namely, relationships with family members and
friends, as well as institutions and communities to which they belong
(Schlossberg et al., 1995). Finally, Strategies comprises the actual coping
mechanisms an individual may use, such as trying to control the situation, or
trying to control the stress caused by the situation through avoidance or
other tactics (Schlossberg et al., 1995).
Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) Model

As was demonstrated in a review of the literature, research has
shown that many non-native English-speaking international students in
English-speaking environments have reported experiences similar to those
of domestic minority students (Hanassab, 2006; Lee & Rice, 2007; Kim &
Kim, 2010; Reid & Radhakrishnan, 2003; Watson, et al., 2002). As a result,
Schlossbergs Transition Model (1995) was supplemented with the nine
indicators of the Culturally Engaging Campus Environment Model (Museus,
2014) in order to examine the support structures in place at institutions in
the United States to aid in the transition experiences of Chinese
967
undergraduates. Museus (2014) developed the CECE Model to identify

ways in which the responsibility for student success, regardless of race or
ethnicity, can be more intentionally assumed by the institutions admitting
them. The specific aspect of the CECE Model used in this study highlights
the environmental and individual influences that affect student success, and
suggests that the degree to which culturally engaging campus environments
exist at a particular postsecondary institution is positively associated with
more positive individual factors and ultimately greater college student
success (Museus, 2014, p. 207). The nine indicators of a Culturally
Engaging Campus Environment proposed by Museus, the presence or
absence of which can significantly impact racially diverse students success,
are: Cultural Familiarity; Culturally Relevant Knowledge; Cultural
Community Service; Opportunities for Meaningful Cross-Cultural
Engagement; Collectivist Cultural Orientations; Culturally Validating
Environments; Humanized Educational Environments; Proactive
Philosophies; and Availability of Holistic Support.
Chinese Values
In addition to these models, norms and values inherent in Chinese
culture, specifically related to relationships and education, were considered
as a component of the element Self in the Schlossberg Transition Model
(Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995). These two areas are especially
relevant for the experience of Chinese students since the literature suggests
that the motivation to attend U.S. institutions is largely rooted in familial
relationships and expectations and an emphasis on education is an important
part of Chinese culture. According to a study comparing Americans and
Chinese with regard to academics, for the Chinese, the primary motivation
for success came from family and clan responsibility, and children were
raised from a very early age to pursue individual and group achievement in
the name of group success (Yu, 1996, p. 234). Furthermore, Chinese
culture encourages children to overcome their individuality (Hofstede &
Bond, 1988, p. 8), at least in terms of their actions, in order to maintain
harmony and the honor of the family. Additionally, the notion of
maintaining face is extremely important in Chinese culture. In this
concept, ones dignity, self-respect, and prestige (Hofstede & Bond, 1988,
p. 8) must remain untarnished in order for harmony (a Confucian value) to
exist. Maintaining face on an individual level is critical because it actually
affects the face of the family and larger community with which one is
associated. This value manifests itself in the classroom through the potential
968
loss of face for poor performance or misconduct on the part of either the
student or the teacher (Chan, 1999). Finally, students in China have been
trained to respect wisdom, knowledge and expertise of parents, teachers
and trainers. They have been socialized to respect highly those who provide
the knowledge and to avoid challenging those in authority (Chan, 1999, p.
298). As a result, the Western style of education is often problematic for
Chinese students who are not accustomed to the more interactive classroom
environments (Chan, 1999).
In order to gain an understanding of the experiences of Chinese
undergraduate students during their first year in the U.S., Schlossbergs
Transition Model (1995) was selected as a basis for exploring both the
internal and external resources that might have aided in the transitions to
their new environments. Furthermore, the models design lent itself to
supplementation with other models that could address specific resources in a
more directed manner. Because the study focused on students from a
minority population at their campuses, and in light of the literature revealing
a similarity in experiences between international and domestic minority
students, the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments Model (Museus,
2014) was incorporated in the realm of Support. Additionally, because the
population being studied represented a specific culture with unique values, I
made the decision to highlight elements of those values within the area of
Self. Finally, since a transition experience also includes the factors that
initiated it, in the realm of Situation according to Schlossberg et al.
(1995), the selection of this framework informed the decision to include
motivations and expectations prior to participants arrival in the U.S. as part
of the study of their first-year experience.
RESEARCH METHOD
A hermeneutical phenomenological approach was used for this study.

Phenomenology is intended to examine the lived experiences of several
individuals who have experienced the same phenomenon and then identify
what they have in common (Creswell, 2007). Hermeneutical
phenomenology, according to Kafle (2011), focuses on illuminating details
and seemingly trivial aspects within experience that may be taken for
granted in our lives (p. 191). Furthermore, it encourages the researcher to
acknowledge and incorporate their personal biases throughout the analytical
process since their personal experiences may relate to what is being
researched (Laverty, 2003). Because transition experiences comprise a
969
number of factors involving the individuals situation, self, external sources

of support, and coping strategies, an awareness of the details that combined
to create their broader experience is necessary in order to interpret the way
those factors interacted with one another. As a result, this methodology is
complementary to the conceptual framework in that it has, at its core, an
interest in the lived experiences of the study participants (Creswell, 2007)
and the interpretation of how those experiences shaped their transition.
Participants
Upon receiving IRB approval from the study site, recruitment of
participants was done at a large, public, multi-campus institution in the
southeastern United States, using criterion-based sampling. Although this
research focused on the first-year transition experiences of the population
being studied, that does not imply that the first year of college for
participants was the traditional freshman year. In fact, some participants
had transferred from institutions outside the U.S. to begin their junior year
in the United States. Since hermeneutical phenomenology is a reflective
approach (Kafle, 2011), it was necessary for participants to be enrolled in
any year beyond the freshman year. Therefore, the qualifying criterion for
the study were that each participant must have been a second, third, or
fourth year undergraduate student enrolled at the study site; must have been
a Chinese citizen; and must not have attended high school in the United
States.
Emails containing a link to a preliminary eligibility questionnaire
were sent by the International Student and Scholar Services office at the
study site to students meeting these criteria. Given the availability of a
relatively small population meeting the criteria, a total of six qualified
participants were identified and interviewed. Seidman (2013) stated that
saturation refers to the point at which the interviewer has spoken with
enough participants that they begin to hear the same answers repeated in
interviews. Though efforts at snowball sampling were made during the
interview process, with participants being asked to refer other qualified
students to the eligibility questionnaire, finding that saturation had been
reached with the data gathered from the six initial participants, the decision
was made to suspend further recruitment efforts.
Four of the six participants interviewed for the study completed
their first year of college in the U.S. as sophomores or juniors attending
school at the study site. Each of them had transferred from other institutions
outside the U.S. (two from China, one from Switzerland, and one from
970
Panama). The other two participants completed their first year in the U.S. as
freshmen at other institutions in the U.S. One of the students had attended a
very small, private school on the west coast of the United States, and the
other a large, public school on the east coast of the United States. The
participants were enrolled in either Business majors (Marketing and/or
Finance) or the Hospitality and Tourism Management major. Four
participants were women, all coming to the U.S. from cities or provinces in
Northern China, and two participants were men, both of who came to the
U.S. from cities in Southern China. Participants ranged in age from 21 to 25
at the time of the study. A table of participant information is available in
Appendix A.
Procedures
Three separate, face-to-face, in-depth interviews were conducted
with each of the participants, for a total of 18 interviews. Seidmans (2013)
three-interview series model was employed for the study because it, allows
both the interviewer and the participant to explore the participants
experience, place it in context, and reflect on its meaning (p. 20). In
addition, meeting with participants over three separate interviews provided
an opportunity for trust to be built between the researcher and the
participants, which Seidman suggests is important when there are
differences of race or ethnicity between interviewer and participant.
Seidman states that, by returning to the participant three times, an
interviewer has the opportunity to demonstrate respect, thoughtfulness, and
interest in that individual, all of which can work toward ameliorating
skepticism (p. 102).
Semi-structured interviews were conducted using an interview guide
to focus on the key topics to be addressed. Key questions were determined
ahead of time, with follow-up questions developing organically based upon
participants responses to the questions. Questions for the semi-structured
interviews were developed based upon the conceptual framework and the
literature on international students motivations for seeking a degree in the
United States and experiences at institutions in non-English speaking
countries. As each of the four coping resources in Schlossbergs Transition
Model (1995) encompasses several elements, questions were designed to
uncover information about the discreet aspects of that resource. For
example, in exploring one element of Schlossbergs Transition Model
regarding the individuals role in initiating the transition and the impact it
can have on navigating the transition process [related to the resource termed
971
Situation] (Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995), participants were

asked: What made you decide to pursue your undergraduate degree in the
United States?, with a follow-up question of: Was this something you had
planned to do? Support was also identified by Schlossberg et al. (1995) as
one of the resources important to individuals in transition. As one of the
goals of the research was to understand more about the Institutional Support
available to participants during their first year, another question was based
on the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments Models indicators
related to Cultural Familiarity and Culturally Relevant Knowledge (Museus,
2014). The question: Would you say you saw your culture reflected in the
campus environment through programs, organizations, or other avenues, or
that you were able to stay connected to your culture? How/In what ways?,
was intended to explore any opportunities the participants had to connect to
institutional agents and/or fellow students who share cultural backgrounds,
and/or to engage in opportunities that cultivate, sustain, and increase
knowledge of their cultures and communities of origin (Museus, 2014, p.
210). Potential sources of personal support (not only institutional) were also
explored, with the question: What were the greatest sources of support to
you during your first-year experience? To ensure that interpretation of the
participants comments was accurate, member checking was done while
interviews were being conducted. In member checking, the researcher
solicits feedback from the participants as transcriptions and early analysis
are completed in order to verify that the researchers initial interpretation
accurately reflects their comments (Merriam, 2009). In this study, it was
done during interviews in part because, as a result of language differences, it
was often necessary to clarify information to try to encapsulate an idea
while an interview session was in progress.
Data Analysis
Coding. Data analysis was completed using open coding and
content analysis. Open coding allows the researcher to consider all the data
being reviewed without strict parameters guiding the process, such that
categories and themes emerge through an analysis of the material being
reviewed (Merriam, 2009). Content analysis in qualitative inquiry also
focuses on the emergence of categories or themes from the interview data as
it is reviewed (Merriam, 2009). Coding for this study took place in two
levels: first-cycle coding, where codes were assigned to give meaning to
items of interest in the data; and second-cycle coding, where the first-cycle
codes were analyzed further, synthesized, and grouped into categories
972
(Saldaa, 2009) or clusters of meaning (Creswell, 2007, p. 61) using the

conceptual framework as a guide.
A set of predetermined codes taken from the conceptual framework
were used at the outset, but the majority of codes emerged through the
process of content analysis. Predetermined codes included such broad terms
as Motivation, Outlook, and Support, drawn from Schlossbergs
Transition Model (1995), and Cultural Familiarity, and Campus
Environment, drawn from the CECE Model (Museus, 2014). These
predetermined codes were used during first-cycle coding, along with both
attribute coding, which was used for coding demographic information, and
descriptive coding, which was used to summarize the basic idea of a passage
or sentence (Saldaa, 2009). The initial, predetermined codes were made
intentionally broad to provide a starting point in analysis, but the use of
descriptive coding led to more detailed codes with more nuanced meaning.
For example, a notation regarding the format of classes in the Chinese
educational system and the familiarity of a cohort model was made on
several transcripts during first-cycle coding and led to the creation of two
new codes. Participants who spoke about how the Chinese class structure
had them moving through the same set of classes with the same group of
students each day, as opposed to the U.S. structure, which saw them taking
different classes with different students, expressed difficulties in creating
relationships with their peers because they were not always together. The
code Class Format was used to capture the participants acknowledgement
of pedagogical difference. Additionally, although the difference in class
format had obvious implications for their academic transition to a new
pedagogical style, considering it in the context of their larger experience
showed that it had an even more significant impact on their social transition.
This resulted in the creation of the additional code Building Relationships.
Other codes that emerged independent of those based directly on the
conceptual framework included Jokes, American Slang/Idioms,
Difficulties with Reading Comprehension, Difficulties with Spoken
Comprehension, Practical Vocabulary, and Needed Translation. Each
of these codes was connected to the participants command of English, so a
primary code of Language Proficiency was identified and each of the
related codes were then categorized as sub-codes of Language
Proficiency. At the end of first-cycle coding using this process, a total of 34
primary codes and 230 sub-codes had been identified.
Pattern coding, a process that pulls together several data items into
thematically linked categories, and focused coding, which looks at the most
973
frequently applied codes to distill the most meaningful themes from the
data, were used for second-cycle coding (Miles & Huberman, 1994;
Saldaa, 2009). The sub-codes of Language Proficiency described above
(along with others not listed), for example, appeared to fall into two main
categories, with some falling into both categories. The code of Jokes, was
used about experiences in social settings, and the code of Difficulty with
Reading Comprehension was used in relation to academic experiences. The
codes of American Slang/Idioms and Needed Translation tied to both
social and academic experiences shared by participants. Second-cycle
coding resulted in the reduction of initial codes to a total of 24 primary
codes and 45 sub-codes, with an additional attribute of positive or
negative assigned, as appropriate, to several of the codes and/or sub-
codes. In some cases, both negative and positive attributes were assigned.
For instance, participants viewed being fully funded by their parents as
favorable in most cases, but there were instances where the accompanying
sense of obligation hindered students and had a negative impact. As such,
the code Parental Support was assigned both positive and negative
attributes. A sampling of the codes resulting from first and second-cycle
coding is provided in Table 2.
Themes. The general themes that emerged from this process were:
motivation, preparation, support, and strategies. Each was connected to the
factors identified as part of the 4 Ss (Situation, Self, Support, and
Strategies) from the Schlossberg Transition Model (1995). After coding was
completed and themes identified, a spreadsheet consisting of transcript
excerpts was sorted using the codes and themes, along with sub-codes of
social and/or academic domain and the filters of positive and/or negative
attributes, in order to create a comprehensive picture of the experiences of
these six participants as they moved into and through their first year of
college in the United States.
Limitations
One potential limitation of this study was that participants did not
all begin their first year of study in the U.S. as a first-year/freshman student.
For the students who attended institutions outside of China prior to their
U.S. enrollment, this would potentially have involved language and culture
transitions similar to what they experienced in coming to the United States
(even if the language at the institution was not English). Though several of
the participants in this study had such an experience prior to coming to the
974
United States, none of them mentioned their previous experience as they

recalled their first year U.S. experiences. Nevertheless, it was important to
maintain an awareness that the previous experiences of these students may
well have affected the way they managed and understood those which were
the focus of this study. Since there was no discreet acknowledgement of any
previous experiences by the participants, it is not possible to determine if
they had any impact.
Table 2
Sample of Codes Identified through Data Analysis
First-Cycle First-Cycle Second- Second-Cycle
Descriptive Sub-Codes Cycle Sub-Codes
Codes Pattern
Codes
Expectations for - Academic Expectations Ex: Academic (+ or -)
College in the - Social Experience Ex: Social/
U.S. - Language Personal (+ or -)
- Housing Ex: Negative
- Make Friends
- Get Practical
Experience
Language - Understanding Prof. Language LP: Academic (+ or -)
Proficiency - Needed Translation Proficiency LP: Social (+ or -)
- American Slang/Idioms
- Practical Vocabulary
- Jokes
Living Situation - Supported by Parents Living LS: Housing Problems
- Public Transportation Situation LS: Housing
- Needed Car Arrangements
Housing - Roommate Problems LS:
- Required to Live On- Driving/Transportation
campus LS: Financial Situation
- Forced to Live Off-
campus
- Found Roommate via
Internet from China
Another potential limitation of the study was the researchers

race/ethnicity as a White, American/Western woman. Since Chinese
students place a high value on trust within their close, inner circle of family
and friends (Bond, 1991), entering into a dialogue about their backgrounds
and experiences with an unknown person from outside of their community
could have resulted in challenges to the establishment of a trusting rapport
975
in which participants were willing to share their experiences. The Chinese

concern with maintaining face makes it important to avoid opening
oneself to a possible betrayal by those outside of their inner circle, as the
results of damaging ones reputation can be far reaching (Bond, 1991). In
order to mitigate this issue, recruitment efforts were coordinated through the
Office of International Student and Scholar services at the study site. Since
the staff members in that office had already established trusting
relationships with the students being invited to participate, their willingness
to vouch for the researcher may have made it more comfortable for students
to take part. Although the participants did share a great deal about their
personal experiences, the information they shared was largely limited to the
questions on the interview guide, and it was sometimes difficult for them to
engage in more organic conversation. Ultimately, it does not appear that this
had a negative impact on the study, but having had a research partner with
greater knowledge of Chinese culture and language may have garnered even
richer data.
Finally, this qualitative study centered on a very narrow sample
from the population of international students. Though done intentionally in
an effort to disaggregate a specific population from the heterogeneous
international student community, it is does not allow for a generalization to
other sub-populations. That said, limiting the study to Chinese
undergraduates allowed for an evaluation of the experiences of a unique
population that represents the fastest growing segment of international
students on U.S. campuses. As a result, the findings of this research have
value to practitioners working with this population.
RESULTS
Motivations and Expectations (Situation)

A variety of motivating factors and expectations shaped the
experiences of the study participants journeys to the United States in
pursuit of their college degrees. Among the motivations, each of which
aligned with push-pull factors identified in a review of the literature about
international student motivation for studying in the U.S., were the external
factors of parental influence and the desire for greater job opportunity as a
result of obtaining a U.S. degree. In addition, personal motivations were
responsible for the decisions of several of these students to come to
America. Those personal factors included the desire to see the outside
976
world and to experience the excitement of being in a place so different

from China.
Expectations for what the American college experience would be
like were also revealed as a result of the motivations shared by study
participants. These ranged from positive hopes for both the academic and
social experience -- such as having opportunities to gain practical
experience through internships or taking part in a lively residence hall
environment that would facilitate friendships with American students -- to
negative ones related to language ability and difficulty meeting or making
friends. For example, one participant shared her positive hopes for
internship experiences by stating, I want to learn not just focus on the book,
the knowledge. I want to go outside I mean, in America hotels. I want to
learn more experience (Skye). On the other hand, a negative expectation
related to language was expressed by a participant who stated, I thought I
wouldn't be able to catch up because when I studied... when I would do my
TOEFL test, I would barely understand a word what the thing was saying; I
barely catch a word (Chino). As was the case with their motivations, the
expectations of the students in this study also aligned with the expectations
of international students as identified in the literature. According to
Marriott, du Plessis, and Pu (2010), international students cited expectations
that their experience in the U.S. would provide them with a better education
than they could have received in their home country, which would lead to
greater job opportunities and long-term prosperity. Another expectation
cited by Mariott et al. (2010) and reflected in the expectations of study
participants was the formation of meaningful friendships with domestic
students. Other expectations shared by participants in this study were more
specific to their perceived language proficiency and how it would influence
their experience, as well as how they anticipated having opportunities to
improve their language skills. This was most clearly reflected by a
participant who stated, Before I come here, I expected that I will improve
my English very fast, because I will live in a dormitory with international
friends and we will speak English every day (Lucy).
The motivations and expectations shared by study participants
exposed three separate, often intersecting, transitions that each student
would experience throughout the first year of college in the U.S. linguistic,
academic, and social/personal. Although two of the students entered their
institutions as first-time-in-college (FTIC) freshman, neither their
expectations nor their transition experiences seem to have differed
significantly from those of the participants who had attended college
977
previously, regardless of where those students had studied. Furthermore,

analysis of the data revealed that although several factors contributed to
their success during the first year, a significant number of factors hindered
these students experiences as well.
Obstacles to Success
Housing. One of the primary obstacles reported by participants,
which had a significantly negative impact on both the linguistic and
social/personal transitions for these participants, was related to their housing
arrangements. Students who did not have access to on-campus housing also
received no guidance from their institution about where to look for housing
or how to connect with students who were already enrolled at the institution
to identify potential roommates. These students were forced to rely on the
social media resources to which they had access in China to connect with
other Chinese students already at their institution. One participant noted,
Its always Chinese people help Chinese people. As such, these students
relied upon themselves and their extended community abroad to identify
roommates with whom they moved in without having met, and apartments
into which they moved without ever having seen them. Since public
transportation was unreliable in their area, this situation also resulted in the
added expense of students needing to purchase cars to get around not only to
conduct daily activities, but simply to get to their classes.
For the students who received on-campus accommodations, the
experiences in their residence halls were no better. Differences in language
and culture with their American roommates led to serious issues for both
Kat and Chino. Chino shared that in his situation, I never told them [his
roommates or the RA] that I was not good with the stuff they were doing,
but his strategy was to avoid being in his room as much as possible. Kat did
try to talk to her roommate about problems, but found it difficult because,
Its like we have different habit and culture background. I try
tosometimes when I tried to talk to her, but I dont know what I should
say. A third, participant, Tianyao, had difficulty connecting with the
American students in his residence hall because he found their drinking and
partying distasteful. He stated, People there [residents of the residence
hall], theyre just crazy, and sometimes, the thing they did, its unbelievable.
Yes, and especially on Friday night, I saw a lot of drunk guy on the hallway,
which is annoying. Unreliable public transportation on and around campus,
and the inability to purchase a car, created additional problems for two of
these participants. For instance, Chino shared that when he needed
978
groceries, he had to calculate the weight of items and plan multiple trips so
that he would be able to carry everything he needed in the twenty-minute
walk (in tropical summer heat) back to his room.
With respect to each of these participants, the institutions seem to
have made many assumptions on behalf of the Chinese students who were
entering their campus communities. These assumptions included: the
resources available to them to find appropriate accommodations off-campus
(if needed); the level of cultural and linguistic knowledge/comfort they
might have before being partnered with American roommates who were
clearly unprepared or uninterested in supporting them through their first-
year transitions; and the financial resources available to them to cover
unanticipated expenses like purchasing a car to get to class or buy groceries.
Furthermore, these institutions failed each of the participants by not
providing the conditions to have meaningful cross-cultural engagement
opportunities in their living spaces or to aid them in the linguistic transition
that was so critical to their overall success. Furthermore, they failed the
students who lived on-campus by not ensuring they had the means to access
necessities without significant hardship.
Lack of support for linguistic transition. Another notable finding

was the general failure of institutions to provide conditions that would have
supported the linguistic transitions of these participants. All of their
transition types - linguistic, academic, and social/personal - were hindered
by this lack of support. These transitions must be evaluated independently to
more fully understand them, but their intersections must also be considered
to fully appreciate their impact on the participants overall experiences. For
instance, each participant noted transition issues that were specifically
academic in nature, but the linguistic transition was often involved in terms
of understanding professors in a lecture, taking certain types of exams that
challenged reading comprehension, or the ability to complete written
assignments. Kat indicated that multiple choice tests were much easier for
her because even if she did not understand every word of a question, if she
could identify key words as they related to the multiple-choice answers, she
had a better chance of making a correct choice. Similarly, the
social/personal transitions these participants experienced were often
challenged not only by cultural differences between themselves and their
domestic peers, but by their level of language proficiency and the frustration
they experienced in trying to be understood.
979
While some students did have the opportunity to live with American
roommates, cultural differences and a lack of common ground, coupled with
anxiety about their speech, made it difficult for these participants to attempt
conversations, resulting in lost opportunities. For Kat, her assignment to a
residence hall with an American roommate should have been helpful to her
in improving her English, but her lack of confidence with her language level
left her unsure about what to say, so she stopped trying to start
conversations with her. She also shared that her American roommate would
frequently take things that belonged to her, such as bottled water she had
purchased for herself and that she kept on her side of the room, but she did
not have the confidence to approach her about this. For those who were not
afforded the opportunity to live on-campus, minimal contact with domestic
students outside of class, and the American class structure that does not use
a cohort model, limited their access to support in the linguistic transition as
well as the social/personal transition. One participant stated, ...in China we
take class like class 1, class 2, like that. We are a group together to take
the same class, but for here every class will have different classmates, so its
very hard to make relationships and make friends (Lucy).
Inconsistent orientation programs. Another notable finding was

the inconsistency of orientation programs for these students. Most
participants were unable to recall who hosted their orientation (an
International Student Services office, or a New Student Services/Orientation
office), or if the orientation they attended was mandatory. Because of the
inconsistent information students received from their institutions, they relied
on their network of newly made Chinese friends who had already been at the
institution for some period of time. This often resulted in them receiving
incomplete or inaccurate information which ultimately disadvantaged them.
Orientation programs are an institutions first opportunity to exercise the
Proactive Philosophies described in the Culturally Engaging Campus
Environments Model (Museus, 2014). The failure of these institutions to
make clear to students what purpose the orientation program served, what
kind of information would be provided, and whether the session was
mandatory, represented a lost opportunity to provide these students with
tools and resources to set them up for success in their multiple transitions
through the first year.
Finally, regardless of the size or type of institution these participants
attended and, with a few exceptions, regardless of their age, gender, or area
of origin, the experiences of these students - both positive and negative -
980
were quite similar. Each of the participants experienced challenges related to

language, and most were surprised by this because they felt prepared when
they left their homes to come to the U.S. Tianyao, for example, stated, I
expect like everything here is going to be perfect for me, because since I
have a higher TOEFL score. Each participant had issues related to housing,
even when it was provided by the institution. Each of them relied on their
families and friends at home for support and developed networks of Chinese
friends at their institutions to provide additional support and information.
And, although they attended schools representing three different geographic
regions, and ranging in size from 700 students to over 30,000 students, each
participant reported that they perceived their campuses as friendly and
welcoming. For example, Kat, who attended a very small, private school
recalled that, People are welcoming. Not on purpose, but when you see
someone, they are going to, like, smile to you. They gonna say good
morning to you. Even like, they dont know who you are. Skye, who
attended a large, public institution, also recalled that, for the
international students, they [faculty members] are very kind and friendly to
hang out with us. In considering the challenges and supports to their
transitions throughout the first year of college in the United States, since
their experiences were so similar, there appears to be an opportunity for
meaningful improvement to be made at U.S. institutions, regardless of size
or type, and for programs and services to be provided that will be useful to
these students across age, gender, and area of origin.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Internal and external motivations coinciding with Schlossbergs Transition

Model (Schlossberg et al., 1995) were identified for pursuing degrees in the
U.S. These not only supported the literature regarding international students
choice to study in the U.S., but expanded upon it. Several push-pull factors
identified in previous studies were mentioned among the motivations of
students and/or their parents in the present study, including: parental
influence on children; the good reputation of particular U.S. programs or
institutions; and the desire for greater job opportunity as a result of earning a
high-quality degree in the U.S. (Altbach, 2004; Bodycott, 2009; Goodman
& Gutierrez, 2011; Lee, 2008; Mazzarol & Souter; 2002; Pang & Appleton,
2004). In addition, and not previously cited in the literature, more than half
of the participants in this study cited a desire to go to college in the U.S. to
see new and different parts of the world or to return after having visited the
981
U.S. for vacation or some other short-term program. As more international

students have opportunities to visit America through short-term study and
work programs or on vacations with their families, similar personal
motivations to pursue degrees in the U.S. may continue to increase.
The Chinese students who took part in this study were prepared in a
variety of ways for the transitions they experienced during their first year of
college in the United States. The kinds of preparation upon which they
relied for coping resources were largely in line with Schlossbergs
Transition Model (Schlossberg et al., 1995), and the characteristics of Self
identified in that model. These included such personal resources as
socioeconomic status, positive outlook, and self-reliance. Areas where
preparation was most lacking had to do with the students level of language
proficiency and/or the Chinese cultural values with which they were raised.
Among the values identified by some study participants were difficulty
engaging with strangers and a high level of conservatism or closed-
mindedness that made it challenging for them to communicate with
domestic students who had different backgrounds and values.
Schlossbergs Transition Model (Schlossberg et al., 1995)
established Support as a coping resource available for individuals in
transition and identified the institutions or communities to which the
individual belongs among their potential sources of support. Participants
identified many ways in which their institutions either provided or failed to
provide support to assist them through their academic, social/personal, and
linguistic transitions during the first year of college in the U.S., and these
aligned with many of the indicators of the Culturally Engaging Campus
Environments Model (Museus, 2014). Participants indicated that the
opportunity to engage in programs or activities that supported Culturally
Relevant Knowledge, and the presence of other Chinese students on campus
(Cultural Familiarity) were supportive of their transitions. Similarly, some
participants shared stories that indicated the presence of Humanizing
Educational Environments and Holistic Support by various institutional
agents who took time to develop meaningful relationships with them or who
were viewed as trusted sources of information and assistance.
Participants stories suggested, however, that Proactive Philosophies
and Opportunities for Meaningful Cross-Cultural Engagement were very
inconsistent and, though some programs or services existed, there were
many missed opportunities for these indicators to be addressed at their
institutions. Furthermore, some participants reported faculty members who
took a personal interest in them, showing evidence of the indicator of
982
Culturally Validating Environments, while others did not feel that they
could participate fully in the classroom environment because their faculty
members made no effort to connect with them or recognize their presence.
Finally, while several participants did some type of community
service or volunteering during their first year, none of them identified an
opportunity for Cultural Community Service, which the CECE Model
suggests gives students an opportunity to give back to their own
communities. Clearly, although the CECE Model was designed with diverse
domestic minority students in mind, this study demonstrated that many of
the indicators identified to support diverse students apply to international
student populations as well. Based on the findings of this study, despite the
fact that it was developed with domestic minority students in mind, the
expansion of the CECE Model to intentionally and explicitly incorporate
international students seems warranted.
The primary Strategies used by these participants to cope with
their transitions during the first year are consistent with those described in
Schlossbergs Transition Model, in that they were employed in an effort to
exercise some control over their situation or soothe themselves in the midst
of a situation that could not be changed (Schlossberg et al., 1995). Some
participants opted for social isolation as a strategy for coping with difficult
linguistic and social/personal transitions, but this strategy also served as a
challenge to those same transitions. By contrast, turning to family members
and friends was a highly effective positive strategy for adjusting to a new
environment. Each of the participants cited the important role that family
members and peers played as sources of information and support,
particularly in their social/personal transitions. Attempting to adapt to the
new environment was also viewed as a positive strategy employed by some
of the participants who did so as a means of exerting control over their
situation. That these students felt they had to adapt in order to have a sense
of control, as opposed to entering an environment that was created to be
supportive of their transition, however, demonstrates the need for greater
institutional awareness of the needs of diverse student populations.
IMPLICATIONS
Based upon the coping resources of self, support, and strategy demonstrated
by participants in this study, several suggestions to improve programs and
services that facilitate and support the transitions of future Chinese students
coming to the United States were identified.
983
Orientation
Since International Student Service (ISS) offices must provide
incoming students with critical immigration related information, and New
Student Program or Orientation offices typically provide information about
advising and registration along with other functional components (e.g.,
obtaining a student ID, attending presentations about campus resources), it
is suggested that these offices work together in the implementation of a
unified, mandatory orientation program for all new international students.
The content of the program should be tailored to include information and
resources about academic and social/personal transitions (e.g., pedagogical
styles and structures in the U.S.; the importance of academic advising; how
courses are selected and registered for; and social cues and norms for
interaction among faculty, staff, and peers), and the role of the linguistic
transition in both of those domains. The orientation should be delivered
through a multi-tiered approach beginning with an online component
available prior to arrival, followed by an in-person program upon arrival,
and rounded out via printed materials provided at the in-person program.
These formats serve multiple purposes in that the online and printed
materials make information available to students on an ongoing basis.
Printed materials should be provided in English with a side-by-side
translation (e.g., Mandarin) to ensure clarity of the information being
provided, and to support linguistic transitions by helping students build their
practical vocabulary.
Workshops
Beyond the orientation program, institutions providing Holistic
Support and adhering to Proactive Philosophies, as suggested by the
Culturally Engaging Campus Environments Model (Museus, 2014), should
make ongoing support and resources available to students. Multiple delivery
formats would be appropriate for these resources as well, and might include:
in-person workshops, informal gatherings, and additional online materials.
As with the content of the orientation program, workshops should cover
topics that support the academic, social/personal, and linguistic transitions
being experienced by Chinese and other international students. For instance,
workshops could provide role playing opportunities for Chinese students to
interact with faculty members or their domestic peers; informal gatherings
could partner students to practice their English skills in a social setting such
as a campus coffee shop; and online materials could focus on preparation for
taking the drivers license exam. Student Affairs departments could partner
984
with their campus ISS office and each other to provide these and other
culturally relevant programs. Making such information and opportunities
available on an ongoing basis would make it easier for students to get
information and support for practical matters without having to ask for it.
Housing
In cases where on-campus housing is made available to Chinese
students (or other non-native English speaking international students),
Housing/Residence Life staff must make efforts to identify accommodations
that are appropriate to support the social/personal transition of these
students. Establishing international residence halls, or even international
floors within residence halls, that are open to domestic students interested
in being paired with international students would provide meaningful
opportunities for cross-cultural engagement among willing participants. This
sort of intentional effort would demonstrate the institutions support of the
social/personal and linguistic transitions of Chinese or other non-native
English speakers by placing them in environments, and among individuals,
where they can feel welcomed and valued.
Summing Up
Each of these interventions could be easily implemented or
supported by student Affairs departments with limited impact on existing
budgets. The process of being intentional about addressing the unique needs
of this student population is at the heart of each recommendation. Making
these students feel welcomed and valued as members of their campus
communities is achievable and should be seen as the responsibility of every
area of campus. Student Affairs staff have an opportunity to model the way
for being inclusive of Chinese and other international students in their
programming and services and not leaving these tasks to the International
Student Services office on their campuses.
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APPENDIX A
Table 1: Participant Information

Student
Transitioned U.S. Year in
Pseudonym( City of
from Other Institution College at Major
Gender) Origin
Institution Type Transition
Age
Ada Large Public Hospitality/
Shenyang Yes;
(Female) (Southeastern 3rd Year Tourism
(North) Switzerland
25 U.S.) Management
Chino Large Public International
Guangzhou Yes;
(Male) (Southeastern 3rd Year Business/
(South) Panama
24 U.S.) Finance
Kat Inner Small Private
(Female) Mongolia No (West Coast N/A Marketing
21 (North) U.S.)
Lucy Large Public Hospitality/
Beijing Yes;
(North) China
21 U.S.) Management
Skye Large Public Hospitality/
Qingdao Yes;
(North) China
23 U.S.) Management
Tianyao Large Public
Nanjing
(Male) No (North East N/A Finance
(South)
21 U.S.)
KERRIE A. MONTGOMERY, PhD, is Director of Campus Life at Florida

International Universitys Biscayne Bay Campus in Miami, FL. Her major research
interests lie in the area of understanding the needs of international students in the
U.S. and providing support for their success. Email: kmontgom@fiu.edu

989

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 990-1009
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035953
International Students Cocurricular Involvement at

a University in South Africa
Sapna Naik
Michigan State University, USA
Matthew R. Wawrzynski
Joelle Brown
Indiana University, USA
ABSTRACT
Despite a growing body of literature on international student involvement,
international students in the South African context have remained
understudied. In this quantitative study, we examined international students
cocurricular involvement and associated learning and development in a
South African university. Participants included 198 international students
who completed the Student Experiences Survey (SES). We found
international students were generally highly involved and reported benefits
and barriers to their involvement as well as a strong sense of belonging.
Recommendations to better integrate international students into the
university by minimizing barriers and increasing opportunities and learning
in involvement are included for student affairs practitioners.
Keywords: cocurricular involvement, international students, South

Africa, student engagement
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Over 4 million international students enroll each year in colleges and

universities across the world, which represents a 100% increase since 2000
(World Education Services, 2014). Akin to other systems of higher
education, South Africa continues to experience an increase of international
students enrolling in its colleges and universities. The Council of Higher
Education (CHE, 2016) in South Africa noted the number of its international
undergraduate students increased from 50,000 to 70,000 over a decade
starting in 2003, as did the percent of postgraduate international students,
which increased from 10% in 2002 to 14% in 2012. Most international
students in South Africa come from sub-Saharan Africa (UNESCO Institute
for Statistics [UIS], 2016), making South Africa an important regional hub
(Lee & Sehoole, 2015). Yet, despite the increased enrollment of
international students worldwide, most of the research on international
students is on those studying in the U.S., Australia, and U.K. Simply put,
very little is known about international student experiences in their host
countries and specifically for our study, South Africa. When researchers
have studied experiences of international students in South African
universities, it is often within curricular settings, such as of Chinese
international students as English language learners (Ayliff & Wang, 2006),
or theoretically exploring challenges international students face
(Dominguez-Whitehead & Sing, 2015).
Moreover, recent events in South Africa including xenophobic
attacks based on the belief that international students are taking admission
slots from Black South Africans (Sehoole, 2015) and recent #FeesMustFall
student protests (Da Silva, 2016) may create an unwelcoming environment
for international students in South Africa. Given the importance of
international students to South African universities diversity and finances,
ensuring positive learning outcomes is critical. One mechanism for
promoting these outcomes is through student engagement (Strydom, Kuh, &
Mentz, 2010), which includes a variety of cocurricular activities often
supported by student affairs and services. Indeed, Schreiber (2014) argues in
addition to a student engagement role, student affairs has a role in equalizing
participation for all students. Furthermore, international students are an
important component of the student body who must be given equal
opportunities to participate in higher education.
Existing research, however, has failed to examine the cocurricular
experiences of international students in many contexts, and specifically in
our study, South Africa. Therefore, the findings from our study address at
991
least three gaps in the extant international student literature. First, we seek to
begin to fill the gap in the literature on international students cocurricular
experiences in South Africa. Second, we advance a more culturally relevant
framework beyond those based on Western students and contexts. Third, we
provide implications for student affairs practice and various functional areas
focused on inclusive practices for international students and their successful
transition into the university.
Thus, we aim to answer the following research questions: (1) What
are the characteristics (country of origin, sex, living status, academic
discipline and level, finance) and patterns of cocurricular involvement of
international students at South African University (SAU) (a pseudonym)?
(2) What learning outcomes do international students derive from their
involvement in cocurricular experiences? (3) What are the differences
between involved and non-involved international students and among
involved international students in characteristics, learning outcomes, and
sense of belonging?
LITERATURE REVIEW
While there is little literature on international students involved in

cocurricular experiences globally, there is an even greater dearth of
literature on these students within South African universities. A majority of
literature on international students is based on international enrollments in
U.K., Australian, and U.S. contexts showcasing students from all over the
world who matriculate to institutions in these countries. This literature often
focuses on the culture shock that international students experience as they
are coming from vastly different cultural environments (e.g., Newsome &
Cooper, 2016). In contrast, international students in South Africa largely
come from Southern African Development Countries (SADC) (Lee &
Sehoole, 2015; UIS, 2016) making them a unique population who are most
likely non-existent in other studies on international students. Although there
are studies which broadly focus on cocurricular involvement within the
South African context, they do not necessarily focus solely on international
student populations (e.g., studies often compare international students to
domestic students). For example, Wawrzynski, Heck, and Remley (2012)
found several student outcomes such as leadership experience, career
decision-making, and stress relief as a result of cocurricular involvement at
a South African university. Both domestic and international students who
were involved in cocurricular activities reported statistically significant
992
greater student outcomes than students who were not involved (Wawrzynski
et al., 2012). Furthermore, almost 80% of international students reported
cocurricular involvement, which was higher than any domestic group
(Wawrzynski et al., 2012), giving reason to study outcomes specifically for
international students. Despite the uniqueness of the South African
international student population, we draw upon existing studies on
international students globally to provide a context for the types of learning
outcomes that may be realized as a result of participation in cocurricular
involvement.
In the U.S. context, leadership programs and community service
activities are the most common forms of cocurricular involvement for
international students, which students reported connected them to diverse
sets of friends and helped them learn how to work together with others
despite differences (Glass, Wongtrirat, & Buus, 2015). Within the
Australian context, one study found of the 50% of international students
who were involved in organized campus activities, most were engaged in
religious organizations (Rosenthal, Russell, & Thomson, 2008). Across both
the U.S. and Australian contexts, international students who participated in
cocurricular activities were more likely to report engaging in the classroom
more fully and feeling a strong sense of connection to their campus
community (Glass, Buus, & Braskamp, 2013; Rosenthal et al., 2008).
Since cocurricular activities influence student outcomes, student
affairs practitioners who oversee these activities clearly can play a role in
improving international student engagement. As a result of international
student enrollment growth in post-apartheid South Africa, Rouhani (2007)
examined internationalization of higher education. From this examination,
Rouhani (2007) developed a six-phase model of internationalization, which
involves institutions being proactive in the development of curriculum and
student experience. One way student affairs professionals can operationalize
this move toward proactivity is by creating an environment to foster
international student involvement and success. One such proactive measure
aligns with Schreibers (2014) call for the role of student affairs in
equalizing the opportunity for students from differing backgrounds to
participate fully in educational experiences. In our study, we extend the
existing literature by studying international student engagement through
cocurricular activities specifically in the South African context to better
understand how student affairs can improve participation with context-
specific data.
993
Since much of student affairs literature in South Africa uses U.S.-based

conceptual frameworks and models (e.g., Tintos [1993] theory of student
departure and Astins [1985; 1993, 2002] I-E-O model), we sought to
expand the use of other models and frameworks, which account for
Afrocentric perspectives and contexts. Since almost all of the international
students in our study came from the SADC, we argue Jama, Mapesela, and
Beylefelds (2008) circles of progression theory on student retention (see
Figure 1) best frames the current study because it is more culturally relevant,
and students coming from the SADC region are more similar to students in
South Africa than those in Western countries. Also, the model was
developed for non-traditional students, which Jama et al. (2008) define as
mostly Black students from disadvantaged family and school backgrounds
(p. 998), identifying financial constraints and language as frequent barriers
to participation for these students.
Figure 1. Adapted Circles of Progression Model of Student Retention (Jama, Mapesela &
Beylefeld, 2008, p. 999).
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Jama et al.s (2008) circles of progression model consists of four

circles describing students progression through higher education
institutions. The first of four circles in the theory identifies pre-entry
characteristics and includes family background, language, and finance. The
second circle, initial entry, includes activities that orient the student to the
university. The third circle focuses on teaching and learning, and the fourth
on ongoing social and academic integration. Jama et al.s theory is suited to
understand how cocurricular activities that integrate international students to
the university interact with their background characteristics. As Jama et al.
explain, their theory provides a holistic understanding of the realities and
challenges (p. 1002) of students in the South African context. For the
current study, we pay particular attention to various aspects of each of the
four circles, namely family background, finance, university environment,
academic environment, accommodation, and specialization. As the data
were collected from a cross sample of students at the end of the academic
year, the results are more likely to capture all of the stages of the model.
METHOD
Approximately 1500 international students at a large, comprehensive

university (SAU) in South Africas Eastern Cape were eligible to participate
in a broader study, approved by authors and host institution ethics research
boards, to explore student cocurricular involvement, learning outcomes, and
student characteristics. The data were collected using a two-pronged
approach in November and December 2016 using the online Student
Experiences Survey (SES) administered at SAU. The first prong included
using a census approach where all eligible students were sent an email
message via the university portal through which students access their email.
The second approach consisted of having five students canvasing various
on-campus (e.g., dining facilities, library, residence halls) and off-campus
accredited accommodation locations with tablet computers because student
access to computers is often limited, as many students do not own or have a
regular access to computers.
The SES is a 60-item survey with five sections (i.e., sense of
belonging, activity participation, outcomes, barriers, and demographics and
characteristics). We established content validity after a review of the
literature and through a collaborative process with members of the
Cocurricular Forum and other campus stakeholders who served as South
Africa content experts. In addition to several demographic questions we
995
used the sentence stem (e.g., As a result of my participation in cocurricular

activities or experiences, I am able to) and the same response scale
(1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) to answer 24 Likert-type
questions (e.g., seek involvement with people different than me and/or with
different points of view, develop mutually beneficial relationships with
others, or identify personal strengths and growth areas), which also
aligned with institutionally identified outcomes for cocurricular
involvement.
A majority of the international students were undergraduate students
(82%) and slightly more students were in their first year (33%), 28% were in
their second year, 23% were in their third year, and 17% were in their fourth
year; 94% were degree-seeking students, and 6% were exchange students;
57% identified as female; and three-fourths of students were 18 to 24 years
old. Almost one-third were in the business and economics faculty, 28% were
in health sciences or sciences, 17% were in engineering, 15% were in law,
8% were in arts, and 3% were in education. Almost two-thirds of the
international students participated in cocurricular experiences and an equal
number of students lived off campus with an average commute to campus
being 24 minutes (SD=13.3 minutes). Students came from 19 countries, but
the countries where the greatest number of international students came from
were Zimbabwe (41%), Malawi (9%), Zambia (8%), Botswana (7%), and
Nigeria (6%), consistent with origins of students across South Africa (UIS,
2016). Less than 1% of participants did not come from the African
continent. Not surprising, as international students were not eligible for
Ministry of Education bursary funding, most reported they relied on
personal or family savings (73%) as a main source of financing their
education, 14% indicated sponsorship or scholarship, and only 7% indicated
personal employment.
Since involvement in cocurricular experiences may lead to greater
sense of belonging, we created a sense of belonging composite variable
(Cronbach alpha =.82) consistent with other research using three survey
questions: I feel a sense of connection with SAU, I am proud to be
attending SAU, and I feel like SAU is a community.
Although the current study advanced literature on international
student cocurricular involvement, there are several notable limitations. First,
most of the international students who participated in the study came from
the SADC region, making the study limited in its generalizability to other
international contexts. Second, although we intentionally increased our
efforts to recruit a sample representative of international students at SAU,
996
our sample was not random as we used a census approach. We had a slightly
greater proportion of on-campus international students complete the survey.
Third, a period of data collection took place when the campus was shut
down over Fees Must Fall protests, which may have limited participation by
more international students.
RESULTS
In addition to international students demographics, we explored their

patterns of involvement to answer the first research question using
descriptive statistics and frequencies. We found the most common type of
involvement were in academic societies, with 50% of international students
being involved, and religious societies, with over 40% of international
students being involved. Among academic societies, students were most
involved in Law Society, Golden Key International Honour Society, and the
Industrial and Organizational Psychology Society. Over 20% were involved
in sports, with soccer and swimming being most popular. Not surprisingly,
many of the international students were involved in international student
related organizations, including the International Student Society,
Zimbabwe Society, and Botswana Society. Politically, students indicated
involvement in the Democratic Alliance Student Organisation (DASO),
consistent with international students becoming involved with political
activism in South Africa (Habib, 2017). One third of those involved
participated in residence events. Finally, a third of involved students held
leadership roles in their organizations.
To answer the second research question on learning outcomes
derived from participation, we again used descriptive statistics and
frequencies and found involved international students agreed to strongly
agreed with developing skills for all of the learning outcomes as a result of
participating in cocurricular activities (average range of 3.94 to 4.30).
Among the most agreed upon outcomes were listen attentively to others,
take responsibility for my actions, and understand personal strengths and
growth areas. Among the least developed learning outcomes were those
aligned with career development, managing time effectively, and stress
management.
The third research question used a number of statistical tests
consistent with whether the independent and dependent variables were
categorical or continuous data, after assessing if any assumptions would be
violated during these analyses. We explored the differences between
997
involved and non-involved international students and among involved

international students in their characteristics, learning outcomes, and sense
of belonging. Using Chi-square with our categorical data, we found a
statistically significant greater percentage of on-campus international
students, c2(1, n=198) = 7.07, p=.01, f=.20, were involved in cocurricular
experiences than were their off-campus peers, which is consistent with other
studies examining students on-campus and off-campus participation
(Wawrzynski et al., 2012). The overall effect on involvement was a medium
to small association with whether students lived on-campus or off-campus.
Interestingly, 8% of students who lived off-campus still participated in
residence events.
Table 1: Barriers to Cocurricular Involvement by Participation

Actual Involvement
% Yes % No c2(1) f
(n=125) (n=73)
% n % n
Barriers to Involvement
Day and times that the activity is held
Yes 74 9 26 3 16.75* .30
4 3
Lack of knowledge of activities
Yes 47.8 2 52.2 2 5.20* -.18
2 4
Time (involvement in other activities)
Yes 70.9 7 29.1 3 4.86* .17
3 0
Note. (1) p<.05
When we explored the categorical potential barriers to involvement

variables, using Chi-square, we found three of the barriers to be statistically
significant with medium to small associations. With one barrier, a greater
percentage of international students lack of involvement was due to not
knowing about the activities c2 (1, n=198) = 5.20, p=.02, f=-.18. We found,
however, international students who were involved were more likely to
report as barriers to their involvement the following: time and day activities
were held c2 (1, n=198) = 16.75, p=.00, f=.30 and involvement in other
activities, c2 (1, n=198) = 4.86, p=.02, f=.17. We only report statistically
significant results. See Table 1.
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When we explored the categorical variables barriers and sex using

Chi-square, we found a greater percentage of female than male students
reported their job interfered with their involvement levels c2 (1, n=198) =
6.32, p=.01, f=.20. Although we explored other analyses, we found no
statistically significant percentages for international students in various
faculties; however, we noted international students in arts, business and
economics, engineering, and sciences had lower participation in cocurricular
experiences than did international peers in other faculty (e.g., health
sciences and law).
When we explored differences between the categorical variables sex
and the continuous learning outcome variables for those involved using
independent samples t-tests, we found male (M=4.34, SD=.63) and female
(M=4.04, SD=.81) international students agreed to strongly agreed they
developed learning outcomes as a result of participation in cocurricular
activities and experiences. However, only ability to seek involvement with
people different than me and/or with different points of view was
statistically significant (t(120)= -2.287, p=.03, h2=.04) between males and
females with males being slightly more likely to strongly agree. Using
guidelines by Cohen (1988), there was a moderate to small effect with sex
explaining 4% of the variance between sex and the learning outcomes. In
other words, one's sex influenced the outcome seek involvement with
people different than me and/or with different points of view.
When we examined reported gains in participation by the
categorical academic class year variable using ANOVA, only the continuous
variable actively engage in my community to work for positive change
was statistically significant. This finding suggests third year international
students were more likely than first, second, or fourth year international
students to strongly agree with this outcome as a result of participation in
cocurricular activities. This finding resulted in 11% of the variance in
actively engage in my community to work for positive change due to class
year. The finding aligns with both the movement through the four stages of
Jama et al.s (2008) circles of progression model and the likely time to
degree completion for SAU students. Agreement with this outcome in the
fourth year might be lower because it may reflect students who are taking
longer to complete the degree. See Table 2 for complete results.

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Table 2: Actively Engage In My Community To Work For Positive

Change By Class Year

First Year Second Third Fourth Sig* h 2
(n=65) Year Year Year
(n=55) (n=45) (n=33)

M SD M SD M SD M SD
Actively engage 3.79 1.02 3.86 .81 4.55 .63 3.75 1.25 1v.3 .11
in my 2v.3
community to 4v.3
work for
positive change
Note. *p<.05; F(3, 118)=4.821, p=.003; 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly

agree
We ran a series of ANOVAs and explored the differences in the

continuous learning outcome variables for those international students who
were involved in cocurricular experiences to those who held leadership
positions within the curricular experiences. Again, while all involved
students agreed to strongly agreed with outcomes associated with their
involvement, those in leadership positions reported statistically significant
findings for four of our dependent variables. See Table 3 for complete
results.
In our final analyses we examined differences in international
student characteristics and sense of belonging using independent samples t-
tests or ANOVAs when appropriate. We did not find statistically significant
differences between involved and noninvolved students and among involved
international students. For example, no differences were found between
international students involved in cocurricular experiences and those in
leadership positions within the cocurricular experiences to sense of
belonging, perhaps because both groups generally reported relatively strong
measures in sense of belonging (i.e., involved M=11.46, SD=2.57; not
involved M=11.21, SD=3.01).
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Table 3: Involved in Cocurricular Experience and Leadership Role by Learning

Outcomes for Involvement

Leadership Leadership h2
yes no
(n=37) (n=86)
M SD M SD
respond to challenges, transitions, 4.24 .68 3.94 .71 .04
and new situations more openly*a
seek to negotiate and balance diverse 4.27 .73 3.97 .74 .04
views to reach a workable solution*b
think creatively to generate new 4.24 .76 3.97 .71 .03
ideas and innovations*c
effectively facilitate group 4.24 .76 3.92 .76 .04
discussions*d
Note: *p<.05; a= F(1, 121)=4.763, p=.03; b= F(1,120)=4.784, p=.03; c=
F(1,121)=3.801, p=.05; d= F(1,120)=4.737, p=.03;1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly
agree
DISCUSSION
South Africa is an important regional hub, meaning most international

students come from Southern African countries, and more specifically the
SADC region, which is consistent with the sample of international students
at SAU in our study. This finding adds to a growing body of literature on
international students, which is often dominated by studies on international
students who come from China and India and enroll in U.S., U.K., and
Australian colleges and universities. Our results offer support for the use of
more culturally relevant frameworks such as Jama et al.'s (2008) circles of
progression model to examine international students cocurricular
involvement, but the framework could expand its definitions and terms to
better capture the realities of international students in South Africa. We also
found most international students at SAU were degree-seeking and financed
their education through personal and family savings.
In terms of international student involvement, we did find some
consistencies with previous studies. Another study in the South African
context found high involvement among international students (Wawrzynski
et al., 2012). High involvement in religious societies was found in the
Australian context (Rosenthal et al., 2008), and international students were
often involved in leadership as in the U.S. context (Glass et al., 2013).
Another finding that adds to the growing body of international student
1001
literature is our finding on high levels of involvement in internationally-

oriented organizations by international students in our study.
Our second research question revealed international students did
report gains in learning outcomes as a result of their participation in
cocurricular activities. Such a finding adds to the literature about
international students and their cocurricular involvement, indicating learning
is taking place from these experiences. This finding confirms students
progression from one stage to the next in Jama et al.s (2008) circles of
progression model. As Jama et al. explain, what students learn in one stage
must be applied and supports learning in the next stage.
The third research question explored differences between involved
and non-involved international students at SAU. First, we found on-campus
students were more likely to be involved, which is consistent with
Wawrzynski et al. (2012) who found on-campus domestic students in South
Africa were more likely to be involved in cocurricular activities. We found
non-involved students were more likely to report lack of knowledge of
activities as a barrier to their involvement, whereas involved international
students were more likely to report day and time of activities and
involvement to other activities as barriers to their involvement. This finding
suggests although international students identified these two barriers to
involvement they were still involved, which suggests greater involvement
could be realized if the barriers were eliminated. Although Jama et al.
(2008) focused on barriers of finance and language as inhibiting students
progression in their model, we found additional barriers that influence
participation of international students. Jama et al.s framework could
incorporate these additional barriers to more comprehensively show the
realities of higher education experiences for international students in the
South African context.
In terms of learning outcomes, we found few statistically significant
differences, specifically between males and females on ability to seek
involvement with people different than me or with different points of view,
and third year students reporting most likely to strongly agree with actively
engage in my community to work for positive change. We also found
students in leadership positions reported higher outcomes on four learning
outcomes. When comparing to Western literature on international students,
however, we consider there may be differing definitions of leadership. In the
South African context, leadership is based in Ubuntu, the concept of I am
because we are, which emphasizes connection to the community (Msila,
2008).
1002
In contrast with the sense of belonging literature in the U.S. (e.g.,

Glass et al., 2013), we found there were no statistically significant
differences between students involved and not involved in terms of their
sense of belonging with the university. All international students reported a
relatively high sense of belonging with SAU. Perhaps because of their
significant investment in their higher education in South Africa,
international students feel a strong sense of belonging with the institution.
Another reason for this finding may be due to their reporting high levels of
sense of belonging in an effort to feel more connected to the university. For
example, Soudien (2008) explains in the post-apartheid South African
context, the desire to fit in for previously marginalized students can result in
more positive reporting on sense of belonging on institutional surveys.
Our findings also extend existing understandings of international
students in the literature. Such findings advance the need for culturally
relevant frameworks, such as Jama et al. (2008) to explain students
progression from initial entry through integration in a university in South
Africa. Results also affirm the need to further understand international
students cocurricular experiences and outcomes. In addition to adding to
the literature on international students, we offer implications for practice and
future research.
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
The purpose of our study was to add to an understanding of the experiences

of international students in the context of South African higher education.
To align with Strydom and Mentzs (2013) call for empirical research to
shape practices, results from this study can influence practices to better
recruit and retain international students at SAU and other South African
universities. The aim to improve student affairs practices for international
students is of particular importance given the current political climate may
shape the experiences of international students. Although international
student enrollment continues to rise across the globe (de Wit, 2017), anti-
immigrant sentiments could influence the quality of international students
experiences, in the South African and other contexts. Our findings do not
appear to show an effect of the current political climate upon the
experiences of international students at SAU as international students
reported high agreement with statements on their sense of belonging.
However, consistent with Rouhanis (2007) call to be proactive and
Schreibers (2014) call for the equalizing role of student affairs, we argue
1003
student affairs and engagement could alleviate potential influences of anti-

immigrant sentiments in South Africa.
Our results show although international students are involved in
cocurricular activities, mere involvement is not enough to ensure positive
learning outcomes. Higher education institutions thus can take action to
guide learning in cocurricular activities. We offer several recommendations
for practice based on our results.
First, advertising of cocurricular activities and their benefits must
begin at orientation and continue throughout students college experience.
As Jama et al. (2008) explain, initial entry is an important phase of
socialization for students in the South African context. International students
who are involved all reported important gains in learning outcomes;
therefore student affairs practitioners can encourage involvement early when
they first get to campus, consistent with Jama et al.s second phase of
progression. If students receive multiple messages about the benefits of
cocurricular activities from the time they arrive on campus, it will help them
to move through the model, to potentially align with components of the
circles of progression model. In addition, as non-involved students were
most likely to indicate a lack of knowledge of activities was a barrier to their
involvement, student affairs officers have an opportunity to advertise the
existence of activities as well as the benefits, through multiple means of
communication (e.g., SMS, email, social media).
Second, student affairs officers can encourage academic advisors
and faculty members to take a greater role in informing their students of the
existence and benefits of cocurricular involvement in supplementing their
studies. Faculty can integrate the experiences into the classroom, so students
see a more seamless college environment, which has the potential to lead to
greater gains in student development and learning. Furthermore, student
affairs can partner with faculty to integrate cocurricular engagement into
academics making activities part of the learning experience rather than in
addition to, alleviating issues of time, which students in our study reported
as barriers to involvement. Evening activities may be inaccessible to many
students who have long commute times and during which transportation
options are limited. Some institutions, like SAU, have designated lunch
periods, so faculty could utilize this common lunch hour as a time for
cocurricular activities to take place allowing activities to be integrated into
times students are already on campus. Such faculty partnership with student
affairs solves two issues our study found. First, faculty are encouraging
participation and encouraging students to become aware of activities, and
1004
second, it alleviates some of the barriers to involvement by making

cocurricular involvement more accessible.
Third, as a third of international students live on-campus, and even
some off-campus residents participate in residence events, housing staff
have opportunities to involve students and integrate learning outcomes into
residence hall activities. In addition, off-campus accredited housing, which
function in a similar manner to on-campus housing, can further encourage
students to become involved. On-campus activities in residence halls also
minimize time and transportation as potential barriers to participation.
Rethinking the time and locations events are offered can make them more
accessible for students. Housing staff can utilize designated lunch hours and
other times students are on campus to allow students to participate in
cocurricular activities.
Fourth, student affairs professionals can work to align desired
learning outcomes with activities within cocurricular experiences. For
instance, if career development is a desired goal, then cocurricular
experiences should be intentionally designed to include career development.
At SAU, officials have made a concerted effort to use cocurricular activities
as a means to develop skills that employers identify for students as
necessary for employment upon degree completion. Skill development
through cocurricular activities is particularly important for international
students who are likely to have restrictions on working while earning their
degree.
Fifth, as we found those international students involved in
leadership roles reported greater gains in learning outcomes, student affairs
staff should seek opportunities to integrate leadership development activities
into the larger goals of student organizations. For even greater gains among
student leaders, for example, student affairs staff should create training
experiences for student leaders to help student leaders reach desired learning
outcomes and skill development. Developing skills and learning through
leadership training can help support SAUs effort to give students
opportunities to build desirable skills for employers to take the place of
hard-to-reach employment opportunities.
IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Several questions are left to be explored to better understand international

students cocurricular experiences in the South African context as well as
globally. First, an interesting finding is international students who are not
1005
involved perceive benefits to involvement and are likely to lack knowledge

about the activities. Our data do not reveal why some international students
who perceive there would be benefits to involvement might still remain
uninvolved once they learn about the activities; therefore, future research
should explore the reasons international students may remain uninvolved in
cocurricular activities. Second, future research could explore the differences
between involvement and learning among international students and
domestic students in the South African context. Third, from a student affairs
research standpoint, researchers could explore the mechanisms by which
students can learn about the existence and benefits of cocurricular
involvement, including the culturally relevant mediums that students use to
communicate and learn about information. In the South African context, for
example, students often use SMS as a means to communicate. Therefore,
student affairs could explore how best to communicate with students using
technology often used and preferred by students. Fourth, future research
could work specifically from Jama et al.s (2008) model to better understand
how students progress from one circle of the model to the next. Such an
understanding would better enable student affairs to focus their efforts to
making sure students progress through the circles representing entry to
academic and social integration. Finally, the data collection took place when
SAU was temporarily shut down due to student protests over Fees Must
Fall. We are unsure about the implications the protests had or will continue
to have on the sense of belonging, participation, and quality of experiences
of international students. Future iterations of the survey as well as additional
research can explore the implications of environmental factors, which may
affect student learning (e.g., student protests, rising fees), upon international
student experiences in South Africa.
CONCLUSION
The current study adds to the growing body of literature on international

students in higher education institutions across the world, and specifically,
in South Africa. We aimed to better understand an understudied aspect of
international students in South Africa, namely, their cocurricular
involvement, using a culturally relevant theory, Jama et al.s (2008) circles
of progression model of student retention. More specifically, we examined
international students characteristics and patterns of cocurricular
involvement, learning outcomes as a result of their participation, and
differences among international students in their involvement. We found, in
1006
our study, international students are highly involved in cocurricular

experiences, agree that they learn from those experiences, and report high
levels of sense of belonging. Differences were found among male and
female international students, students in the third year of study, and among
those who held leadership roles. We also found students reported barriers of
day and time, involvement in other activities, and lack of knowledge of
activities. The findings add to Jama et al.s inclusion of finance and
language as barriers. Many practical implications for student affairs and
functional areas emerge from the results. Specifically, orientation, faculty,
and residence life can all learn from the findings to educate students about
cocurricular activities and minimize barriers to their participation.
Furthermore, student affairs should be intentional about the desired
outcomes and tailor activities accordingly for student leaders and all
involved students. Future research can further explore mechanisms that
allow students to progress in Jama et al.s model from one stage to the next
as well as ways that student affairs can communicate to students the
existence and benefits of cocurricular involvement to international students.
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jobrow@iu.edu

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Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1010-1029
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035955
Exploring the Influence of Student Affairs on

Adjustment and Adaptation for Indonesian
Graduate Students
David J. Nguyen
Ohio University, USA
Jay B. Larson
ABSTRACT
This qualitative study explored the influence of student affairs on academic

adjustment and adaptation for 10 Indonesian graduate students at a single
campus. Semi-structured interviews explored student affairs role in
adaptation and transition to collegiate life in the United States. Analyses
illuminated ways in which participants experienced disequilibrium attending
U.S. institutions arising from pre-arrival constructed images of college life
in the United States. Student affairs functional areas disrupted these
stereotypes for students and devised strategies for Indonesian students to
feel more welcomed and included. Study participants described the
importance of culturally-relevant student organizations, inclusive
environments, and religiously affiliated centers in their adjustment. The
article concludes with practical implications for student affairs
professionals and higher education institutions.
Keywords: adaptation, adjustment, graduate education, graduate student

affairs, Indonesian students, international education, student affairs
1010
More than 1 million international students enrolled in a U.S. institution

during academic year 2015-16 (Institute of International Education, 2016).
Of these 1 million students, approximately 36.7% are pursuing graduate
degrees. Students coming to the United States for graduate education need
to adjust not only to the academic rigor expected, but also adapt to U.S.
culture. Much of the research on international students has occurred on
international undergraduate students (Lee, 2010; Lee & Rice, 2007; Sherry,
Thomas, & Chui, 2010; Su & Harrison, 2016). Few studies have considered
these same challenges for international graduate students (Curtin, Stewart &
Ostrove, 2013). When international graduate students arrive on campus,
they are often pushed towards assimilation of the host countrys culture
(Curtin et al., 2013; Pan & Wong, 2011; Sherry et al., 2010). While a
substantial body of research documents experiences of international students
attending U.S. institutions (Mamiseishvili, 2011; Renn, Brazelton &
Holmes, 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2010; Yao, 2014), many studies discuss
international students as a homogenous classification regardless of diverse
national origins (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007). However, country of origin
likely plays a key role in how international students acculturate or
experience connection to higher education institutions in the United States.
Therefore, studies with international students need to be disaggregated by
nationality (Hanassab & Tidwell, 2002). To study Indonesian students as
one nationality among many grouped under the terms Asian or South
Asian seemingly ignores the life experiences, needs, and academic and
social values that render Indonesian students distinct from other Asian
international student populations. This study contributes to the extant
literature through studying how student affairs professionals and programs
foster adjustment and adaptation for Indonesian graduate students.
While many studies have illuminated negative experiences of
undergraduate students, less is known about graduate students, particularly
how Indonesian graduate students adjust and adapt to life in the United
States (Bista, 2015; Erkan & Walker, 2016; Hanassab & Tidwell, 2002).
The number of Indonesian students attending U.S. higher education
institutions has continued to increase over the last six years; and the overall
number of Indonesian students is almost one-half the total students attending
U.S. institutions 20 years ago (Institute of International Education, 2016).
According to the 2016 Open Doors report, 8,727 Indonesian students
studied in the United States during the 2015/2016 academic year, an
increase of 6.6% from the previous year, with 18.6% identified as post-
1011
baccalaureate degree seekers. Indonesian graduate students, like all graduate

students, contribute to the financial and intellectual vitality of U.S.
institutions (Andrade, 2008). To this end, Indonesian graduate students, like
all students, should be supported both academically and socially.
International students face unique challenges, such as language
barriers, different academic expectations, and a new place. Previous studies
have documented how higher education institutions have created student-
serving resources (e.g., international student centers, specific academic
advisors, living learning communities) supporting the academic and social
integration of undergraduate students, yet little is known about how student
support functions foster connection for international graduate students.
Furthermore, as institutions increase international student enrollments it is
important to consider how Indonesian students adjust and adapt to life in the
United States. Previous studies have demonstrated student affairs officials
can play significant roles in international students persistence and
adjustment to educational pursuits in the United States (Mamiseishvili,
2011; Renn et al., 2014; Yan & Berliner, 2010; Yao, 2014). This article
explores how Indonesian graduate students utilize student affairs as a tool
for adapting and adjusting to campus life.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the last decade, Indonesian students presence has grown in literature.

However, authors often situate them within broad populations based on
region (e.g., Arambewela, & Hall, 2009; Bista, 2015; Collins, Sidhu, Lewis
& Yeoh, 2014; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007) or religion (e.g., Erkan &
Walker, 2016). Recent research has critiqued generalized perspectives
(Mukminin & McMahon, 2013; Yu & Wright, 2016). For example,
Mukminin, Yanto, and Yanto (2013) argued that embedding Indonesian
student experiences within data on other Asian students obscures specific
acculturation experiences of Indonesian students. Despite criticism, regional
sampling continues, as in Bistas 2015 survey of Asian international
students at 57 U.S. institutions, where the author used regional units of
analysis without theoretical or analytical rationale.
Despite generalizations, Bistas (2015) work offers valuable
analysis. The author made a definitive statement on student services rare in
international student literature, asserting, offices of international programs,
resident life, student organizations, college departments, career centers, and
student health centers are important (p. 52) for international students.
1012
Ironically, in an earlier article, Bista and Foster (2011) argued, Campus life
issues such as athletics, activities, organizations, are not highly valued by
international students (p. 3) in comparison with academic and legal issues.
Such dichotomy within the work of one author highlights the ambiguously
defined role of student affairs in adjustment literature.
Other studies have embedded Indonesian students within
multinational samples of Muslim students. For instance, in Erkan and
Walkers 2016 study of Muslim students in Canada, the authors categorized
international students as simply non-Canadian (p. 77). Despite limitations,
such research could inform work on the Indonesian Muslim experience
among international students. The most common themes in these studies
were confronting attitudes towards Islam (Erkan & Walker, 2016), daily
prayer (Chen, Liu, Tsai & Chen, 2015; Mukminin et al., 2013), access to
Halal food (Chen et al., 2015; Mukminin et al., 2013), and comparatively
liberal attitudes of domestic students (Chen et al., 2015). Chen and
colleagues 2015 study of Muslim Indonesian students in Taiwan presented
a more focused perspective. For example, subjects found Taiwanese hosts
more accommodating than those described in studies in Canada and the
United States, with locals helping to arrange prayer spaces and locate Halal
food.
Mukminin et al. (2013) also exclusively studied Indonesian students
in research on religious adjustment at a U.S. institution. Unmentioned in
much literature is the personal guilt, or feeling bad and sinful (Mukminin
et al., 2013, p. 38), subjects reported when circumstances impeded religious
practices. However, learners also avowed decreasing religious stress as they
more capably navigated their new environments, and became more flexible
in religious observance. Mukminin and McMahon (2013) turned to
academic adjustment in an examination of 12 Indonesian doctoral students,
reporting many issues found across international student adjustment
literature. Among these were linguistic problems (Mukminin, 2012; Son &
Park, 2014; Yu & Wright, 2016), relationships with faculty (Arambewela &
Hall, 2009; Yu & Wright, 2016), and navigating discussion-based classes
(Bista, 2015; Young & Schartner, 2014). Mukminin et al. (2013) also found
students academically unprepared by pre-departure experiences in
Indonesia, particularly regarding demanding workloads of combined
coursework and assistantships. Despite the authors undeniable
contributions, like many similar studies, their work fails to follow through
with holistic syntheses of the Indonesian students experiences, or
description of specific processes in their adjustment.
1013
We situate our study within intersections and gaps among diverse

theoretical, national, and cultural contexts. Current research provides a
foundation of adjustment issues Indonesian students encounter when broad,
and theoretical perspectives for framing their experiences are used. The need
for this current study arises within the ill-defined areas of this literature.
Demographically generalized samples of international students often lead to
equally generalized findings obscuring experiences described in the
following pages. Moreover, student services, particularly student affairs, are
currently given cursory consideration at best. By addressing these areas, we
can more completely understand adjustment experiences of Indonesian
students at U.S. institutions.
We frame our analysis within Schartner and Youngs (2016) Model of

International Student Adjustment and Adaptation (Figure 1), which offers
analytical elements supporting our focus on academic adjustment. As one of
the few models developed explicitly for examining international student
experiences, Schartner and Youngs work facilitates methods and analysis
integrating pre-arrival factors, distinctions between processes and outcomes,
and the interplay of sociocultural, psychological, and academic adjustment.
In the model, adjustment processes begin with pre-arrival factors in
students home nations, allowing researchers to include analysis of
motivations for studying abroad, and preconceptions regarding U.S. culture
and academic life. Such factors present international students as complete
individuals bringing an array of experiences to the home nation, rather than
depict them as nationally or culturally homogenous archetypes.
Theoretical perspectives expressed in the model also render
distinctions between adjustment as a set of processes, and adaptation as the
behavioral outcomes of those processes (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2013;
Schartner & Young, 2016; Young & Schartner, 2014). This distinction is
particularly valuable in highlighting complexities of adjustment processes,
which can manifest in self-esteem, self-awareness, physical health, self-
confidence, stressdysfunctional communication, culture shock,
depression, anxiety, diminished school and work performance, and
difficulties in interpersonal relationships (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2013, p.
850).
Finally, interaction of psychological, sociocultural, and academic
factors represented in the models central Venn diagram, facilitates analysis
1014
of a holistic, integrated international student experience. Together, the

elements discussed in this section comprise a theoretical framework that
recognizes Indonesian students in our current study as individuals with rich
personal histories and agency undertaking complex processes of adjustment
in a U.S. institutional environment.
Figure 1. Schartner and Youngs (2016) Model of International Student Adjustment

and Adaptation. Reprinted with permission.
RESEARCH METHOD
This qualitative study explored the adjustment and adaptive experiences of

Indonesian graduate students attending a large, public institution. More
specifically, we employed narrative inquiry to create a space where the
researcher can examine issues at both the local and specific level to reflect
an individuals perspective on making sense of experience (Clandinin &
Connelly, 2000). Connelly and Clandinin (1990) cast narrative inquiry as
both phenomenon and method, a combination deemed particularly useful in
providing a venue for the voices of silenced and marginalized groups.
Connelly and Clandinin (1990) positioned narrative inquiry as a
methodology well suited for education by establishing its epistemological
and ontological appropriateness for exploring lived educational experiences
of students and teachers. Epistemologically, narrative inquiry holds the
1015
perspective that knowledge is constructed as individuals interact with each

other, society, and their environments.
Research Site
The institution in this study holds a Carnegie classification as a
doctoral research university with the highest research activity. This
Midwestern U.S. institution enrolls over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate
students from more than 130 countries. The institution defines international
students as students lacking U.S. citizenship/permanent residency status or
those requiring a visa to study in the United States. Fifteen percent of the
institutional demography is classified as international students, constituting
one of the largest international student populations in the United States. To
support this burgeoning student population, the institution offers more than
20 internationally-focused offices and centers.
Data Collection
Before beginning the study, we received institutional review board
approval. Participants were recruited using two methods to yield a
purposeful sample (Patton, 2002). First, the researchers met with leaders
from the institution's Indonesian student association. After meeting, the
organizations president distributed a recruitment email and encouraged
anyone interested to contact us directly. This recruitment effort yielded four
participants. Second, at the conclusion of each interview, we asked
participants to recommend other Indonesian graduate students who they
thought might be interested. We received eight names, leading to interviews
with six additional people.
Ten Indonesian graduate students participated in our study. At the
time of the study, participant demographics included six men and four
women; six doctoral and four masters students, who were enrolled in
education (5), science (3), technology (1), and public policy (1). All
participant names have been replaced with pseudonyms. The researchers
conducted an in-depth, semi-structured interview with each participant.
Semi-structured interviews provide researchers with an interview guide
composed of questions or areas for exploration, but also with the flexibility
to follow up with participants to gain clarity and enhance understanding
(Merriam, 2009). The interview protocol asked participants to share stories
about their experiences of fostered or hindered adjustment and adaptation. In
particular, we sought to understand how student affairs professionals and
programs facilitated the transition period. Interviews ranged in time from 50
1016
to 98 minutes, with the average around 63 minutes. Each interview was

audio recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Data Analysis
We analyzed data using Merriams (2009) steps for data analysis.
The authors read line-by-line through two transcripts independently and
made notes about emerging patterns within the data (Merriam, 2009). After
open coding, the researchers met to discuss emerging findings until no
additional codes surfaced within the data, and then grouped codes into more
specific and analytical categories (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Miles and
Huberman (1994) referred to the limit of exhaustive coding as saturation.
Analytical coding requires researchers to go beyond description, to also
interpret and reflect on the meaning of the code. At this point, all interview
transcripts were uploaded into Dedoose web-based qualitative software, and
the analytical codes were applied to all transcripts. The emergent findings
follow in a subsequent section.
We employed five steps to evaluate validity and reliability of
processes yielding the conclusions in the next section. First, we triangulated
results through multiple investigators being involved in the data analysis
process (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). Second, we used interrater
reliability, as each researcher analyzed the data separately before meeting to
peer debrief on emerging codes (Krippendorff, 2004). Also, the first author
reviewed the second authors coding and vice versa to ensure consistent
application of the coding scheme. Third, we employed member checks with
key study participants to safeguard the interpretation of the quotes
(Merriam, 2009). Fourth, we continued data collection until saturation
occurred (Miles & Huberman, 1994), as numerous participants shared
similar stories of adaptation and adjustment. Finally, we kept an audit trail
of key decisions made throughout the research process (Lincoln & Guba,
1985).
Limitations of Study Findings

As is the case with all research studies, several limitations must be
considered when interpreting findings. First, all participants had received
some form of financial remuneration from a governmental or international
funding agency. These students may differ from students funding their own
education in the United States. Second, this study utilized cross-sectional
data. Future research should consider a longitudinal design to capture more
recent interactions with student affairs professionals. Third, all students
1017
were involved in some way with the Indonesian student association, so their
experiences may not represent those of less involved students. Lastly, we
acknowledge our positionality as outsiders to this specific student
population, yet used key gatekeepers in introducing us to potential
participants.
RESULTS
Student affairs functions supported Indonesian graduate students as they

strove to adjust and adapt to demands of graduate education. Participant
narratives expressed the disequilibrium many experienced while attending
U.S. institutions. Before arriving in the United States, participants had
constructed particular images of college life in the United States. Student
affairs functional areas disrupted these stereotypes for students and devised
strategies for Indonesian students to feel more welcomed and included.
Study participants described the importance of culturally-relevant student
organizations, inclusive environments, and religiously affiliated centers in
their adjustment processes.
Constructed Images and Culture Shock: Countering Pre-Arrival

Understandings
All students had preconceived images of how graduate education

operated. Our participants discussed learning about college culture through
media representations and through their funding sponsors. For example,
Rafif (a pseudonym, as are all names used in this article) shared Ive kinda
known what college life is like because Ive been watching this movie called
Animal House about fraternities...I learned a lot from the movie and like a
bunch of other movies, like Old School and then National Lampoon. Like
Rafif, many participants believed that their education would be filled with
social activities depicted in such films in addition to academic
responsibilities.
Through student affairs functions on their campus, participants
engaged in social activities, if not of the Animal House variety. Daffa shared
that through the International Scholars office he took part in various
activities that actually enable you to know much more about American
culture, American family. He went on to describe how this led to other
activities. Something I really like that I never experienced before back in
Indonesia was doing a lot of different kinds of volunteerism, Daffa said,
1018
so a lot of volunteering activities on campus and also to the community.

Like Daffa, other participants noted how student affairs functions provided
them with welcomed social opportunities unlike those envisioned in their
pre-arrival conceptions. For others, like Irene, these were welcome
alternatives to the party-oriented activities that made her feel awkward.
Feeling more welcomed on-campus eased anxiety participants felt towards
their education and encouraged them to engage more deeply with other
students.
Seven students discussed participating in an international student
orientation program. These orientation programs were designed to introduce
students to the realities of U.S. graduate school and assist in lessening
psychological tension about life in the United States. Nadya discussed
learning about cultural nuances between Indonesia and the United States
during orientation. For example, she described orientation as aiming to,
prepare us for the culture shock, the weather and some like general
habit that peopledo and dontIf youre like have an
appointment, like if you are going to be late, then you have to
inform that person that you will be late because people here, theyre
very, very, they value time. Its like very, very high - different with
people in Indonesia. In Indonesiaif somebody invited you to go to
his party like 5:00, then you will go like 6:00 or 6:30
Nadyas reflections demonstrated how many pre-arrival assumptions are not
conscious preconceptions about the United States, but assumptions about the
universality of their home-culture experiences. By developing an orientation
to introduce new arrivals to the realities U.S. graduate life, their institution
helped participants like Daffa and Nadya to stem culture shock through
responsive, thoughtful programming and really begin to fit in on-campus
during graduate education.
Academics: Adjusting to Rigor and Adapting to Demands

The primary reason students chose to leave Indonesia was to pursue
a highly coveted credential from a U.S. institution. In making the
preparations to attend graduate school in the United States, Dinda placed a
significant emotional burden on herself. She shared,
It means a lot to me [to attend a U.S. graduate school] because, it
will be very important for my career, so hopefully when I go back to
Indonesiathe future will be right there for me. And also because
U.S, specially for IndonesiansIts the best education that you can
get nowadays here in the world.
1019
Participants largely agreed with Dindas views on the career-advancing

value in a degree from a U.S. institution. Accompanying academic pressure
figured prominently into participants adjustment stressors, as they
described frustrations with the nature of academic programs.
A common aspect for which study participants felt unprepared was the
change in how graduate academic programs utilized more discussion-based
methods than traditional lectures. This shift led many participants to
compare pedagogical practices in Indonesia and the United States. Indra
specifically raised classroom dynamics as a salient difference between the
two cultures:
[The classroom is] not going to be as stressful in Indonesia, and [in
the U.S.] you have to be activeIndonesians like to be passive in
class, and not becausetheyre not engaged or they dont know
whats going on, but mainly because theyre not confident because
were not used tosharing our opinions, because our education
system taught us to be more about just following instructions. You
ask questions that have clear answers, but you dont ask questions,
What if? But here, you do.
Like other participants, Daffa echoed Iwans observations that in Indonesia,
students contributions are not so encouraged in a sense of students
engagement in the process of teaching and learning. Daffa, however,
eagerly anticipated this difference before arriving,
I would say my expectation then was to be in a classroom where
everybody are so actively engaged in the conversation. And also
like the professor and they have a very welcoming, safe
environment for classroom discussion. Sowhen I came to the US,
I really hoped that I can experience that.
Participants also mentioned other academic adjustments, such as Dennys
lament of a primarily U.S. focus in class material and discussion. Several
participants also expressed shock at the workloads in their courses. As
Nadya described,
One thing that really shook me is like the reading. Were not get
used to like very, very much readingThere was a time when I
have to read like more than 250 pages just for a week and just for
one subject.
Some participants compartmentalized academic adjustments, rarely
perceiving them as student affairs issues, and preferring to rely on social
connections or advisors. As Rika explained,
1020
If its more of a class [issue], Id probably talk to like some of the

students that are taking a similar classor to my advisor. But yeah,
I think international programs is more like if you have visa issues
and stuff like that.
Although participants like Rika addressed adjustment by making selections
from a perceived range of services and opportunities, they also viewed them
as overlapping in their areas of support. In the following section, we
demonstrate how Indonesian students found support for a range of
adjustment issues among peers and organizations.
Peers and Student Organizations Facilitate Adjustment and Adaptation

Participants frequently described the importance of student
organizations in providing places and space to connect with campus life,
classes, and address specific international student issues. In particular,
student organizations provided a sense of the familiar, while alleviating the
homesickness experienced by many study participants. Nadya met peers
through a student organization, and she shared that these peers encouraged
her to,
try to experience as many things here as you can because if youre
trying to, like, hold onto what you have back home, all youre gonna
feel is homesick. And no matter how hard, how hard you try, this is
a different country with a different culture and a different
everything. You cannot recreate what you have in Indonesia here.
Or I guess [you]ll just have to adapt and keep an open mind. Just
try to enjoy new experiences.
While uncomfortable at times, Nadya and a handful of participants
embraced the challenge of adapting to a U.S. institution. But these students
felt encouraged by peers in their student organizations to get involved.
Rikas participation in student organizations allowed her to connect with
other students outside the classroom in such activities as hiking trips,
skiing trips, sledding trips, [and] all the fun stuff. While many participants
discussed lacking close relationships with domestic students, participants
found community with the international student community. In particular,
students discussed leveraging intramural sports as a way of connecting
across other cultural boundaries. For example, one participant shared,
I interact with [other students through] the badminton club. We have
[students] from China, from India, from U.S., from German[y] and
from other countries...I interact with them in a badminton club
1021
outside the classroom. And also in volleyball, I have, like, lot of

Turkish friend and also some U.S. friends.
Engaging with other students outside the classroom fostered a greater sense
of connection to the campus and other students.
One student organization all study participants mentioned in some
fashion was the Indonesian student organization present on campus. Many
of the students held leadership roles in the organization at various times.
Denny, who served as a president, used the annual cultural night as a way to
showcase and expose the larger campus community to Indonesian culture.
He shared,
I was like president of Indonesian student association and at the
time, I held Indonesian cultural night and a lot of people coming at
our events so I feel like, oh, [INSTITUTION] loves Indonesia and I
invited like, I expected only 250 people coming but it was like more
than 400 people coming.
A third type of student organization most participants discussed was
religiously affiliated organizations. Faith played an important role in the
lives of all participants. For some participants, they sought community
through Muslim and Christian enclaves. Religion functioned as a gathering
mechanism for students to form bonds.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of the current study was to explore how Indonesian graduate
students utilize student affairs functions to facilitate adaptation and
adjustment to their graduate institutions. This research makes a significant
contribution to the literature through supporting findings from several
studies about the experiences of international graduate students (Curtin et
al., 2013). Our findings point to the distinctive, yet complex experiences
Indonesian students have encountered on U.S. campuses. Many arrive on
their campuses with particular constructions of what a college campus
should look like (Hall, 1997; Nguyen, 2016; Shahjahan, Morgan & Nguyen,
2015). Their ability to adjust and adapt to graduate education proved
challenging, but also rewarding in perceived future pecuniary returns on
education.
Study findings provide support for investigating student affairs
functions support for international students. Very little is known about the
ways in which graduate students, especially international students, utilize
1022
student affairs resources. Traditionally, the sphere of influence for graduate

students tends to be isolated within the graduate degree program or
department (Austin, 2002; Gardner, 2010). Accordingly, findings from this
study confirm existing research about Indonesian graduate students
experiencing academic stressors (Mukinin, 2012; Zhang & Goodson, 2011).
In this study, academic challenges stemmed from the ways courses are
organized compared to previous educational experiences in Indonesia.
Participants adapted to this pedagogical approach, as their graduate
programs operated differently than their previously conceived
understandings of graduate education.
The student affairs offerings at the research site provided Indonesian
graduate students with place and space to connect with other international
and domestic students. While some participants expressed having
homophilic friend groups, other participants realized the Indonesian
population present on campus was limited. As such, they needed to look
beyond national boundaries to connect with other international students.
Student organizations offered through student affairs programs provided
acculturative and adaptive experiences to life in the U.S. (Fries-Britt,
George Mwangi, & Peralta, 2014; Poyrazli, Arbona, Nora, McPherson &
Pisecco, 2002).
IMPLICATIONS
Our findings showed participants reflections on adjustment processes to be

rooted in their Indonesian backgrounds and identities, although many
reflections also converged with experiences of other international students.
Accordingly, we present implications for practice and scholarship that
address Indonesian student experiences, but also afford applications for
student affairs functions regarding all international college learners in a
variety of institutional settings.
Implications for Practice and Policy

Participants in this study described disequilibrium occurring when
pre-arrival understandings of U.S. college life did not match realities
encountered upon arrival. Student affairs professionals can work with
international student functional areas to provide admitted students with
accurate, practical pre-arrival information. Professionals in host institutions
can cultivate working relationships with those bodies in students home
nations that perform essential functions in sending students abroad, such as
1023
the funding bodies referenced by our participants. Through such

relationships, these home-nation bodies can serve as conduits of reliable
information, lessening disorienting conflicts between expectations and
realities described by participants that can complicate adjustment and
adaptation for Indonesian and other international students.
Student affairs professionals can also organize roundtable
discussions in ways that simultaneously address academic and social issues
of adjustment emergent in our data and findings. Participants often
described difficult processes of adjusting to discussion-based learning in the
classroom. Through programming in which Indonesian and other
international student organizations facilitate discussions as part of social
community-building events perhaps in conjunction with a monthly potluck
students will have opportunities to engage in academic exchanges within a
relaxed, non-threatening environment. When students carry newly
developed confidence with expressing their own opinions and observations
into the classroom, they can become vehicles for introducing Indonesian
perspectives that participants found largely lacking in the U.S.-centered
focus. Finally, these social roundtables can provide opportunities to merge
their academic pursuits with the international student community that
participants found a valuable source of support in their adjustment
processes.
Specific programs and policies suggested here fall within
overarching guidelines that professionals can implement across diverse
institutional environments and their resources, organizational structures, and
missions. Student affairs professionals can provide relevant information
through myriad available means early in the pre-arrival phase of
international students experiences. Internal functions, such as recruitment
and admissions, can provide such information should international working
relationships prove unwieldy or unattainable. Programming that melds
social and academic needs of international students can render adjustment a
more manageably cohesive process. Writing workshops and coordinated
participation or attendance at campus-wide academic events are only two
possibilities for holistically meeting diverse adjustment needs of all
international students. These guidelines can inform practices serving all
phases of the international student experience.
1024
Implications for Future Research

We can further support practices for serving Indonesian students
through continued research. Detailed nuance provided by participants in the
current study illustrates the possibilities for further specialized research on
adjustment experiences of Indonesian international students. We contend
that highly focused studies on specified aspects of their experiences can
counterbalance current literature in which authors frequently obscure
Indonesian students within broad multi-national samples. We can support
the work of practitioners by conducting intensive studies of Indonesian
students pre-arrival conceptions of U.S. college life. International student
research often addresses cognitive dissonance following arrival, but little
attention is given to their preconceptions before leaving home. Quantitative
methods could prove useful for ascertaining the most common home-nation
sources of information, while qualitative studies can present students
detailed descriptions of their preconceptions and the meanings attached to
them. In doing so, we can gain better understanding of dissonance
experienced by Indonesian students after arrival in the United States.
CONCLUSION
Schartner and Youngs (2016) model of international student adjustment and

adaptation provides a unique lens for understanding the experiences of
Indonesian graduate students. In particular, this theoretical framing provides
a richer understanding of international student experiences because the
theory was developed with international students in mind. Pairing this
theoretical orientation and qualitative framework contributes to the
empirical literature about how Indonesian graduate students experience their
adaptation and adjustment in the United States. Study findings continue to
demonstrate Indonesian students experience academic and social challenges
in their efforts to integrate into campus life (Mukminin, 2012). International
students, including those from Indonesia, are called upon to make up the
difference in support to declining state appropriations for postsecondary
education (Cantwell, 2015). Student affairs professionals can play an
important role in quelling the anxiety many Indonesian graduate students
feel as they begin their academic journeys.
1025
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Student Affairs in the Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education, Ohio
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nguyend4@ohio.edu
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major research interests are intercultural teaching and learning, institutional
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Manuscript revised: July 21, 2017
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Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1030-1047
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035959
Problematic Areas of Host University Support

Services for Short-Term Mobility Students

Adriana Perez-Encinas
The Autonomous University of Madrid & Research Institute on Higher
Education and Science (INAECU), Spain
Jesus Rodriguez-Pomeda
The Autonomous University of Madrid & Research Institute on Higher
Education and Science (INAECU), Spain
Mikul Josek
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT
The growing numbers of mobile students over the years made the provision
of student services a key topic of interest for higher education institutions. In
order to offer a better experience for international students, it is important
to be aware of and assess their needs in relation to different sets of support
services. The data used in this paper were gathered through the ESNsurvey
2016 project, a research venture focused on the experiences of participants
in short-term student mobility in Europe. Responses were collected from
12,365 international students, who have participated in a short-term (3-12
months) study period abroad mostly through Europes most promoted
mobility program called ERASMUS+. For the purpose of this paper, the
focus was only on the aspect of host university support services. The
comments of 2,012 students about their experiences were analyzed using a
probabilistic methodology known as Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA). The
1030
findings reveal that some international students concerns are not fully
addressed by higher education institutions. The main problem areas
identified with respect to host support services were admission, living costs,
including accommodation and money concerns, and IT and bank issues. It is
strongly recommended that universities address the problematic areas
through student support services by assessing international students
opinions and needs.

Keywords: ESNsurvey, host university support services, international
students, LDA
The number of mobile students more than doubled between 2005 and 2012
(OECD, 2015). In Europe, the focus is on short-term study stays and work
placements, which are promoted through the ERASMUS+ program. In the
30 years of existence of the ERASMUS+ program, 4.4 million students and
trainees have participated in an abroad experience, with just over 300,000 in
2014/15 (European Commission, 2017). We can expect a continuous
increase in student mobility and greater support for the ERASMUS+
mobility program, because the European Union has the ambitious goal that
20% of graduates in higher education will have had an experience of
studying abroad by 2020 (Council of the European Union, 2011).
In fact, the growing numbers of mobile students over the years made
the provision of student services a key topic of interest in relation to the
process of internationalizing higher education (Perez-Encinas, 2015). With
the accompanying developments in the area of goods and services, even
universities are starting to focus on providing quality services for not only
local but also international students. Since higher education institutions can
be partly funded by international students tuition fees, the rise in the
number of prospective international students benefits institutions in the long
run. Moreover, the presence of international students at universities can be
seen as a major contribution to enriching campuses with cultural diversity,
pluralism, and opportunities for intercultural learning and engagement
(Willer, 1992). Against this backdrop, as Choudaha (2017) claims,
institutions have to balance the inflow of foreign students with support
services that not only enable students to pursue their studies, but also satisfy
their career and employability expectations. Therefore, providing support
services can become a key issue in the internationalization of higher
education process. It is relevant for our study to identify how international-
1031
friendly institutions in Europe operate and to focus on the major problem

areas for international students when studying abroad, in order to improve
the service provision, and therefore the satisfaction of international students
with their study abroad experience.
LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Knight (2008), the internationalization of higher education is

the process of integrating an international, intercultural and global
dimension into the purpose, functions, and delivery of higher education at
institutional and national levels (p. 11). The scope of the term
internationalization is very broad; it encompasses physical mobility,
recognition of studies, knowledge transfer and many more aspects. Since
universities tend to introduce more and more measures (e.g., support
services and integration activities for foreign students) with the aim of
establishing a more international way of teaching and providing services, the
focus of this paper is the potential problems international students face in
this respect.
International students of the ERASMUS+ program might be
different from other student migrants in other parts of the world due to the
programs conditions. Students of ERASMUS+ do not pay tuition fees at
foreign universities and the scholarships they receive should also cover
travel costs and accommodation abroad.
According to Teichler (2009), most students in Europe consider the
idea of doing at least part of their studies in another country a viable and
meaningful opportunity. He also claims that the ERASMUS+ program has
brought a change in the perception of international students regarding higher
education. Compared to the past, when students flowed mainly from
developing to developed countries (vertical mobility), ERASMUS+ students
are now expected to be, on average, at least as good as local students
(horizontal mobility) in their level of knowledge and skills. In addition, it
appears that Erasmus students critically compare study materials and
conditions of the host and home institution and use this information to
request improvements.
Murphy-Lejeune (2002) compared Erasmus students with other
migrant groups in an ethnographic study. The Erasmus students differed
from the other groups in terms of their lower age and the associated higher
motivation and greater ability to adapt. It can be said that, compared to the
other migrant groups, they were the most prepared to take advantage of the
1032
opportunities they had. A shorter length of stay allowed them to preserve

their culture, but partly prevented them from immersing themselves in the
cultures of the countries they visited.
For international students, who might be accustomed to different
approaches to education, a mismatch between expected and experienced
quality and efficiency of services provided by their receiving institution can
contribute to an increase in acculturative stress (Khawaja & Smith, 2011)
and thus to impaired adaptation (Khawaja & Dempsey, 2008) and higher
levels of depression (Ward et al., 2001). Sherry et al. (2004) found such a
mismatch in both foreign and local students, where foreign students were
more critical of the quality of educational services than local students.
According to the Erasmus Impact Study (Brandenburg et al., 2015),
the increasing number of incoming (and outgoing) students under the
ERASMUS+ program has led to a growing awareness of the need for
support services and to an emphasis on simplifying administrative
procedures. Kelo et al. (2010) recognize that "student support" and "student
services" can apply to a wide range of activities and services offered to
students, such as providing information, arranging accommodation,
providing access to dining facilities, offering welcoming activities, or
offering academic or language support.
Although the need for support services for students is gaining in
importance, their specific needs and desires, from the point of view of
international students themselves, have still not been clearly defined (see
Kelo, Roberts & Rumble (2010) regarding non-European students).
According to the American Council of Education (2015), it is not easy to
figure out the best way to meet the needs of international students. Indeed,
Perez-Encinas and Ammigan (2016) agreed that international students at one
single institution face differing issues, so they might need a diverse set of
support services.
International students go through various stages during their stay at
the host institution. During these stages, the students have different needs
that require different services. Generally, we can divide the stages of a study
abroad period into the stage before the departure (services related to
providing information and preparing students to study in another country),
the stage shortly after arrival (services related to the immediate adaptation of
a student), the rest of the study period (services related to integration into
the local community), and the period after returning to their home country
(services related to re-entry or reintegration into the home university).
However, this last stage has not been deeply analyzed in the literature.
1033
Studies showing the stages and the distribution of student support services
are, for example, those of The Higher Education Academy (2015), which
provides the International Student Lifecycle, in which several support
services are represented. Other authors that discuss the topic are Kelo,
Roberts and Rumbley (2010) and Archer, Jones and Davidson (2010).
According to the aforementioned stages, welcoming days or
orientation weeks are among the most important support services in the
second stage of the International Student Lifecycle (Higher Education
Academy, 2015). These services assist international students to integrate
into the new environment. They usually involve the communication of
initial information and certain orientation or integration activities with other
international and local students. Leask (2009) emphasizes the need for
facilitating meaningful interaction between home and international students,
both inside and outside the classroom. These services can facilitate the
initial process of adaptation; they help students to familiarize themselves
with the life at the host university and to integrate faster.
One of the major challenges before arrival or shortly after arriving
in a new country is securing short-term accommodation, which is closely
linked to the financial issues of the foreign student. Poyrazli and Grahame
(2007) highlighted this practical challenge and Tolman (2016) found that
housing international and domestic students together through a roommate-
pairing program brought certain benefits for participants in the program, as
well as for the university. The complex issue of housing students of the
ERASMUS+ program is being researched in an ongoing project called
HousErasmus+ (HouseErasmus, n.d.). Arranging accommodation or at least
guidance in finding accommodation is one of the basic services that a
receiving university could provide to the visiting student.
Another possible support service that can be offered before
international students arrive on campus is the buddy program, in which
local students welcome (and often directly pick up) and help incoming
international students with solving the necessary tasks immediately upon
arrival at their host university (e.g., obtaining a student card or public
transport pass). Local students volunteer to participate in the buddy program
in order to practice their foreign language skills and establish friendships
with international students from all over the world. Campbell (2012)
revealed that the systematic pairing of local and international students
contributes to befriending locals and helps newly arrived students to adapt.
The local student buddy who strives for linguistic and cultural exchange is
usually the first contact person for the incoming student upon arrival. The
1034
buddy program is often coordinated by the international relations

department of the university or the international student club.
A number of universities have student clubs or associations that
cater to the social needs of international students. For example, Erasmus
Student Network (ESN) clubs are present at more than 500 universities in 40
countries around Europe (Find your ESN section, 2017). Student clubs help
in the process of adaptation and integration of foreign students, which has
been recognized by a partnership with the DG Education and Culture
Department of the European Commission (ESN.org, 2017). ESN has
investigated the satisfaction of international students with their student clubs
and found that more than half of the international students completely
agreed or rather agreed that ESN activities helped them to better
integrate with local students (Escriv Muoz et al., 2015). We therefore
argue that this service should be provided by student associations and should
be offered during the stay of international students at all host universities.
Of course, there are also many other services that can enhance the
experience of international students at the host institution. Some of these are
offered during specific stages of their learning cycle but others can be
offered throughout their stay. In fact, support services such as a local
language courses, courses on the local culture of the visited country, or a
combination of these are offerings that overlap with educational courses. It
is generally expected that studying abroad brings great benefits; students
improve their skills in the language of the visiting country, as well as in
understanding cultural differences and in different aspects of intercultural
communication (Behrnd & Porzelt, 2012). Those aspects, together with their
educational experiences, enrich the personal and professional lives of the
students. Thus the continuous development in internationalization
challenges institutions to reorganize the curricula and services they offer.
The literature review aimed to investigate the problems international
students of the ERASMUS+ program might have throughout their study
abroad experience and how these can affect them. Higher education
institutions can diminish some of these problems through student support
services, but should be well informed about which problems are the most
crucial and how students perceive them, which is the issue that this paper
tries to address. Therefore, we analyze qualitative data in the form of
comments related to major problems that students faced and aim to clarify
the importance of student support services in addressing these issues. In the
next section the methodology and the data collection procedure of this study
are explained.
1035
RESEARCH METHOD
A qualitative, unsupervised method based on Bayesian probability was used

to analyze the data. The latter was sourced from the ESNsurvey 2016 project
(Josek et al., 2016), the main topic of which was the international-
friendliness of universities. The aim of the survey was to explore the role
of host-university services, academic support, intercultural contact, and
friendship networks in relation to satisfaction with the study abroad
experience.
Data collection procedure

The data used in this report were collected through an online
questionnaire titled "ESNsurvey 2016 Questionnaire" posted online at
www.esn.org/esnsurvey/2016. The link was distributed through local
associations of one of the largest student networks in Europe, namely the
Erasmus Student Network AISBL (ESN). ESN has more than 500 branches
at various universities and in Europe. The link was sent to all the branches
through institutional channels, as well as via social media. Moreover,
important dissemination actions were carried out by the international offices
of universities, which supported the project idea and the local ESN
association by sending the questionnaire to their students. Additionally,
other important dissemination channels were accessed through cooperation
with the European Commission, the National agencies for the ERASMUS+
program and other institutional partners in the field of higher education.
Consequently, the questionnaire was sent to a broad audience and not only
to ESNs main contacts.
The questionnaire was disseminated through a snowball technique
that enabled it to reach a very large number of potential participants, but this
did not allow for a calculation of the return rate. The data collection period
lasted from the 16th of October 2015 to the 8th of January 2016. The
questionnaire reached students from 106 countries. These students were
studying mostly in the European Higher Education Area. The highest
number of answers was collected from the following countries: Italy
(2,230), Spain (2,041) and Germany (1,145).
The basic characteristics of the sample were as follows: 67% of the
respondents were female and 33% male. In fact, the number of female
respondents predominates in the total group of all mobile students
participating in the ERASMUS+ program (European Commission, 2015).
The average age of the respondents was 23. Most of the respondents were at
1036
the bachelor level of studies (74%) and the rest were masters level students
(26%). Another analyzed variable was the socioeconomic status of the
respondents through a question about family income. The majority of the
students (63%) perceived their families incomes as average.
For the main questionnaire, homecoming exchange students who
had completed a short-term study abroad (one to two semesters) were
targeted. However, first a pilot questionnaire was filled in by approximately
20 students face-to-face and then posted online. The online questionnaire
was filled in by approximately 50 students. The data collected through the
questionnaire were used to analyze students experiences and satisfaction
with their exchange period abroad. The questionnaire comprised 67
questions (mainly closed questions and few open questions). ESN has
developed annual surveys for the past 11 years, through which 150,000
responses have been collected so far. In fact, on average 14,000 answers per
year are compiled in an annual publication called the ESNsurvey Report.
A similar number of responses was gathered from homecoming international
students for this current study, with a final count of 12,365 valid responses.
The questionnaire contained different areas of analyses and
variables: European student mobility flows, host university support,
academic adaptation, social adaptation and home university reintegration.
For the purpose of this paper, we focused on only one of the aforementioned
variables host university support services, which relates to those services
provided once the international student arrives at the institution. From the
many possible host university support services, we chose seven areas:
accommodation assistance, buddy program, welcome presentation,
orientation week, student associations, local language course and cultural
adaptation course.
Moreover, we analyzed data collected from responses to the
following question: Did you have major problems with any of the
following topics at your host university? The options were: admission,
enrollment in courses, course schedule and exam schedule, accommodation,
finances, visa, mental health issues (e.g., depression), health problems,
information technology (e.g., no internet connection), student
restaurant/cafeteria (e.g., food issues related to religion). Students could
reply with an affirmative yes, a negative no or with the option yes,
with a comment. International students could also select the option other
and reflect on their own experiences with problem areas in their host
university support services, as well as commenting on each of their
aforementioned options in an open question. Hence, we based our analyses
1037
on qualitative data collected through this open question, which returned

2,012 answers in the format of a comment.
Analysis
In order to analyze the 2,012 comments about the major problem
areas related to support services for international students, we employed a
basic text mining method to identify identifying patterns in a corpus
(Brett, 2012, p.1). We used topic-modeling algorithms, which facilitate
distant reading through a topic model, because this enables one to deal with
the corpus of texts as a whole, not only individual texts. Topic modeling is
premised on the assumption that each of the texts within a corpus is a topic
built from the themes discussed by the texts author (Mohr & Bogdanov,
2013; Meeks & Weingart, 2012).
One of the basic probabilistic topic models is the Latent Dirichlet
Allocation (LDA) (Blei, 2012). LDA is a statistical model that assumes that
any text is the result of a probability distribution over sets of words (called
topics). We ran the LDA statistical model with our data set (2,012
comments) by using MALLET 2.0.7 (a Machine Learning for Language
Toolkit, McCallum, 2002). This is open source software designed to enable
text classification and information extraction.
The international students comments about host university support
services were reviewed and processed to identify duplicates or datasets in
different languages, as well as very common words (known within this
methodology as stop-words) that do not add any relevant content to the
analysis (DiMaggio, Nag, & Blei, 2013). The identified stop-words were
removed to develop an LDA model. After running the LDA model and
MALLET, we obtained a table that gathered each topics relative percentage
contribution into the composition of each students perception text. These
percentages can be considered the weight of the links between discourses
and topics (Graham & Blades, 2012). The authors proposed a label to name
each topic, as seen in both tables (Table 1 and 2). The data represent the
topics that had the highest probability in the composition of each students
perception file. The composition probabilities can be interpreted as the
weights of the connections strengths (Meeks, 2011).
The resultant topics were coded with a label name, as can be seen in
Table 1. The labels are as follows: academics, admission and enrollment to
courses, health issues, IT connections & bank issues, language, restaurant,
and living expenses (including accommodation and finances).
This method is usually applied to big datasets to discover the main
1038
Table 1: Topics after running the probabilistic topic model
Topic Label Main words in this topic
0 Academics exchange master student students department

year bachelor home process project things
degree studying modules complicated module
admission accepted enrollment
1 Admission visa permit residence erasmus EU students
police turkey student time long country
embassy exam university issue exchange
programme months
2 Health issues health problems problem issues doctor
insurance hospital time bad depression
country mental care friends doctors sick good
felt
3 IT connection & Bank internet connection wifi dormitory residence
issues bad work dorm student problems bank card
needed problem weeks account open
4 Admission university home erasmus host back told
admission office problem student semester
send beginning end arrived time arrival days
5 Language English students language speak Spanish local
people erasmus school foreign teachers level
international spoke class office professors
staff
6 Restaurant food cafeteria student restaurant eat vegetarian
expensive options vegan restaurants normal
day big prices offer canteen campus cheaper
7 Living expenses accommodation room find university flat
(accommodation) accommodation students student hard place
time expensive found good people difficult
problems offered
8 Living expenses erasmus grant money pay month finances
(Finances) expensive country scholarship months rent
living financial cover expenses costs abroad
support high
9 Admission (enrollment to courses university schedule exams students
courses) classes problems time enrollment home host
information agreement change semester lot
learning choose
Note. Authors compilation (2017)
1039
latent themes in a set of words. Thus, we built a probabilistic topic model

based on the 2,012 comments we had obtained to draw conclusions
regarding their major problem areas with respect to host university support
services provision abroad by using a large database and a probabilistic
approach. The next section comprises the results after running MALLET
with 10 topics and a discussion. Moreover, the most common topics for
international students on host university support services, as categorized by
label and weight, are identified.
RESULTS
Due to the importance of gathering international students opinions in a

comprehensive way, we analyzed only the results that were collected in
response to one open question, in which international students were asked
about major problem areas with respect to service provision. Thus, we
present a qualitative analysis of the results obtained by using a basic text
mining program (LDA) and by clustering the topics under 10 different labels
after running MALLET. The topics were labeled by the authors in order to
find connections between them and, consequently, to find several clusters or
groupings. The results can be seen in Table 1 below.
The results after analyzing the topics of international students
comments on the major problem areas concerning host university support
services and running the 2,012 comments through MALLET show the
following results based on weights and connection strengths (see Table 2).
Table 2: Common topics categorized by label

Topic Label
9 Admission
7 Living expenses
4 Admission
8 Living expenses
3 IT connection & Bank issues
5 Language
2 Health issues
0 Academics
1 Admission
6 Restaurant
Note. Authors compilation (2017)

1040
After analyzing the perceptions of international students regarding host

university support services, we identified the topics (main words on the
topic) with stronger weights and connections (Meeks, 2011). This indicated
the major areas that needed improvement in the service provision at higher
education institutions. In this sense, our findings show that the major
problem areas that international students face with host university support
services at universities are related to admission services such as enrollment
to courses, living expenses, with accommodation being the predominant one,
finances and IT connection. In fact, the respondents did not comment on
finding problems with services such as: language, restaurants/cafeteria, or
mental health issues.
The main area in need of improvement is admission (topic 9, 4 and
1). The students discourse and comments related directly to support
services linked to courses, exams, beginning and ending dates, agreements,
visa issues and permits of stay, course information and schedules. The
second main area for improvement indicated by the results is living
expenses (topic 7 and 8). This area is dominated by comments about the
Erasmus grant, money, accommodation, expensive flats and difficulties
covering the costs. The next concern and most commented upon issue was
IT connection and bank issues (topic 3). International students commented
on issues related to the accessibility of the internet through WI-FI and on
difficulties with opening a bank account. These last two issues can be of
great importance because the first links the international students directly to
their family and friends at home and abroad, and the second one to the living
expenses issue. Languages services, health services, and restaurants
/cafeterias were not identified as main problem areas.
Limitations
The results of this study are based on comments related to several
host university support services by international students from European
Union countries only. This is because the data collection was promoted and
done via European networks and stakeholders, in which the main
participants were ERASMUS+ program students. In this sense, the results
might vary for other international students depending on data collection and
region specifics. Moreover, we understand that the study can be deepened if
more services are taken into account. It is important to mention that not all
institutions of higher education offer the same range of services, so analysis
and perceptions of international students might vary from institution to
institution.
1041
DISCUSSION
According to our results, international students agreed on a series of

problem areas related to being abroad by commenting on factors that
influenced their stay abroad. Notably, nearly two decades ago, Li and Kaye
(1998) identified five common factors influencing international students
perceptions of their learning environment and learning experience, namely:
financial problems, integration problems when mixing with local students,
academic progress, English proficiency, and accommodation. Comparing
both sets of results, we identify that admission and living expenses issues
connected to finances are still an unresolved issue and are two of the major
concerns for students while abroad. We therefore encourage universities to
provide international students with detailed information on admission issues
(e.g., enrollment to courses, Visa, accommodation information and options),
as well as mobility schemas to smooth out issues relate to living expense
and finances. These actions should be taken, not only by those working in
the international office, but by all employees on campus working with
support services. Indeed, providing services to more international students is
becoming central to the work of all student affairs professionals at the
university, not just those who work in the international office (ACE, 2015).
Another important conclusion is related to the provision of IT
connections and bank issues. While internet connections might be seen as
less important than other services, it is actually of immense concern for
students who need to connect with their families and communicate with
friends to avoid psychological implications of being unable to do so. Lack of
connection with relatives through wireless mobile devices (WMD) can
increase students anxiety (Cheever et al., 2014). This result can be an
expression of psychological dependency when students are heavy or
moderate WMD users. Our result is also aligned with relationships found in
the literature between high frequency cell phone use and students health
and behavior, with interesting effects on their academic performance (Lepp
et al., 2013) and well-being (Yildirim & Correia, 2015). Bank issues are also
related to information activities; universities should offer accurate
information on banking options in order to accomplish international
students satisfaction and a better experience. Bank issues are connected to
more general finance issues that, as the literature explains, affect
international students and satisfaction (Woodall et al., 2014). Finance issues
are at the heart of students analysis of the value for money of their
1042
experience. But it is important to keep in mind the figure of the so-called

student-consumer is an effect of the growing marketization of higher
education (Tomlinson, 2016), a process that does not capture all the benefits
(intellectual, moral, cultural) that emerge from an international higher
education experience. Finally, the next section concludes the paper with the
main findings, reflections, and recommendations.
CONCLUSION
This study was motivated by a lack of up-to-date data collected by higher

education institutions to assess international students needs when they go
abroad. The increasing number of inbound and outbound students has led to
an increased awareness of the necessity of providing support services
(Brandenburg et al., 2015), highlighting the importance of higher education
institutions being aware of international students opinions and needs in
order to provide quality student support services. It is important to fulfill the
expectations of international students with the service offered in order to
increase their satisfaction with their stay abroad. Five major areas were
identified as the ones that caused major problems for international students,
according to the ESNsurvey 2016 data. These are: admission (enrollment in
courses, Visa issues), living expenses such as accommodation or finances,
and IT connection, and bank issues. All of them are related to problems that
might arise during the first and second stage of the International Student
Lifecycle (The Higher Education Academy, 2015). A clear need for
assessment tools should be recommended to higher education institutions, in
order to help them to listen and understand the changes that are happening,
not only on the institutional level of universities, but also in the minds and
feelings of students.
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ADRIANA PEREZ-ENCINAS, PhD, is a lecturer and researcher in business

organizations and the internationalization of higher education at the Universidad
Autnoma de Madrid (UAM) in Spain. She is a trainer for the EAIE Spring
Academies. Since 2005 she has volunteered for the Erasmus Student Network,
serving in various roles as national representative, president of the UAM chapter,
project coordinator, and research member. She has recently been appointed as an
evaluator for Spains Erasmus+ National Agency. E-mail:
adriana.perez.encinas@uam.es
JESUS RODRIGUEZ-POMEDA, PhD, is an Associate Professor in Business

Organization at Autonomous University of Madrid. His current research interests
are related to leadership, management, strategy, and organization within Higher
Education Institutions. Additionally, he serves as Vice-rector for Strategy and
Planning at Autonomous University of Madrid. Email: jesus.pomeda@uam.es
1046
MIKULAS JOSEK is a PhD candidate, researcher, and teaching assistant at the

Department of Psychology of the Faculty of Economics and Management of the
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (Czech Republic). He was a volunteer of
the Erasmus Student Network as a Research Coordinator of the ESNsurvey 2016
project. He now coordinates the uni-buddy.com project and works in the Erasmus+
HE division of the Centre for International Cooperation in Education in Prague, CZ.
E-mail: mikulas.josek@gmail.com

1047

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1048-1064
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035963
The Role of Student Affairs in a New University in a

Conflict Zone
Enakshi Sengupta
The American University of Kurdistan, Iraq
ABSTRACT
Higher education necessitates an understanding that students cannot be

confined to the classroom, as a large part of their curriculum comprises
extracurricular activities to educate intellectually, in spirit, and body. AS a
result, community building, advising, and career development became a
part of the traditional routine of student affairs. This article explores the
role of student affairs in a newly formed university in a conflict zone
ravaged by war and terrorism for decades. The data explored in this article
reveals some interesting facts, which are different from that of the
traditional student affairs manager. In this university, student affairs
personnel are viewed as a job giver, someone who will arrange funds,
bursaries, and scholarships in keeping with the war-ravaged economic
scenario of the province in northern Iraq.
Keywords: advising, extracurricular activities, funding, guidance, integrity,

induction, scholarship
Students do not begin or end their journey of acquiring knowledge only in

the premise of its classroom bounded within four walls. A greater part of
their learning is interwoven throughout the duration of their study enhanced
by their college experiencefrom the very first day of orientation and
1048
admission to the last day of receiving their diploma in hand. Students are
enrolled in a higher education institution hailing from various backgrounds
and even nationalities. They are inducted into the institution with their pre-
conceived notions and stereotyping, which may be shaped or altered by their
college experiences. Tinto (1993) postulates that students first must separate
from the group with which they were formerly associated and to which they
belonged from early childhood, such as family members, neighbors, and
school peers, and then undergo a period of transition. In this period of
transition, the students begin to interact in new ways with the members of
the new group into which they seek to have membership (Tinto, 1993), and
it is only then that they can incorporate or adopt the normative values and
behaviors of the new group or college as it shall be explored in this article
discussing the role of a student affairs manager helping students in this
transition.
This study explores the role of the student affairs department in a
newly formed university in a conflict zone ravaged by war and terrorism for
decades. The American University of Kurdistan came into being in 2014
amidst war torn Iraq, destruction of economy, and the terror attacks from
Daeesh, and home-grown violence. The current building, which houses
approximately 300 students, became operational in August 2015, having a
low key inaugural function only in March 2016, in an effort to avoid
attraction from the so called Islamic State which is 40 kilometers away from
where the university has been built. The governorate of Duhok, where the
university is situated, has suffered setback in its economy having lost Mosul,
once a gateway to the export import market and tourism, to ISIS. Jobs are
harder to find and the problems with Iraq have left the coffers of the
Kurdistan regional government dry, making it harder to even pay salaries to
government officials (Coles, 2014)
This study is written in the thick of economic crisis and severe
security concerns. Every element of life has undergone a new meaning in
this part of the world and survival is the most elemental instinct from which
young students are not spared. Students expect the student affairs
department to help them find jobs, bursaries, or at least a work-study
program. The traditional role of student affairs is found to have crumbled, as
they are not viewed as a facilitator of co-curricular activities but more as a
financial aid officer.
In the wake of this given scenario, the author seeks to answer two
pertinent questions through this study:
1049
1. How does the traditional role of student affairs affect the

development of a student affairs department serving a new institution
within a conflict zone?
2. What roles should student affairs departments play based on the geo-
political and socio-economic conditions of a country operating in a
conflict zone setting?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Studies have been conducted on the effects of organizational behavior on

students. Berger (2000) found that different patterns of organizational
behavior do influence outcomes in various ways for different students. His
findings are supported by the study of Clark, Heist, McConnell, and Yonge
(1972) who argued that campuses exert a more powerful impact on student
outcomes when colleges are found to have clear visions that are articulated
through congruent and consistent sets of policies, procedures, traditions, and
espousal of values in their daily operations.
In a broad sense, the college environment encompasses everything
that happens to a student during the years of study in an educational
institution. The environment consists of the programs, personnel, curricula,
teaching practices, and facilities that become a part of any educational
program and even the racial and institutional climate in which the program
operates (Astin, 1991). For a student attending a college, apart from
pedagogical techniques of the professors, the physical surroundings,
behavior of the classmates, the peer groups, and the co-curricular activities
in which the students participate are important components of their
environment. The task of assessing the environment involves identification
and quantification of these external circumstances and events that the
students have been exposed to in college.
Schlossbergs (1984) transition theory provides insight into factors
that are related to the individual, the environment in which they thrive, and
the transitions that they undergo. It also deals with the nature of support that
is available to the student at a particular time. Schlossberg addressed the
nature of support needed to facilitate coping and strategies required to assist
those experiencing the change (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn,
2010). Schlossberg, Waters, and Goodman (1995) found that if students feel
good about the transition and believe it is happening at an appropriate time,
it will be easier for them to make the transition. However, if students feel
transitions are being forced upon them and they are unhappy about having to
1050
attend school, their transition will be more difficult. Schlossberg et al.

(1995) proposed four factors that have an impact on a persons ability to
cope with transition and result in optimal integration with a racially diverse
group of students. These four factors are Situation, Self, Support, and
Strategies, commonly known as the 4 Ss. Support is defined by Schlossberg
et al. (1995) as the key to handling stress (p. 67). Evans, Forney and
Guido-DiBrito (1998) described the types of support that adults need as
affect, affirmation, aid, and honest feedback (p. 114). This support can
come from a variety of sources, including intimate relationships, family
units, networks of friends, and institutions and communities (Evans et al.,
1998, p. 114). This article highlights the support of a student affairs
department and the expectation of the students from the manager of this
department.
Students are supported in their development through various staff
members who work as academic advisors, helping students select majors
and build their class schedules. There are residential life staff who supervise
the students living conditions in the dormitories or in residence halls. The
admissions officers help students decide on the courses they are to be
enrolled in and career counselors assist students with finding the right
internships and the right careers after their graduation that will help fit their
talents and aspirations. Faculty members and staff help develop students
cognitive and interpersonal skills, foster leadership, ethics, and cultural
understanding. Throughout the college journey, students are supported by a
breadth of people who help them grow and gain learning experiences
predominantly outside of the classroom.
One of the main domains of such support staff are those who work
as student affairs professionals. This area of work has a long history and role
in higher education and, over the years, has been called student personnel,
student services, student development, and other names (Long, 2012). The
purpose of this study is to investigate whether the traditional role of a
student affairs manager has undergone any transformation in the context of
the university being situated in a conflict zone. The author considers
questions such as who are student affairs managers and what are the core
functions that comprise student affairs departments at colleges and
universities? What are the core values and policies that guide their work?
What are the emerging trends and issues that are transforming student affairs
today? Do socio-political and geographical factors have any influence in
shaping the work of student affairs departments and should they confine
themselves to routine work as expected of them or go out of their way to
1051
incorporate unprecedented factors that shape the lives of students in or

outside the campus? This study answers these questions with an overview of
the history, values, essential competencies, functions, and new directions for
the field of student affairs.
INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT:
THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF KURDISTAN
Established in 2014, the American University Kurdistan (AUK) seeks to

foster respect for learning, knowledge and genuine academic achievement.
Located in the heart of Duhok, in northern Iraq, AUK strives to become a
leading center of academic excellence and research. The university aims to
mold the next generation of leaders through challenging courses, up-to-date
methodology, and qualified, experienced faculty members (About AUK,
n.d.). The university is relatively new and the inauguration of the main
building was conducted in the fall of 2015. The total number of students at
present is only 300, mostly enrolled in the first-year English Language
Institute. The university will eventually comprise six colleges including
Business, Arts & Sciences, Engineering, International Studies, Health
Sciences, and Education.
The university is committed to shaping leaders for local and
regional communities by offering quality education, research, and career-
oriented programs. The university aims to become a prominent academic
and research hub in this region and practice the highest standards of
intellectual integrity and scholarship. The mission of the university, as
outlined by the Chairman, His Excellency Masrour Barzani, is to create a
passion for promoting education and blending intellectual substance and
social action. AUK will have its own distinctive approach that offers the
highest level of education in a vibrant community in Kurdistan. The
studentfaculty relationship works to create life-long relationships and
career networks, which will have a positive impact on academic
achievement, career performance, and students lifetime achievements
(Letter from the Chairman, 2017).
The American University of Kurdistan: Students Affairs Department
Mission. The Student Affairs mission is to enhance student

development and achieve academic success by having facilities, programs,
1052
and services dedicated to support AUK student needs in a friendly,

confidential and helpful manner every step of the way.
The mission of the department is to identify and respond to students
needs and to create and foster a safe, healthy, diverse, and attractive campus
environment. The mission also advocates respecting and empowering
students by giving them their own voice as well as updating knowledge and
skills in order to continuously support students at the highest level. The
mission of the department also promises to establish and cultivate a positive
and healthy relationship among students at the highest level while providing
outstanding student-centric personal growth and equip students for the job
market.
The vision of the department is to strive for engagement among
AUK students, to foster an inclusive, dynamic, and innovative community.
The student affairs department stands for core values such as integrity,
which aims to contribute to a respectful, pleasant, healthy, and ethical
environment. It promises to support students and show genuine concern for
health, well-being, balance, and academic success. It strives towards
excellence in its commitment to deliver and provide excellent support and
advice through continuous improvement of the center and professional
development of the staff. The department respects diversity and embraces
values in terms of different ethnicities, religions, and ideas. Learning
remains its top most agenda and its values gaining and acquiring knowledge
and developing necessary life and academic skills needed in order to be
successful. (Handbook of Students Affairs, 2017)
Area of work. The Office of Student Affairs (OSA) is engaged

in collaborating with AUK students, faculty, and staff. The OSA provides a
wide range of programs, services and support for fostering students
intellectual and personal growth. The Office of Student Affairs includes
Advice and Guidance; Counseling, Health, and Wellness; Campus Life;
Accommodation and Transportation; Athletics; and Career Services.
Advice and Guidance helps students reach their educational and
career goals by providing them advice and guidance on academic related
issues during their studies at AUK. Academic Advising at AUK is based on
the belief that advising is a developmental process, recognizing such logical
and sequential steps as the exploration of life goals and career goals. This
process of exploring, integrating, and synthesizing should be an ongoing and
multifaceted responsibility of both the students and the advisors, the
ultimate goal of which is student growth. Through such a student-centered
1053
approach, general and major advisors assist students in creating a personally

relevant plan for educational, career, and life fulfillment.
The Counseling, Health, and Wellness section helps AUK students
identify and talk about personal, social, and study problems which can
interfere in achieving academic success. This service is solely for
undergraduate students enrolled at the AUK. Counseling, Health, and
Wellness offers students the opportunity to talk about their problems and
concerns in private. After listening to the student, the counselor helps to
provide practical solutions to difficult issues. A variety of issues and
concerns are dealt with (i.e., stress, anxiety, anger, depression, violence,
etc.). In addition, this section provides students with physical and mental
care as well as personal wellness education, and holds workshops on
personal wellness, including antiviolence education, drug/alcohol addiction
and prevention, and nutrition. AUK has a Health Clinic available in the
basement of the university building for minor injuries and initial
consultation including 24-hour ambulance services for emergencies.
Campus life further extends the Student Affairs mission in fostering
a warm and welcoming campus community by providing services and
student life programs. Students have the opportunity to participate in student
activities and events as well as engage in community service. The Student
Government leadership program gives students an opportunity to have a
voice of their own. This student body, which represents all students, is
called the Student Government. It voices and addresses the students needs,
wants, and concerns to the university administration. Furthermore, the
Student Government has been set up to promote student participation and
involvement in clubs and other organizations, to organize social, cultural,
and academic activities, and /or programs and to provide assistance and
support for the activities and programs sponsored by the Office of Student
Affairs. Community service is a service provided by AUK students assisting
the community and society voluntarily. Both the community and the
students will benefit from this experience. The community will be provided
assistance and support and students, on the other hand, will develop
leadership skills and explore service career options. Several programs will
be set up with institutions that desperately need assistance and support. The
community support service is crucial to Kurdistan with the influx of millions
of internally displaced people (IDP) escaping from Mosul to Duhok and
other neighboring areas and migration of Syrian refugees to Kurdistan.
AUK, along with other local nonprofit organizations strive to provide
support to the refugee camps.
1054
AUK plans to be a residential university with two residence halls

for men and two for women. The halls will be located on the AUK campus
and close to the academic halls and sport centers for extracurricular
activities. The Office of Student Affairs also offers student transportation at
several occasions. AUK plans to have its fixed route bus services both inside
and outside of Duhok. The buses will run on an abbreviated schedule and
will not run during holidays. Transportation at present is being provided for
field trips and other outside engagements.
AUK offers its students a wide range of sports and recreational
programs. The Athletics section is responsible for keeping the AUK
community engaged and healthy by providing a wide range of sports such as
hockey, football, soccer, tennis, athletics, and an internal sports facility. The
mission of this program is to provide engagement, excitement, competition,
and fun to all participants in a diverse, relaxed, and structured environment.
Sports Activities AUK provides a recreational sports program for
participation in a wide variety of sports and recreational activities for the
academic community. The activities represent a broad selection of sports
ranging from those of a highly competitive structured nature to informal
social activities. A variety of programs are offered including intramural
sports, fitness, and wellness classes, informal recreational activities, sport
clubs, and special events. For all sporting activities, clubs must abide by the
policies and procedures governed by the Health and Safety Guidance for
AUK Sports club handbook
AUK aims to increase the level of employability among AUK
graduates and alumni, to build lasting connections with the private, public,
and NGO sectors, and to coordinate with AUK faculties and departments to
align curricula with market needs.
RESEARCH METHOD
In order to answer the two research questions raised in this study, the author
adopted a mixed method study in designing the research, combining both
quantitative and qualitative research methods in different ways, where both
the distinctive approaches contribute towards the understanding of the
phenomenon. It was felt that mixing the methods would offer a better
understanding of the research problem than any other design would. Hall
and Howard (2008) call this approach a synergistic approach, which
combines two or more options so that their combined effect is greater than
the sum of the individual parts. When translated into mixed methods, this
1055
means that the sum of quantitative and qualitative research is greater than
either approach alone.
Quantitative Method
There was a need to study the experience of students while dealing
with the student affairs department and especially their role towards
managing students in a conflict zone. Studying such phenomena requires
choosing an approach that allows generalizability of findings, highlighting
the findings that are specific to a particular context, and conducting the
research objectively. This can be done by implementing a quantitative
method of study (Sengupta, 2015).
The quantitative methodology used in this study required fieldwork,
which helped the researcher to grapple with the general climate of the
student body at the institution. A quantitative method was used to quantify
opinions, attitudes, and behavior in order to find out how students feel about
the role of the student affairs department (Sukamolson, 2011).
Designing the questionnaire. The questions were kept short and

simple and were phrased in language that is easily understood by students.
Phrases that can be ambiguous or have double meanings were avoided.
Questions that may pre-determine a respondents answer as well as
questions that contain stereotypes or emotionally superlative words were
also avoided. Care was taken not to frame questions that would be
misleading, or imply unstated assumptions and to avoid leading questions,
which imply a desired response. Questions were re-read and revised to avoid
putting respondents on the defensive or generating hostility or suspicion.
The questionnaire was explained to the respondents before administering it
so that the participants had all the necessary information to complete the
questions.
Generation and analysis of data. The participants were chosen

randomly, the only criteria being that they were presently enrolled as
students at AUK. The university being new has a limited number of
students, around 300. 116 students were asked to complete the survey form.
The ratio of female students to men is quite negligible. In a class of 30 there
may be 3 or 4 female students, hence judging the responses based on gender
was not a viable option. Since the university has just began its operation
almost all the students are in their first year of study, barring 4 senior
students, segregating them by year of study had no implication to the study.
1056
Students were chosen randomly and their response recorded by a survey

questionnaire.
Participants. A total 116 students were surveyed. Out of 116

students, 63 students belonged to the English Language Institute (ELI) and
were studying English. The ELI course takes one year to complete, which
means all 63 students were in their first year. Out of the remaining 43
students, five students were the most senior and are from the College of
Business. Twelve students belonged to the first year of the undergraduate
program and hailed from the College of International studies and only four
students belonged to the College of Computer Technology. The remaining
22 students also belonged to the College of Business and were in their first
year of undergraduate coursework. The ratio of female to male students is
very negligible in this university and from a total of 116 participants, only
11 of them are female students. Students are mainly Kurdish; some of they
have been repatriated belonging to the Kurdish diaspora in Holland and
Sweden. Some students are of Arab origin, Yezidi, or Assyrian Christians,
but their numbers are very insignificant when compared to the Kurdish
students.
Qualitative Method
The author used qualitative method with the rationale that the use
of quantitative and qualitative approaches in combination provides a better
understanding of research problems than either approach alone (Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2003, p.5). This is based on the logic that one cannot separate
methods from the larger process of research of which it is a part
(Tashakkori & Creswell 2007, p.304). The semi-structured questions
designed by the researcher allowed participants to respond freely and
extensively about the topic, only to be steered back to the right path if they
happened to deviate. Qualitative interviews were conducted with three focus
groups of students. Focus group A had five senior students, who will be the
first group of students to graduate from this university and have been
enrolled since 2014, giving them considerable time to interact and know
about all the departments in the university. Focus Groups B and C were
comprised of seven and six students respectively. They belonged to the first
year of their study but had already spent six to seven months at the
university and therefore had the chance to interact with the student affairs
department and to take part in events organized by the student affairs
department. The analysis began using Nvivo software with detailed coding
1057
and conceptualization either through line-by-line coding or at times by

applying a general approach. The author started identifying or examining the
underlying ideas, assumptions, and conceptualizations shaping the data
(Braun & Clarke, 2006).
FINDINGS
Awareness of Student Affairs Department: Students were asked whether

they are aware of the existence of the student affairs department. 90 students
(n=90) answered in the affirmative, while n= 26 answered that they are not
aware of such a department. The data shows that the majority of the students
have heard about the department.
Interaction with the Manager of Student Affairs: Students were
further asked whether they have interacted with the manager of student
affairs at least once in their tenure of study. While 62 students out of the 116
surveyed answered in the affirmative, 54 students chose no. Thus, almost
50% of the total participants did not have the chance to interact with the
student affairs manager or even if they had, they are not aware of his
designation or role as the manager of the department. This clearly states that
the manager (currently the head of the department) requires more visibility
and needs to familiarize himself with the students. Perhaps this can be done
with a well-planned orientation program that welcomes the new students or
any event that involves the students.
Event that led to interaction: Students were asked whether they
remember the event or the incident that led them to interact with the student
affairs department for the first time. Forty students (n= 40) out of the total
116 participants answered that they had interacted with the student affairs
department while acting as a volunteer in an event, which is only 34 % of
the students. This finding is supported by the focus group interviews, in
which students voiced their disapproval stating they only call us to become
the volunteer, we are never involved in any event from the beginning
(Student A, Focus Group 1). Twenty students stated that they interacted with
the department while inquiring about the student handbook or seeking
clarification on the information stated in the handbook. Only seven students
out of 116 participants interacted with the department while expressing their
desire to participate in the university election. Forty-three students (n= 43)
did not interact even once with the department. Again the number is quite
significant, nearly 37 % of the total participants did not have any interaction
with the department.
1058
Frequency of interaction: Students were asked as to how many

times they have interacted with the student affairs department in the past.
The number of students that have never participated in interacting with the
department is 42, nearly 37%. Twenty-six students have interacted
occasionally, 16 students have interacted once a month, 24 students once a
week and only eight students interacted with them on a daily basis, aligning
with our earlier data of seven students who wanted to participate in the
university election. It is possible that these are the elected student
representatives who need to communicate with the department on a daily
basis.
Role of the department: Students were asked about the role of the
department, which they feel should be the area of work for the department.
Sixty-two students, nearly half the participants (53%), felt that the role of
the department ought to be holding all students to high expectation for
engagement and learning, in and out of class, on and off campus. Thirty-six
students answered that their job should be invest in program and people
that demonstrate contributions to students learning and success and 18
students felt that the department should work towards sustained
commitment to achieving the institutions educational mission. This data
was further re-affirmed with the themes derived from the qualitative data
finding that the role should be to provide students with more involvement
to acquire experience.
Role of the department in a conflict zone: The very last question on
the survey questionnaire dealt with the role of the student affairs department
working especially in a conflict zone. Sixty-eight students, or 58%, believed
that the department should facilitate job opportunities for students in need.
The university is established in the northern part of war-ravaged Iraq. The
Kurdistan regional government has seen a draining of its wealth due to an
ongoing oil crisis, ISIS threats, and war to combat terrorism. The cities have
witnessed in recent times an influx of refugees from Syria and internally
displaced people like the Yezidi population and people fleeing ISIS from
Mosul. Some of the students are wards of Martyrs and prisoners of war.
Most of them had family members participating in the war as
Peshmergas (i.e., the military forces of the autonomous region of Iraqi
Kurdistan) or they themselves have participated in the war before enrolling
as a student in the university. Economic crisis looms large and seeking a job
after graduation or developing a source of stipend or income is a priority for
the students. This question also resulted in 28 students wanting the student
affairs department to facilitate scholarships and other educational loans for
1059
those who in need. Twenty students wanted the department to organize

charitable work in the refugee camps, so that the students could volunteer
in such programs and help those who are in a dire state in the camps.
The questionnaire ended with an open-ended question asking for
additional comments. Nearly 96% of the students refrained from
commenting. Only a few voiced that they have promised financial aid since
two years, they are not giving jobs to people in need (Student B, Survey
Questionnaire). Two students also commented on the integration issue
among the students, as there are Kurdish students, Arab students, Yezidi
students and students from the Kurdish diaspora from Holland and America
studying in the university. Their comments read, students affairs to be
honest is doing nothing to engage students with each other and how to spend
time together in the university, it should help students to interact with each
other.(Student C & D, Survey Questionnaire).
Themes
Three themes emerged from the focus group interviews answering

the research question on the role of the student affairs department in general
and that in a conflict zone. The first theme was more involvement.
Students expressed their opinion that they felt they were not adequately
involved in the events organized by the student affairs department. They felt
they are only used as volunteers, They only call us at the end, just to
become volunteers, they never involve us in the conceptualization of the
events (Student E, Focus Group A). Another student expressed,
They should at least talk to us once, maybe the student government,
we can help them in designing some meaningful events mainly
charitable work with the NGOs in refugee camps. We are used to
just handout articles collected for the refugees. We want to feel that
we are also a part of the event and not there to take merely take
orders. (Student G, Focus Group A)
The second theme that emerged out of the qualitative interviews
conducted from three focus groups was we dont need to be told. Students
objected to the fact that most of the time the student affairs department is
found sermonizing about the dos and donts about Kurdish culture,
especially mixing with female students and group formation. Some of them
expressed their anger stating,
We are Kurdish too, we know about our culture. They dont need to
tell us all the time what we should be doing and what we shouldnt.
1060
That is not a part of their job. They are not qualified sociologists or
even counselors. (Student H, Focus Group B)
Similarly, one participant stated, I think instead of telling us about talking
to girls and what we should be do, they should help us in undertaking more
extracurricular programs, (Student I, Focus Group C).
The third theme that was the strongest of all the themes was
creating job opportunities and financial aid. Most of the students spoke
about the student affairs department helping students to find a part-time job
while they are studying or sponsorship which would provide financial aid to
the students. This theme was in keeping with the quantitative finding where
the majority of the participants voiced that the department should help them
in finding jobs. The socioeconomic condition of Iraq including that of
Kurdistan had suffered a setback since the days of Saddam Hussein and
further worsened by never ending conflict and civil war. The condition was
aggravated by the inflow of the so-called Islamic state, which took over the
prime cities of Mosul, thus affecting trade with other countries. The city of
Duhok has witnessed millions of migrant populations from neighboring
Syria and the towns occupied by ISIS in its refugee camps. The situation has
not been able to show any sign of recovery due to the fall in oil prices, thus
putting a further strain in the coffer of the regional government. Students
and their families too have felt the weakening of economy and hence
seeking jobs has become their priority. Students are looking for avenues to
earn money and they would want the student affairs department to help them
in their quest.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The quantitative data showed that half of the student population who was
surveyed (n=116) have never interacted with the student affairs department
or have never met the manager. Drawing from the literature review and
Schlossbergs (1984) concept of support that the students look for during
their transition from school life into a college environment, the data
demonstrates that this seems to be lacking to an extent. The students were
unable to establish the bond with the student affairs department due to their
lack of visibility or not involving the students in the events crafted by them.
Only 34% of survey participants have worked with the manager as a
volunteer for an event. Students in the interviews have expressed their desire
to be more involved with the department as was evident from the qualitative
interviews where students spoke about, they only call us at the end, just to
1061
become volunteers, they never involve us in the conceptualization of the

events. The students are eager to be a part of the department and
conceptualize or implement an event and not merely act as a volunteer or as
an usher, we can help them in designing some meaningful events mainly
charitable work with the NGOs in refugee camps. Clark et al. (1972)
argued that campuses exert a more powerful impact on student outcomes
and that outcomes can be built by exposing the students to co-curricular
activities and involving them in decision making events. Astin (1991) also
spoke about creating a positive environment for the students during their
transition into a college life. The environment consists of the programs,
personnel, curricula, teaching practices, and facilities that become a part of
any educational program. The student affairs manager has a great
contribution in shaping the environment. The quantitative data also shows
that 58% of the students are eager to seek jobs or some kind of financial aid
and wants the manager of student affairs to liaison with the external partners
and link them to such opportunities. Similarly, the qualitative data suggests
they should find us some opportunities or involve us in the university as
trainees where we can earn some money (Student J, Qualitative Interview
Focus Group 1). The qualitative interviews echoed the same sentiment as is
narrated in the last theme of the interviews. The open-ended question in the
survey questionnaire also saw some students voicing their discontent of not
having given adequate opportunities to work either in the university or in the
outside world and earn money as their stipend.
CONCLUSION
Student affairs departments cannot only restrict themselves to their

traditional roles if their underlying value is to care for the students. Care is
a fundamental value that student affairs professionals strive to instill in
students. This generally takes the form of service learning, as students learn
to understand the situations of others and want to advocate on their behalf
(Long, 2012, p. 8). Roberts (2003), a leading expert in community
development, characterized community as the binding together of
individuals toward a common cause or experience. Building a sense of
community between students has a myriad of educational benefits, which
includes the development of leadership skills, instilling empathy and
responsibility, and conflict resolution.
In most cases, student affairs professionals are not trained or
licensed counselors, but the experience of handling students teaches them
1062
helping skills because of their direct contact with students. Helping skills
may not at all times address a students emotional well-being, but to provide
the student with coping skills and with the context for making decisions that
solve his or her own dilemmas. Counseling and helping skills increase a
student affairs professionals capacity to create positive relationships and
environments for students. The student affairs department at The University
of Kurdistan may not be in a position to solve the financial needs of each
and every student but the helping skills will create positive regard for each
other, empathy and a caring culture in the university. Positive and
constructive advice will help the students to cope with their current needs
and choose options towards the betterment of their future. This is important
as core values such as caring, helping, equality, and social justice inform
much of the environments that student affairs professionals strive to create
as the best conditions for student learning and success (Long, 2012 p. 35).
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ENAKSHI SENGUPTA, PhD, is the Dean in the College of Business at the

American University of Kurdistan, Iraq. Her research interests include corporate
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Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1065-1079
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035967
Strategies and Initiatives in Acculturation:
Voices from Ghana
Susan Boafo-Arthur
Assumption College, USA
Dzifa A. Attah
Stellenbosch University, South Africa
Ama Boafo-Arthur
University of Ghana, Ghana
Thomas D. Akoensi
University of Kent, UK
ABSTRACT
Culture shock and acculturation are salient aspects of any international
study trip. Over the years, many institutions have devised several strategies
to help international students transition to life in the host country. However,
most of these strategies are insensitive to diverse cultural or country
specifics. Drawing from Social Learning Theory, this paper provides
narratives from four former students from the West African country of
Ghana and how they navigated the process of acculturation in their
respective host nations. The narratives discuss their feelings during the
study abroad trip, some of the challenges they faced, and personal as well
as institutional strategies that aided in ameliorating the experience of
culture shock. A few recommendations for Student Affairs Practitioners are
also provided.
Keywords: Black-African international students, Ghana, institutional

strategies, personal strategies, social learning theory
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Technology and globalization have made education highly accessible to

many students the world over. Scores of students from sub-Saharan Africa
migrate to more advanced or developed nations around the world in pursuit
of higher education. For instance, in 2013/14 and 2014/15, students from
Nigeria were the fourth largest group of international students studying in
the United Kingdom (U.K.) (Project Atlas, 2016), and in 2014/15 and
2015/16 students from Nigeria were the 14th largest group of international
students studying in the United States (Institute of International Education
[IIE], 2016).
Although there is not much research originating from Africa that
focuses on decision-making practices with regards to international education
(Maringe & Carter, 2007), anecdotal evidence suggests that individuals from
these countries are groomed to believe that an education from the West (or a
more advanced society) is more desirable, and this may be a remnant from
Africas history of colonization. Irungu (2013) captured this dynamic when
he says that (to Africans), having an education overseas is considered an
achievement by almost everyone in the individuals society. Maringe and
Carter (2007) also stated that African students tend to migrate to their
former colonial masters perhaps largely because of the derived cultural
capital and language facility (p. 466). The authors also found from one of
their studies on why Africans chose to study in the United Kingdom that
African students believed an education from the U.K. was superior and
internationally recognized.
Often, however, the push for international education is without
consideration for how to manage the consequent encounters that may
prevent international students from making the most of their experiences.
Many institutions offer the customary international student orientation,
which often does not go beyond giving the already overwhelmed students
more information to further inundate them. Moreover, the information given
is not specifically tailored towards the different cultures the students come
from and how they may deal with potential negative experiences they
encounter. Caldwell and Hyams-Ssesaki (2016) summarized this conundrum
by stating that higher education institutions (HEIs) are often more attuned to
the diversity needs of domestic students, whereas the diversity needs within
international students is often ignored.
The experiences of Black African international students are often
distinct and different from that of international students of other races,
including White African international students (Boafo-Arthur, 2014; Lee &
1066
Opio, 2011). Research indicates that Black-African students face

discrimination from multiple sources (e.g., cultural differences, accents, and
negative stereotypes about their countries of origin and also have to deal
with prejudice and discrimination based on their race, and faulty
assumptions about their cultural heritage (Boafo-Arthur, 2014, pp. 116-
118).
Rarely are their unique issues and challenges highlighted.
Additionally, there is limited information on how Student Affairs
Professionals (SAP) can manage and assist this unique group of students to
transition effectively to life in their respective host cultures. Moreover, to
report on best practices for Black African international students might also
not be representative of the experiences of all Black African students and
what might be most helpful in terms of their acculturation.
The purpose of this paper is to provide personal narratives on the
experience of being an international student, as well as survival initiatives
and strategies from the perspectives of former international students who
studied in Norway, South Africa, and England. Specifically, the narratives
will emphasize both personal and institutional strategies that helped curb the
negative aspects of culture shock and that aided transition to a new
academic environment. Lastly, recommendations for SAP are provided as a
means of giving these professionals some ideas on how to work with this
population.
Acculturation and Social Learning Theory
Drawing from psychological principles governing behavior and social

interactions, social learning theory (SLT) posits that learning is contingent
on the interaction between the environment, personal factors (beliefs,
preferences, expectations, self-perceptions, and interpretations), and the
individual behavior (Corey, 2013, p. 237). Per Banduras (1971)
explanation, learning in a social environment can occur either through
direct experiencing of the event, or from observing the behavior of others
(p. 3).
The dynamics of SLT can be applied to the acculturation
experiences of international students in the sense that when international
students through observation, readings, and other processes see other
international students overcoming their challenges and transitioning
successfully, they will be more likely to utilize similar strategies to
overcome their challenges. The recommendation by Mesidor and Fly
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(2016), for instance, that institutions of higher education match incoming

international students with other international students (mentors) already at
the host institution as an aid to the adjustment process is predicated on the
principles of SLT. Thus, international students may be better off when they
have other international students as models or mentors from whom they can
learn how to overcome their struggles than when they are just given generic
information on how to cope.
For most international students, cultural adjustment issues; a sense
of isolation and alienation; and difficulties with transportation, food,
language barriers, the educational environment, and accommodation are
recurrent issues at the forefront of acculturation needs (Wu, Garza, &
Guzman, 2015). Of course, there is no perfection where humans and our
experiences are concerned. Nonetheless, research from the field of
psychology has consistently shown that humans have an overpowering need
to belong and for social interaction, with a lack of healthy attachments
resulting in dire consequences (see Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Gailliot &
Baumeister, 2007; Knowles, Lucas, Molden, Gardner, & Dean, 2010). We
fail to thrive in environments that make us feel rejected and alone.
Understandably, when an international students basic need to belong is met,
the transition process becomes relatively easier.
NARRATIVES
These narratives are from the personal experiences and accounts of four
Ghanaians who studied for various postgraduate degrees at Stellenbosch
University (South Africa); Norwegian University of Science and
Technology (Norway); and University of Cambridge (U.K.). Their length of
residence in the respective host nations ranged from 4 years for a doctorate
degree in South Africa, to 2 years for those who studied in Europe (Norway
and U.K. respectively). In all, there was one male (extrovert at University of
Cambridge), and three females (South Africa, Norway, and the introvert at
University of Cambridge). The labels introvert and extrovert were
primarily used to distinguish between the narratives from the University of
Cambridge as well as to demonstrate how personality differences influence
the adjustment process. We did not find it necessary to apply the same
descriptors/labels to the narratives from South Africa and Norway.
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An Immersion: Experiences from South Africa
I was extremely excited when I obtained admission to one of the top

three universities in South Africa to pursue a three-year doctoral program in
psychology. For me relocating to South Africa meant a new dawn and a life-
changing opportunity to achieve personal growth and career development
from a global perspective. But alas, I was not adequately prepared for what
lay ahead. Acculturating and assimilating to the South African culture was a
bewildering and stressful experience. My first day in South Africa was
exciting, although somewhat strange, as I grappled with adjusting to the
time difference between South Africa and Ghana, new living arrangements,
language barriers, harsh weather conditions, and dietary issues. In the days
and months that followed, personal security, navigating my way to and from
campus, local customs, racial discrimination, xenophobia, poor health,
financial difficulties, complex academic conditions, and institutional
demands become other prominent problems. Adjusting to these
circumstances was a nonlinear and discontinuous process in the sense that
environmental stress was not always predictable and different responses
were required for different problems. In spite of this complexity and
ambiguity, I managed to survive tough academic conditions and harsh living
circumstances. In this regard, self-initiated, social and religious groups, and
institutional-led initiatives were helpful.
The cultural novelty between South Africa and Ghana was great, but
I was personally determined to accept, learn, and adapt to new behaviors in
this cultural setting. Therefore, I periodically challenged myself to try new
ways of doing things in order to help myself successfully incorporate
learning from the host culture. For instance, I tried new food, engaged in
social activities commonly practiced by South Africans (e.g., wine tasting,
hikes, and braais), took part in programs organized by the international
office (e.g., fashion shows, sporting activities, and cooking competitions),
and registered for courses, workshops, or seminars that offered academic
and professional support.
Additionally, in the process of adaptation I received continuous
support from a range of social contacts in and outside South Africa,
including friends and family back in Ghana and beyond, a relative living
within South Africa, co-nationals (i.e., students and nonstudents), and
international sojourners from other countries. Some of the contacts based in
South Africa were also new to the setting; others had months or years of
living in this setting. Maintaining and establishing one-on-one and group
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social contact with such groups of people enhanced the transitional process.
In the case of the former, it was reassuring to know that intercultural stress
was not a unique circumstance and that other students go through similar
challenges and struggles. In the case of the latter, it was helpful to learn
lessons and best practices from others who had adjusted to the host culture
successfully. The church community and the association of Ghanaians in
Stellenbosch aided and mobilized such social interaction through various
events.
At the institutional level, the international and postgraduate office
also hosted a range of innovative activities and programs to facilitate new
learning and adaptation. For example, I participated in brief lunch meetings,
competitions, seminars, and workshops organized by the international
office. Here, I interacted and exchanged cultural experiences with other
students.
To a large extent, my successful adaptation to the host culture was
rooted and strengthened by a good supervisorstudent relationship. My
supervisor understood the importance of this relationship and the sort of
impact it had on my intellectual output. Therefore, he consistently sought to
maintain a healthy and positive relationship. The kind of support my
supervisor offered extended beyond meeting my academic needs. In
addition, he ensured I was socially, physically, financially, and emotionally
stable; in circumstances where he was unable to help directly, he made
appropriate referrals. Adapting to life on campus and in South Africa in
general would have been a difficult process without his consistent assistance
and support. Relocating from the known to the unknown can be a
bewildering experience, but with the right kind of support and resources, it
is just another life challenge that demands change, development, and
maturation.
The International Student Village: Experiences from Norway
During my graduate education in Norway, I realized that my

program was structured in such a way that students had two cohorts, so to
speak: there was a group of co-nationals who began their various programs
in the same academic semester as myself and the larger group of
international students on the university campus. Outside of the general
orientation sessions, international students also attended orientations and
other international meetings at various times during the year and lived in the
1070
same locale/neighborhood. These activities were coordinated by the

universitys international students office.
The living arrangements consisted of four students living in a four-
bedroom flat and sharing common areas. A distinct advantage of this system
was that students got to meet other local and international students, visiting
scholars, study-abroad students from various parts of the world, Erasmus
Mundus scholars, and many other categories of international students. In
effect, the student village was a global village. In my two years in Norway, I
had roommates from Norway, China, South Korea, Spain, Latvia, Sweden,
Germany, and the Czech Republic. In addition, older students from various
countries were already at the host institution. These older international
students often served as mentors and aided in transition efforts by
dispensing valuable information on issues as diverse as accommodation,
shopping, transportation, opening bank accounts, food, and education. As a
new student unfamiliar to the country, culture, and educational system, I
found it beneficial to live with other international students and to share
cross-cultural information. Another benefit was being mentored by other
students from my country of origin. In a sense, there was never truly a sense
of alienation or isolation.
In addition to this, transportation was quite simpleall a student
needed was a bus pass and you could go practically anywhere you wanted in
the city. Sidewalks and pedestrian walkways were common, and so you
never felt impeded, regardless of your mode of transportation. Typically,
new international students do not know the area and have to reside in the
locale for an extended period to navigate around the city by themselves. It
makes sense then to provide international students with accessible
transportation. Ultimately, this also aids in the transition process, as students
feel more confident and more comfortable in their new surroundings.
Finally, food is important to all humans, and finding and eating
food that is familiar can reduce anxiety about life in a new country. For most
cultures, great conversations are also had around food. Parties and other
social occasions often feature food from ones culture. The paucity of food
from ones culture will obviously limit the number and types of social
activities that students engage in. As a fringe benefit, there were also several
specialty grocery stores such as African food stores, Asian food stores, Arab
food stores, and the like, catering to the culinary needs of the
aforementioned populations. These collectively made me feel at ease within
the environment.
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I find that the three issues highlighted earlier are a core aspect of an
international students life. Finding commonalities in our experiences often
strengthens bonds, reduces culture shock, mitigates the experiences of
alienation, and overall makes for a more positive student. The statistics on
international student retention for the United States are not clear; however,
institutions are more likely to increase international student retention if
students are given opportunities to connect with other students and thereby
satisfy that need to belong as described by Abraham Maslows hierarchy of
needs. As such, even if they feel disconnected from host students,
international students still have individuals from their countries or other
countries to engage with. Overall, there are many struggles in the life of an
international student; however, when a students needs in any one or several
areas are met, the potential for negative consequences in other areas is
truncated.
From the Eyes of an Extrovert: Experiences from the United Kingdom
As an African student without any European travel experience, my

admission to an M.Phil. degree, which later culminated in a Ph.D. program
in a U.K. university, was full of anxieties. These anxieties centered around
academic achievement; coping with the weather; building relationships with
colleagues, academics, and institutions of interest; and participating in
activities relevant to my personal and academic development, among others.
During the course of my studies, several institutional and personal initiatives
coalesced into stronger and better adaption to this new environment. I
outline some of these initiatives.
First, I must establish that academic institutions that are
internationally focused must embrace learning from various cultures while
responding to cultural diversity infused with cross-cultural
internationalization. These are my conclusions after several years studying
at this institution. An association of Ghanaian students present at my
university assisted with this assimilation and adaptive process to a European
life beyond the shores of Africa. Various fora held by the association on
students expectations provided the needed atmosphere to air my anxieties
and receive appropriate guidance from alumni on the course I was studying
and to learn from the experiences of others from various programs. One of
the most profound statements by an alumna from an unrelated discipline to
mine was quite profound: No Ghanaian student has ever failed here at
1072
Cambridge. This bolstered my confidence, and I felt reassured that I was

capable of breaking new ground, which I eventually did.
The opportunity to allow members of a given group to forge close
links and to bond can have a negative effect, however. The security of these
associations may create an atmosphere that affords so much comfort and
collegiality that individuals might not want the challenge of engaging in
interactions beyond this circle. This is disadvantageous to personal growth,
as I observed such clinging prohibited others from making friends or
associating beyond their group. Nonetheless, another takeaway from this
forum was learning about shops or streets where we can have access to
meals, spices, and ingredients that were culturally specific. I could purchase
spices and make food that was close to the cuisine at home. This often
attracted my housemates to the kitchen and gave us an opportunity to chat
about various issuesfraternization in the Jesus Kitchen, as we called it,
became a core routine, and my housemates enjoyed my meals. On cross-
institutional internalization, the Ghana Associations links with the African
Union at Oxford University enabled another bigger platform on which to
share and debate issues of mutual importance, including, but not limited to,
academic life, as well as developments on the African continent. I felt a
sense of achievement to have participated in the first Pan-African
conference in the 21st Century at Oxford University.
Again, at the institutional level, my department was collegial to the
extent that I could approach any of my lecturers at any point in time to have
a discussion of on-going issues in a healthy atmosphere. Having
professionals or lecturers from the Black-minority ethnic (BME) groups was
also crucial, as it provided me with a sense of belonging and a role model to
aspire toone of them continues to serve as a mentor on several of my
academic developmental fronts. This was key to my assimilation in this
new, very demanding academic environment. I recall one fateful afternoon
when I attended a one-hour full lecture and struggled with comprehending
the lecture, due mainly to the accent of the professor. Out of frustration I left
the class and approached a different lecturer from my ethnicity; he calmed
me down, empathized with my situation, and gave me tips on how to
overcome the situation. I left his office relieved and in very high spiritsa
recall of this encounter generates raucous laughter whenever we meet. These
open-door policies practiced by my department afforded me the opportunity
to seek assistance whenever it was practicable. I have used such
opportunities offered by other professors of the host nation.
1073
On the personal initiative front, to assimilate and escape boredom, I

explored the nightlife of the city and found a club that was noted for
embracing cultural diversity by playing music and hosting parties and
themes I could associate with. My outgoing personality facilitated this
move. This was one of the best things that happened to me. Friday nights
were spent at this club, fraternizing with people of diverse cultures and
countries and, as I used to say, dance the tree out of my soulan
aphorism derived from the name of the night club: Soul Tree.
From the Eyes of an Introvert: Experiences from the United Kingdom
In my final year as an undergraduate, two things were important to

me: finishing with a first class (referred to as summa cum laude in the
United States) and embarking on a masters degree before settling down to
work. I was pleasantly surprised when I received an offer letter detailing a
fully sponsored M.Phil program in one of the best schools in the world. I
was beside myself with joy and deferred my M.Phil in Ghana to take on the
Development Studies program in the United Kingdom.
Going to the United Kingdom, I had great expectations and a lot of
anticipatory excitement because I had heard a lot about how gorgeous life
outside Africa is. I quickly found out that I was naively unprepared. Upon
arrival, I struggled with the weather, food, and navigating around the
campus, as well as academic work, which was my reason for going. I was
homesick throughout my stay in the United Kingdom and eventually had to
return home earlier than my scheduled departure date. I took a lot of things
for granted and was not adequately prepared for what I experienced. At one
point, I wished I could abandon the course and go home, but fear of cultural
and societal rejection kept me going. I know that my experience could have
been enjoyable if other avenues had been created to assist introverts and
international students leaving home for the first time.
These negative experiences notwithstanding, my personal strategy
for coping with the boredom, loneliness, and homesickness was to rely on
computer games. Because of my introverted personality, I could stay
indoors for weeks and play games the entire time. One of the most useful
resources I had that helped ease my loneliness was the Cambridge
University Ghanaian Society. In this society, I met other Ghanaians, some of
whom were very supportive. This support really helped me to adjust and
complete my masters program. Through the association, I met an old friend
who helped me find my way around town, especially to grocery stores and
1074
to find relevant accessories that I needed at better rates. An older Ghanaian

lady was most helpful as she continually encouraged me to experiment with
English cuisine and to be more adventurous with my palate. With the
encouragement and experiences shared by other students, I forged on.
I also encountered awesome learning experiences that I can never
forget. The library was a great delight, as every book relevant to my
education was readily accessible. I also participated in some conferences
that prior to my masters program I had never considered. These were
insightful as well as intellectually and academically stimulating. Faculty
members also tried their very best to help us settle in, but as was earlier
expressed, individual characteristics must be considered, especially where
international students are concerned.
By the end of the program I had made friends with other
international students who had previously been exposed to life outside their
countries quite often, and they suggested trips during the holidays to other
countries. During the summer, we went on short trips to Italy, Spain,
Belgium, and France. These trips were highly enjoyable and they helped
ease the stress of the school environment, as well as make me forget about
my desire to go home. Adapting successfully to the U.K. and Cambridge
environment was greatly enhanced by the people I met. Despite the
bittersweet experiences, it was a worthwhile opportunity, and I have never
regretted it. I know that next time I will be in a better position mentally,
socially, and psychologically to fully engage in the experiences that such
opportunities present.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Being an international student in any environment can be an exciting, yet

scary process. From SLT, we know that we learn by observing how others
have navigated similar circumstances. The narratives included here describe
personality differences; discomfort; unfamiliarity; and struggles with
culture, food, and transportation and how these collectively destabilized the
process of acculturation. From an optimistic perspective, the narratives also
describe how social connections with others, either in the community or
with older international students, supportive relationships with advisors, and
engagement with other international students helped the adjustment process.
What this may imply is that fostering nonthreatening and assimilative social
connections may ease the transition process. For institutions and SAPs, this
might mean minimizing the typical approach to combating culture shock.
1075
Incorporating practical events that consider Ghanaian, or even more

broadly, African social ethics of collective responsibility, interdependence,
and reciprocal obligations (Gyekye, 2013) might also be necessary. Central
to this is the notion that the Ghanaian cultural context is somewhat based on
a mentorship model. That is, there is the expectation that individuals who
are more advanced in a skill or area are supposed to mentor or guide others
who are yet to be skilled. There is also the concept of nnoboa which in
rural farming communities was a means by which a farmer sought assistance
from other farmers within the community to help in cultivation (Gyekye,
2013, p. 230). This was done in a spirit of mutual reciprocity as refusing to
help others implied that if you needed help, the probability of others helping
you was lessened.
Even within the Ghanaian secondary education system, students in
their final year typically mentor freshmen or incoming students. Mentoring
relationships are also reflected in trade and vocational schools where
apprentices are coached and guided by the older trainees with more
experience. The Ghanaian proverbs:
Onipa nua ne onipa (A human beings brother is a (or, another)
human being);
Onipa yieye firi onipa (The well-being of man depands on his
fellow man); and
Wo nsa nifa hohorow benkum, na benkum nso hohorow nifa the
right arm washes the left arm and the left arm washes the right
arm) (Gyekye, 2013, pp. 225-231)
amplify the significance of mutual responsibility and reciprocity that are
central to Ghanaian and African cultural values discussed previously.
Gyekye further explains that it is in acts of hospitality, generosity, concern
for others, and a willingness to help others to achieve their goals, that this
ideal of brotherhood is depicted.
Gyekye (2013) highlights mutual helpfulness as consistent with
African moral thought and cultural practice. As such new international
students from Ghana, often look to other students who have been in the host
nation for a longer period to, as it were, show them the ropes as is
typically done in their countries of origin. Conversely, students who have
been in the host nation for a longer period also seek mentorship
opportunities with newer students. For SAPs working with Ghanaians, or
Africans in general, it may be helpful to determine how to translate these
cultural values into practical experiences for their student populations.
Mesidor and Fly (2016) discuss similar ideas with their suggestion that
1076
SAPs can connect with longer staying international students to serve as

mentors for new international students who hail from similar cultural
backgrounds. In turn, the latter can also act as mentors to new international
students, after they have acclimatized to the host country. We must caution
here that the purpose of advocating for mentors to have mentees from
similar cultural backgrounds and not necessarily Ghanaians is because we
are cognizant of the fact that in some institutions, the population of
Ghanaians or Africans may not be significant enough to develop an entire
program to cater to their needs. However, if there are others of similar
backgrounds, they can be matched appropriately and still benefit from the
mentoring process.
As exemplified by the narratives within this text, all the writers
admitted that their acculturative process was aided by other international
students who knew or had a deeper understanding of how the host
institutions or countries function, and by connecting and networking with
others who had been residents longer than them, they were able to get
situated with less hassle than they would have had they not known anyone.
Also highlighted in the text, is the fact that all these mentorship models or
processes were informal and within the sub-groupings of international
students. So SAPs may need to find ways to formalize this process so that
from the first day of arriving in the host country, or even prior to arrival,
students are connected.
In conclusion, student affairs professionals may also need to learn,
relearn, or adapt skills that can be necessary in working with students from
different cultures considering the personality differences within their student
populations. Lastly, international students must understand that despite the
seemingly precarious position they find themselves in, they also have to be
willing to make appropriate connections with others to hasten their skills in
adapting to a new environment.
REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1971). Social learning theory. New York, NY: General Learning
Press.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for
interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.
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Boafo-Arthur, S. (2014). Acculturative experiences of Black African international

students. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 36(2),
115-124.
Caldwell, E. F., & Hyams-Ssekasi, D. (2016). Leaving home: The challenges of
Black-African international students prior to studying overseas. Journal of
Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
Gailliot, M. T., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). Self-esteem, belongingness, and
worldview validation: Does belongingness exert a unique influence upon
self-esteem? Journal of Research in Personality, 41(2) 327-345.
Gyekye, K. (2013). Philosophy, culture, and vision: African perspectives. Accra,
Ghana: Sub-Saharan Publishers.
Institute of International Education (2016). Fast facts 2016. Open Doors Report on
International Educational Exchange. Retrieved from
http://www.iie.org/Research-and-Publications/Open-
Doors#.WNqeqI5Jnm0
Irungu, J. (2013). African students in the US higher education system: A window of
opportunities and challenges. In H. C. Alberts & H. D. Hazen (Eds.),
International students and scholars in the United States: Coming from
abroad (pp. 163-180). New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.
Knowles, M. L., Lucas, G. M., Molden, D. C., Gardner, W. L., & Dean, K. K.
(2010). Theres no substitute for belonging: Self-affirmation following
social and nonsocial threats. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
36(2), 173-186.
Lee, J., & Opio, T. (2011). Coming to America: Challenges and difficulties faced by
African student athletes. Sport, Education and Society, 16(5),629-644.
Maringe, F. & Carter, S. (2007). International students' motivations for studying in
UK HE: Insights into the choice and decision-making of African students.
International Journal of Educational Management, 21(6), 459475.
Mesidor, J. K., & Fly, K. F. (2016). Factors that contribute to the adjustment of
international students. Journal of International Students, 6(1), 262-282.
Project Atlas (2016). International students in the United Kingdom. Institute of
International Education Atlas of Student Mobility. Retrieved from
http://www.iie.org/Services/Project-Atlas/United-Kingdom/International-
Students-In-UK#.WNqhYo5Jnm2
Wu, H.-P., Garza, E., & Guzman, N. (2015). International students challenge and
adjustment to college. Education Research International, 2015, 1-9.
doi:10.1155/2015/202753.
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DR. SUSAN BOAFO-ARTHUR is an Assistant Professor in the Department of

Human Services and Rehabilitation Studies at Assumption College in Worcester,
Massachusetts. Her research interests are in the area of international students
acculturation and transition issues with particular emphasis on the experiences of
Black African nationals in the diaspora. Email: sboafoarthur@gmail.com
DR. DZIFA A. ATTAH is a clinical psychologist by profession and is currently

engaged in research and private practice in Ghana. Dr. Attah has research interests
in child sexuality, child and adolescent psychology, and related cultural issues.
More recently, she has developed a keen interest in study abroad experiences, as a
result of her own lived experiences of studying overseas and reintegration after
international sojourn in South Africa. Email: dzifaattah@yahoo.com
DR. AMA BOAFO-ARTHUR is a lecturer in the Department of Distance

Education at the University of Ghana. Her research interests revolve around child
and youth studies, adolescent reproductive health, multiculturalism, and
delinquency. Her interactions with students and peers, alongside her own
international travel experiences as a student, has piqued her interest in study abroad
experiences and the consequent impact on the sojourner. Email:
amboart@yahoo.com
DR. THOMAS AKOENSI is a Lecturer at the University of Kent, UK. He is the

Senior Tutor for the BA Social Science and BA Criminal Justice and Criminology
programmes at the Medway campus where he provides pastoral care to both home
and international students as well as providing specific advice and support to
individual student problems. He also directs students to other avenues of student
support whilst liaising with other departments within the University. Email:
T.Akoensi@kent.ac.uk

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Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1080-1095
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035969
A Collaborative Programming and Outreach Model

for International Student Support Offices
Peter Briggs
Ravichandran Ammigan
University of Delaware, USA
ABSTRACT
Increasing international student enrollment has been a key priority for many
institutions of higher education in the United States. Such recruitment
efforts, however, are often carried out without much consideration for
providing sufficient support services to these students once they arrive to
campus. This article proposes a model for structuring an international
student support office to be successful at serving the academic, social and
cultural needs of international students through a collaborative
programming and outreach model with student affairs and other support
service units on campus.
Keywords: international students, programming and outreach, student

affairs, support services
The growth of international student enrollments at U.S. institutions over the
past decade is shining a light on the complexity of what international
students bring to a campus and what it takes to provide an appropriate level
of support services to meet their needs. In spite of having long traditions of
hosting students from around the world, this continued increase in numbers
is calling for campuses to take a closer look at the challenges associated
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with providing effective support services to this community. Institutions that

have identified global engagement as one of their core strategic priorities are
having to proactively develop and enhance their support model to meet the
changing needs of their international student community and enrich the
international student experience.
With the reach of institutions extending well beyond their local
campuses into global communities, it has become essential for international
education administrators to collaborate to a greater extent with student
affairs and services personnel to not only serve more international students,
but help all students develop global and intercultural competencies
(American Council on Education, 2016). As universities and colleges
continue to become increasingly interconnected through student mobility,
exchange, experiential learning, and research, models of student affairs in
the U.S. also have to expand and adapt to new cultural audiences and
contexts. Residence life, housing, dining facilities, student organizations,
and career and counseling services are not only regarded as universal
elements of the collegiate experience but as a conscious effort to bring
students together and contribute to define the educational mission of
institutions as a global academic and social community (Ping, 1999).
Working closely with student affairs professionals is therefore critical in
moving the internationalization of higher education from vision to reality in
the U.S. system of higher education.
It is important for institutions to recognize that retention relates to
campus-wide experiences and that it is critical for multiple stakeholders to
be involved in campus internationalization efforts that support the
integration of international students into university life (Choudaha &
Schulmann, 2014). As trained educators and mentors of students, student
affairs professionals have the necessary skills and technical knowhow to
develop and coordinate programs that enhance inclusiveness, diversity, and
culturally-rich learning environments on their campuses. One of the five
recommendations that the NASPA Associations Research and Policy
Institute offers to student affairs professionals is to establish campus wide
partnerships that can support and contribute to the holistic learning,
development and success of international students (Ting & Morse, 2016).
For this to happen, however,
Student affairs leaders must nurture support for international
programs and services, persuade others that international and
domestic diversity is a necessity, and work closely with academic
affairs leaders irrespective of the reporting lines of the international
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student office and study abroad office (Peterson, Briggs, Dreasher,

Horner, & Nelson, 1999, p. 67).
The contribution of student services staff is essential in serving the complex
needs of international students and helping them develop global and
intercultural competencies during their stay on campus and in the
community (Ward, 2016).
International education can be a big industry when the resources
generated are well known contributors to the institutions bottom line (de
Wit, 2016). Inevitably, universities that have a strong focus on recruiting
international students for revenue generation draw attention to whether they
are doing enough to create a welcoming campus environment for these
students and provide a platform for international programming and cross-
cultural engagement. It is not only traditional institutions that are seeing
increased economic activity associated with the business of international
students. The trend toward for-profit corporations taking on roles that were
historically performed by colleges and universities has become a robust
issue of strategy and ethics at all levels of higher education. In this context,
it behooves all internationally minded institutions to begin by capitalizing
on the strengths of their existing campus support services as they create
strategic and collaborative student engagement programs that can, in turn,
generate positive local stories and attitudes.
As we discuss this issue further, certain key questions arise: What is
the appropriate level of service that support offices need to provide to
international students so they can fully achieve their goals? How can an
institution maximize educational benefits of the presence of this kind of
global diversity on campus and in the community? This article presents a
structured model of programming for international students that we hope
will serve as a conversation starter on best practices for ensuring the success
of this community. It advocates a vision that is clear, attainable, and
realistic, and offers a collaborative model for contributing to the
internationalization of the campus as well as the wider community.
IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENT PROGRAMMING
Over the years, institutions hosting international students have had to

recalibrate their campus resources to address the substantial educational and
cultural adjustment needed by these students to be successful (Bista, 2013).
In the United States,, international students are likely to experience more
problems and take longer to adapt to local norms and customs than students
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who are originally from the United States (Kaczmarek, Matlock, Merta,
Ames, & Ross, 1984). These students are probably less exposed to available
campus resources and may not know how to find support that can help them
cope and adjust to their new home in the United States.
The recent introduction of immigration regulations, policies, and
compliance standards by the U.S. government has undoubtedly created a
high level of uncertainty and concern amongst international students
studying in the United States. With a potential impact on overall
international education exchanges and student mobility, institutions are
having to reiterate their commitment, dedication and support towards
international engagement and mutual understanding on their respective
campuses (Choudaha, 2016). Offering programming and outreach support to
international students during times of high stress can help them manage the
many issues that they face, including language and cultural barriers
associated with academic and social adjustment, as well as the emotional
challenge often connected with the processes of acculturation. Through the
implementation of culturally sensitive programming and interventions,
effective outreach initiatives have proven to be successful by many in
meeting the various needs of underserved and underrepresented university
students (Nolan, Levy, & Constantine, 1996). Such programs can also help
strengthen the message that these students are welcomed on their respective
campuses.
While many colleges and universities in the United States have
specialized offices that assist international students on how to navigate
complex immigration rules and regulations, not all offer dedicated services
and programs that help with the acculturation and adjustment to the local
campus community. Whether they are organized in the form of centralized
or decentralized services, these resources, often offered in the form of
cultural programming and engagement opportunities, are essential to the
initial and ongoing success of international students and scholars during
their stay in the United States (Wang, 2007).
According to Choudaha and Hu (2016), international students often
interact with institutional silos. Despite the recognized needs and intent to
serve international students, a vast majority of the institutions struggle and
must do more to allocate adequate resources and expertise needed to work
with this diverse population. Supporting, including, and engaging
international students with the larger campus community can add
tremendous value to the institutions overall campus internationalization
efforts. It is therefore imperative for institutions looking to attract and retain
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international students to reinforce their services and programming initiatives

so they meet the needs of these students and, in turn, cultivate an inclusive
climate on their campuses (Ward, 2016).
STRUCTURING THE ISSS OFFICE
Before exploring the programming model, let us start by acknowledging the

environment in which International Student Support Services (ISSS) offices
exist on their respective campuses in the United States. Although the
structure and organizational set up of these offices might differ from
institution to institution, they all have one goal in common: to support
international students in their academic, social and cultural transition during
their studies (Prez-Encinas & Ammigan, 2016). However, all too often
staff in these offices are forced to devote the majority of their time to
administering U.S. government regulations and maintaining compliance
with visa requirements. With limited time, funding, and staffing, this unique
domain of expertise must remain the top priority or the campus might judge
them harshly. As a starting point, the structure we suggest can serve as a
basis for organizing an ISSS office to provide high-end regulatory as well as
programming services.
An office can show its excellence and build reputation for
competence with its unique area of expertise in advising on and interpreting
government regulations. No other unit on campus handles this core
responsibility and it is the ISSS offices duty to maintain high credibility
with faculty, administration, and international students and scholars.
Building inclusive relationships and collaborations across the campus and in
the community can also be an important component for any ISSS office. The
visibility gained in participating in planning committees and strategic task
forces with key stakeholders such as Residence Life and Housing, Student
Life, Career Services, Student Wellness, Academic Services, and
Community Coalitions can build trust and relationships with the wider
campus community even when the time spent is not directly related to
international students. An ISSS office can then take an intentional approach
at advancing campus internationalization through programming and
outreach to explicit international points of contact. These key associations
and entities can be educational, transformational, and important to the
mission of helping bring global perspectives to students, staff, faculty, and
community members. It can turn into a story of goodwill and hope that
everyone can share and embrace.
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DEVELOPING PROGRAMMING AND OUTREACH STRATEGIES
Every innovative programming plan, design, or initiative rests on a few key

assumptions. We offer six important ones below in the context of
developing and implementing a successful international student
programming and outreach model.
First, institutions must recognize that international students are a
valuable educational and cultural resource that is too often underutilized and
overlooked. International educators widely agree that bringing people of
different cultural backgrounds into contact with each other can be
educationally positive and life changing if done with the right structure
(Wongtrirat, Ammigan, & Prez-Encinas, 2015). Building an inclusive
community and a welcoming environment in which its members feel
connected, safe, and engaged can be a powerful instrument that impacts
students sense of belonging, experience, and success. If intercultural
programming is important to a campus diversity goals, it becomes a missed
opportunity not to make the international student community engaged as a
more actively utilized resource. The University of Oregons International
Cultural Service Program (https://isss.uoregon.edu/icsp) is an excellent
example of involving international students as educational resources in a
highly intentional effort to bring international experiences to the campus and
community. Program participants must complete an annual 80-hour
cultural service requirement, by speaking in local school classes and
community groups, in exchange for partial tuition assistance. ICSP is now in
its 35th year and has proven to be a highly successful model.
Second, it can be difficult for cross-cultural engagement to occur
when international students are perceived to stay within their comfort zones
and cultural groups (Stahl, 2012). This is an obstacle to students integrating
and making contact across cultures, which can be so important to the
educational mission of a campus. A study from Baruch College on
international student friendship experiences in the United States found that
more than one in three international students have no close American friends
(Gareis, 2012). Moreover, the successful integration of international and
domestic students is unlikely to occur just because the people are in the
vicinity of each other. It is best achieved with staff whose mission it is to
lead, plan, and facilitate this initiative. The American Council on
Educations Leading Internationalization Report (2016) found that globally
aware and culturally diverse staff who engage constructively with
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colleagues different from themselves and whose designated responsibilities

are to seek out new global experiences can send a powerful signal to
students that these qualities are valued in the campus community.
Third, during the period of time that international students are on
campus, they are residing in, interacting with, and using resources from the
local community. Opportunities for community engagement can lead to off-
campus friendships, better integration with the American culture, business
networking, create a positive impact on academic, social, and adjustment
issues, and a more satisfying overall international student experience
(Cormack, 1968; De Wit et al., 2008; Fleischman et al., 2010). NAFSA:
Association of International Educators provides a dedicated set of resources
on Campus and Community Programming (see http://www.nafsa.org/)
suggesting that there is mutual benefit when community residents are more
engaged with the global diversity amongst them. It is important to ensure
that international students are taking advantage of experiential learning,
career development, and internship opportunities available within their
community and beyond during their stay in the United States.
Fourth, institutions should welcome opportunities to collaborate on
initiatives to reach a wider audience and be intentional at engaging a variety
of campus and community volunteers to be involved in these programs.
Designing a cohesive, cross-departmental plan and coordinating more
intentionally with student affairs offices and other service units on campus,
can address the needs of students more effectively (Roy, Lu, & Loo, 2016).
With great access to international students as a programming resource, an
ISSS office can also play a helpful role for student affairs and other offices
around the university when they develop their own programs for campus
internationalization.
Fifth, in addition to having adequate programs and resources in
place for fostering an inclusive climate amongst students on campus, it is
important for an institution to also build intercultural competence among its
diverse stakeholders including the ISSS office, multicultural center, faculty,
staff, and administrators (Choudaha, 2016). The ISSS office can play a key
role in working closely with other student affairs professionals to lead this
effort and provide the necessary intercultural training workshops and
sessions that enhance communication skills and the ability to support,
connect, and engage effectively with those who are different from us.
And sixth, an ISSS office must be intentional at developing a
communication plan and establishing relevant assessment tools to
effectively reach and gather feedback from their targeted audiences. Making
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sure that the ISSS website is user-friendly and accessible, standardizing

mass-messaging protocols, promoting events via social media channels,
using satisfaction and needs-based assessment surveys, and holding regular
focus groups and student advisory committee meetings are good examples.
In studying the social networking preferences of international students, Saw,
Abbott, Donaghey, and McDonald (2013) found that students choose
channels such as Twitter, YouTube, and Renren for a wide range of
educational and social purposes, while Facebook remains the predominant
choice. To ensure that international students receive critical and timely
information on their immigration status and engagement opportunities, it is
important for an ISSS office to be intentional at how messages are crafted
and deployed to their targeted audiences.
A PROGRAMMING AND OUTREACH MODEL
The programming and outreach model illustrated in Figure 1 was initially

developed by the authors in 2004 and has since been adopted by several
institutions in the United States as a programming and outreach master plan
for serving and engaging international students on their respective
campuses. The models success at Michigan State University (MSU) and the
University of Delaware (UD) can take some credit for the institutions
strong rates of international student recruitment and retention (Institute of
International Education, 2016). Its development grew out of the many years
of experience the authors had in working with international students in
higher education. With an increased emphasis on compliance with
government regulations and declining resources, they saw the need to
remain firm to longstanding core values of international education by
bringing best practices to professional organizations in international
education such as NAFSA (Association of International Educators), EAIE
(European Association of International Educators) and ISANA
(International Education Association).
The understanding of international student needs around the areas of
academic success, social adjustment, and community engagement have been
common standards to identify success for many years (Abe, Talbot, &
Geelhoed, 1998). Moreover, the nexus of international students and border
security has been a periodic hot topic over the past forty years and the need
for non-immigrant students to understand the issues around maintaining
their legal immigration status became all the more important with the
implementation of the U.S. Department of Homeland Securitys electronic
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tracking system in 2003 (Rosser, Hermsen, Mamiseishvili, & Wood, 2007).

It is important to point out that learning objectives and outcomes should be
clearly defined for each emphasis of programming at the time of program
planning and development.
Figure 1: A Collaborative Programming and Outreach Model
This model, which is further described with examples of programs

and key stakeholders in the next section (see Table 1), is based on four
pillars of service to international students:
Programs to Support International Student Success

The ISSS office should attend to the specific needs and well-being
of international students and organize programs and workshops to help them
be successful academically, socially, and culturally. This includes
introducing new international students to the U.S. educational system that
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emphasizes analytical thinking and drawing conclusions. This contrast of

learning expectations can feel like an abstract concept in an academic
setting, thus the need for it to be covered more intentionally at new student
orientation and first year learning programs. Examples include: U.S.
classroom culture series, tutoring services, time management and study
skills, academic honesty and plagiarism, tips for communicating with your
teaching assistant, and language acquisition and support.
Programs to Understand Government Regulations

All international students are in the United States temporarily for
the purpose of study and have special responsibilities that accompany their
non-immigrant status. The ISSS office should conduct information sessions
on government regulations pertaining to immigration, visas, and
employment in the United States. Topics include: maintaining status in the
United States, employment options for international students, travel
advisories, and tax compliance issues.
Programs to Promote International Understanding

International students bring insights and perspectives that can
contribute to cross-cultural sharing and learning. The ISSS office can help
to provide opportunities on and off campus for this engagement to take
place. This is one aspect of the internationalization of the university.
Programs include: weekly coffee hour, essay contest, international education
week, welcome reception, Life in the United States series, and making
friends with Americans.
Programs to Connect with the Local Community

During the period of their studies at the university, international
students are members of the local community. As the primary contact office
for international students, the ISSS office can play a leadership role for
organizing activities that make connections to members of the wider
community. These activities include cultural excursions and field trips,
visits to schools and community groups, networking with community
leaders, holiday events and reception, and organizing friendship home visits.
EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMMING OUTCOMES
In addition to a variety of examples listed in Table 1, we highlight a couple

of programs that have been successful in establishing our programming
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model over the years at Michigan State University (MSU) and at the
University of Delaware (UD).
International Coffee Hour

MSUs international coffee hour was originally launched in 2002 to
provide a supportive structured gathering hub for international students and
those who wished to be affiliated with the Universitys international
community. Building on the new sense of international community, a group
of students who became friends at the coffee hour enjoyed the spirit of
community and recognized there was a need for a leading student
organization to give voice to international student issues. This led to the
formation of the International Students Association in 2003, which serves as
the umbrella student organization for other nationality clubs and has grown
to become one of the most influential student groups on campus.
Similarly at UD, the weekly coffee hour began as a way to build
greater community and provide a space for informal interaction and cross-
cultural connection among diverse groups of international and domestic
students and scholars. With over 200 in attendance each week, this program
provides a platform for attendees to make friends, practice their language,
learn about different cultures, and enjoy a free cup of coffee or tea in an
organic fashion. Due to its popularity, the coffee hour has become an event
open for official sponsorship opportunities, where campus and community
partner offices share relevant resources and often provide free giveaways,
snacks, music, and other cultural performances. It is also a place where
student groups and other communities, such as international families and the
International Student Advisory Committee, gather each week and provide
feedback to the ISSS Office staff on issues pertaining to international
students and scholars at the University.
International Student Essay Contest

MSUs international student essay contest was started in 2003 to
counteract any concerns that international students might feel unwelcome
with the implementation of new Homeland Security measures undertaken
following the terrorist attacks in September 2001. It allowed international
students to reflect on and tell their stories of living in a culture outside their
own. The winning essay was printed each year in the local newspaper, the
Lansing State Journal, thus giving the community an opportunity to build
empathy for the challenges international students faced while living in
Greater Lansing. Judges for the essay contest were picked from
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nontraditional sources that did not typically have daily interactions with
international students, thus reaching out to new audiences and overcoming
the old notion that international programming preached to the already
converted. The success of the essay contest that created a wider and
positive image of international students, was embraced by another
movement to retain talent in Michigan at a time when the states economy
was badly lagging. The Governor recognized that Michigans universities
were bringing talent in science, technology, education and math (STEM)
disciplines that are drivers to economic development through innovation.
The Governors office subsequently formed the Global Talent Retention
Initiative (GTRI) as one of several strategies for partnering with ISSS
offices at universities within the State of Michigan.
At UD, the international student essay contest was launched in
partnership with the Division of Student Life to foster international
understanding and cross-cultural awareness on campus and in the
community. This contest draws over 100 submissions each year, and like at
MSU, all winning essays are made available for University and local
Newark community members to read and walk a mile in the shoes of an
international student. Participating students are recognized at a reception
during International Education Week and are invited to serve in an
intercultural communication student panel discussion throughout the year as
part of the institutions campus internationalization efforts.
Career Services and Programs

The ISSS offices at both MSU and UD have established successful
partnerships with their Career Services to offer a set of programs and
workshops designed to help international students in their job search
strategies and networking with prospective employers in the United States.
Navigating the legal and cultural landscape of American internships and
jobs after graduation can be a challenging task for non-U.S. citizens. To
support their career-preparation needs, joint workshops are offered every
semester and include topics such as resume building, communication skills,
immigration & employment, and networking skills for international
students. The series ends with a culminating session that provides an
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Table 1: Examples of Key Programs and Stakeholders
PROGRAMS STAKEHOLDERS
1. To support U.S. classroom culture series; Using Office of Academic

student success campus tutoring services; Time Enrichment; TA Office;
management and study skills; Academic Writing Center; Tutoring
honesty and plagiarism; Working with Services; University Library;
your TA; Language support programs; Office of the Ombudsman;
Resume building; Mock job interviews; English Language Program;
Navigating the library; Relationships Career Services; Counseling
and dating; Coping with culture shock; Center; Student Wellness;
Managing stress; Dealing with Graduate Office; New Student
expectations from home Orientation Office
2. To understand Maintaining your legal visa status in the Office of General Counsel;
government U.S.; Post graduation employment External immigration counsel;
regulations options; Finding an internship; Travel Career Services; Research
advisories; Renewing your visa; Tax Office; Student Health
compliance issues; Export Control; Services; Law Clinic; Tax
Understanding healthcare and insurance; Clinic Campus Police & Safety;
Rights, responsibilities and personal Human Resources; Office of
safety; Title IX workshops; Applying Equity & Inclusion; Social
for your Social Security Number; Security Administration Office
Driving in the U.S. and Dept. of Motor Vehicles
3. To promote Weekly coffee hour; ice cream social; Student Affairs, Residence Life
international essay contest; international education and Housing; Presidents and
understanding week; welcome reception; Life in the Provost Office; Multicultural
U.S. series; Making friends with Center; Recreational Services;
Americans; Residence Life mixer; Athletics; Student Center;
intercultural communication workshops; Student and volunteer
film series; world cup tournament; Organizations; Athletics;
bowling nights; festival of nations; Various partner offices on
Karaoke night campus and in the community
4. To connect with Cultural excursions and field trips; visits City Managers Office; Local
the local to schools and community groups; schools, businesses and service
community networking with community leaders; providers; Host families; Office
holiday events and reception; organizing of Community Engagement and
friendship home visits; tailgating party; Service Learning; Rotary Club;
host family program; speakers bureau Kiwanis Club
opportunity for students to meet fellow alumni working in the United States
and put their new skills to work by mingling with prospective employers
who have historically hired international students. At UD, this partnership
has expanded to include staff training for university departments, online
resources like job search portals for international students, and specialized
outreach to future employers, where ISSS staff discuss the advantages of
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hiring international students as well as pathways to employment and visa

options.
One key strategy that emerged from the formation of these programs
is that good leadership can create a myth that becomes an inclusive idea
with which people want to affiliate. The communication and branding tactic
that the ISSS offices widely use for promoting the coffee hour and essay
contest programs emphasizes that the university is an international
welcoming campus and that the city is a globally friendly community.
Reminding audiences, whenever possible, of the importance of community
building and campus internationalization can directly impact their
perception of and boost attendance at programs and events.
CONCLUSION
International students and scholars contribute greatly to all aspects of

campus internationalization and present great opportunities for cross-
cultural learning and engagement. It is critical for the larger university
community and administration to value their presence and recognize the
important role they play in the life and sociocultural fabric of the institution.
While many institutions are focused on increasing their international student
enrollment due to financial pressures, they need to remain mindful of the
importance of having a well-structured support system for when these
students reach their campuses. Ensuring that their academic and social needs
are met through a robust programming and outreach model, in collaboration
with Student Affairs and other service units on campus, is key to providing
them with a positive and successful experience during their stay on campus
and in the United States.
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an international educator. He previously held administrative positions at the
University of Oregon and the Institute of International Education. He served with
NAFSA: Association of International Educators in a number of leadership positions,
including Vice President for Regional Affairs and three terms on the Board of
Directors. Email: pfb525@gmail.com
RAVICHANDRAN AMMIGAN is Executive Director of the Office for

International Students and Scholars at the University of Delaware. He is pursuing a
PhD in Higher Education Internationalisation at Universit Cattolica del Sacro
Cuore in Milan, Italy. His research examines international student satisfaction with
campus living, learning, and general support services at institutions of higher
education globally. Email: rammigan@udel.edu

1095

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1096-1103
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035971
Peer Support for International Doctoral Students in

Managing Supervision Relationships
Sherrie Lee
University of Waikato, New Zealand
ABSTRACT
Doctoral education is based on a pedagogical model of apprenticeship
where the expert, the more experienced academic, advises or mentors the
student. Scholars have recognized the challenges of doctoral supervision
due to the intense and individualized nature of the relationship. Based on
the authors personal experiences as a doctoral student and a student
advocate at a university in New Zealand, this article highlights the
challenges that international doctoral students face with regard to
navigating the supervision relationship. The article discusses how student
advocacy and peer support played an important role in resolving issues. The
article concludes that peer networks are important resources for
international doctoral students to make informed decisions regarding
complex issues related to doctoral supervision.
Keywords: doctoral supervision relationships, international students, peer

support, student advocacy
Doctoral education has traditionally been based on a pedagogy of

apprenticeship where there is a private and individualized working
relationship between the expert academic and the novice student (Grant,
2003; Johnson, Lee, & Green, 2000; Walker, 2008). Although there are
shifts in how doctoral education is practiced, such as facilitating
collaborative research environments (e.g., Malfroy, 2005), the traditional
1096
apprenticeship relationship remains a central experience to doctoral study

(Walker, 2008). In universities in North America, the relationship is
between the student and a doctoral advisory committee of typically four or
more faculty members, whereas in universities elsewhere such as Australia
and New Zealand, the committee is referred to as a panel of supervisors,
typically two or three, and in some cases, there may be just one supervisor.
This article is based in an Australasian context and refers to this
apprenticeship relationship as supervision.
The supervision relationship has been recognized as problematic
due to its peculiarly intense and negotiated character (Grant, 2003, p.
175). The relationship is intense as the students primary source of guidance
comes from the same expert(s) for a period of three or more years (three
years being the expected timeframe for completion). Supervision meetings
are often conducted behind closed doors [where] the intensity of the
interpersonal relations is presumed but uninterrogated (McWilliam &
Palmer, 1995, p. 32). It is also a relationship which is constantly being
negotiated and where the student is expected to transform from a novice to
an independent researcher (Grant, 2003). The supervision relationship is
thereby fraught with unequal power and social dynamics between the
supervisor and student. International doctoral students not only have to
navigate a challenging relationship, but also face additional sociocultural
concerns such as unfamiliar academic, linguistic, and cultural environments
(Wang & Li, 2011) and challenges in forging new social relationships and
networks (Deem & Brehony, 2000; Trice, 2004).
Based on the authors personal experiences as a doctoral student and
student advocate at a New Zealand university, the remainder of the article
highlights the challenges of managing supervision relationships for
international students and discusses how issues were addressed through peer
support. Peer support refers to the provision of help from one to another on
the basis of similar status and shared experiences (Boud, Cohen, &
Sampson, 2001). While the report of personal experiences does not
constitute formal research, scholars such as Wilkins (1993) have recognized
the importance of autobiographical experiences as important sources of
sociological insight. In writing autobiographically, however, there is a need
to consider ethical responsibilities to those who may be identified or
implicated (Ellis, 2007). To this end, I am conscious not to reveal
information or identities of particular persons but instead, draw attention to
the issues and discuss how they were addressed.
1097
BACKGROUND
I am an international student from Singapore and am currently in my third

year of doctoral study at a university in New Zealand. In my first year, I
joined the Postgraduate Students Association (PGSA), a student-led
organization affiliated with the students union at the university. The
overarching mission of the PGSA is to represent all postgraduate students
(domestic and international students), who range from those pursuing
qualifications just above Bachelors level to doctoral students, in matters
pertinent to the postgraduate experience. When I first joined the PGSA, I
was elected its Secretary as part of its executive committee. In the following
year, I was elected President; in that capacity, I was also the postgraduate
student representative on university committees.
While the majority of the PGSA activities are social or networking
events, an important mission of the PGSA is to protect the interests and
well-being of postgraduate students. This advocacy role involves providing
opportunities for postgraduate students to share their concerns and engaging
appropriate stakeholders to address the issues. In my leadership role in the
PGSA, I regularly interacted on an informal basis with postgraduate
students, and in particular, international doctoral students. Based on my
experiences as a PGSA representative, I share how peer support benefitted
international doctoral students in navigating their supervision relationships
in terms of: (1) having an avenue to voice concerns; (2) understanding how
to communicate with supervisors; and (3) getting personal guidance with
difficult situations.
HAVING AN AVENUE TO VOICE CONCERNS
The PGSA holds monthly meetings where members have the opportunity to
meet the executive committee members, as well as raise any concerns that
they might have. There were several occasions where students attended the
meeting to share particular issues they faced, or communicated with
executive committee members what they wished to be brought up at the
meeting.
For international postgraduate students who had limited social
networks in a new country, the PGSA meetings provided them a congenial
space to discuss their concerns. International students raised matters such as
visa and financial related regulations, as well as funding and scholarship
1098
opportunities. At times, students brought up issues that they could not

resolve directly with their supervisors. For example, one student brought up
that he was unable to proceed with his original research plan as there was a
sudden reduction in funding. He and his supervisors had different responses
to the situation; while his supervisors saw this as a matter of changing the
scope of the research, the student felt that it was more important to secure
the necessary funding for the original research. Another student raised the
issue of not being consulted regarding a change in his supervisors;
furthermore, he was concerned that these changes would affect his
scholarship from his home government.
In response to such student concerns, as the PGSA representative, I
facilitated direct communication between the student and the appropriate
staff members, or requested a written or formal response from the university
department that could then be shared with the student and other interested
parties. The latter approach was particularly effective when students
requested anonymity or did not want to engage directly with the university.
UNDERSTANDING HOW TO COMMUNICATE WITH

SUPERVISORS
While it was useful to have the opportunity to raise issues at PGSA

meetings, there were times when it was more appropriate to seek advice
within a private conversation, such as when dealing with interpersonal
issues. One of the common challenges for international students is to adjust
to an unfamiliar culture (Hechanova-Alampay, Beehr, Christiansen, & Van
Horn, 2002; Major, 2005; Sherry, Thomas, & Chui, 2010). Within the
context of a supervision relationship, there are also individual personalities
of supervisors to become accustomed to, and more importantly, students
need to be able to relate to supervisors personally and professionally,
especially when their relationship is over the period of several years.
From my personal experience, I have found that one common way
for international students to understand the social dynamics of supervision
relationships is to ask other doctoral students, often fellow international
students, and where possible, those from the same countries or similar
cultural backgrounds. Because supervision relationships take place in
private spaces, it is from the experiences of other students supervision
relationships that new students can make sense for themselves of what to
expect. The preference for seeking advice from an international or co-
1099
national student is likely because they too started from similar position of
understanding a new culture.
For example, an international student approached me with the issue
of not receiving a response from her supervisors. She had sent an email to
her supervisors several weeks prior and was anxious in receiving feedback
on a particular piece of writing she had submitted. She revealed that her
supervisors were always very busy and she was feeling frustrated at not
getting prompt attention.
In response, I first explained that I too faced similar issues in the
initial period of my doctoral studies. Then I asked her to consider what other
commitments her supervisors had, for example, teaching, marking students
assignments, and being away for conferences. I also suggested that in
requesting some action from supervisors, it was useful to indicate when she
expected to received feedback by. We then discussed how best to phrase the
wording of the email message. I further suggested that she could think of
other things she could do while waiting for her supervisors to respond, for
example, working on other pieces of writing or organizing her research
notes. At the end of conversation, she felt she was more aware of how to
communicate with her supervisors and better manage her expectations of
them.
GETTING PERSONAL GUIDANCE WITH DIFFICULT ISSUES
Apart from potential communication issues with supervisors, there can be

other more difficult issues with supervision relationships such as prolonged
delays in scheduling meetings, not receiving the desired feedback from
supervisors, and disagreements over the direction of ones research.
Regardless of whether the supervisors, students, or external factors
contributed to the situation, it is ultimately the student who bears the burden
of overcoming these issues.
International students often have a strict timeframe to complete their
doctoral study. For example, some may be on a three-year scholarship from
their government. More generally, all international students will have to
complete their study within the time period of their student visas. Although
students may request to extend their period of study, doing so incurs other
costs, and is undesirable in most cases. For scholarship holders, not only
will their funds run out, but they may also have to pay back their
governments for delaying their completion. Self-funded students may have
only budgeted enough for what they anticipated was a three-year program
1100
and securing additional funding may mean finding work in an already tight
labor market.
However, there may not be a straightforward solution to resolving
difficult issues. At times, it might be difficult to assess whether a delay is
temporary or a more serious issue where external intervention is necessary.
In complex situations, students may hesitate to take action if it threatens to
disrupt the supervision relationship and cause either party to lose face,
that is, to be embarrassed or humiliated (Ingleton & Cadman, 2002). In
addition, there may be the risk of further delay if attempts to resolve current
issues become protracted. Such unresolved tensions invariably affect
students mental health negatively (Levecque, Anseel, De Beuckelaer, Van
der Heyden, & Gisle, 2017).
In such situations, student advocates are important resources to help
guide students to locate appropriate resources and to provide necessary
support. In my leadership role, I was well acquainted with the various
postgraduate-related departments and their functions, and was able to offer
suggestions to students as to the appropriate people or departments to
approach. In one particular instance, a student was overwhelmed by the
situation she was facing and was not sure who she should approach to have
her issues resolved. I first shared with her the roles of the different
departments and how they related to her particular situation. When she
expressed hesitation at having to attend multiple meetings, I shared with her
that it was acceptable for her to bring along a support when going for these
meetings, and offered to attend these meetings with her. Before going to the
meetings, we also discussed possible scenarios that would arise from the
meetings to help her mentally prepare for the final outcome.
CONCLUSION
Entering a doctoral supervision relationship is a challenging endeavor.

Supervision relationship issues are often delicate matters. For international
doctoral students, constraints in funding and completion timeframes add to
the challenges of navigating supervision relationships. In this
autobiographical reflection, I have highlighted how the PGSA plays an
important role in offering peer support to international doctoral students. As
a student-led organization, the PGSA provides a platform for fellow
postgraduate students to voice their concerns. Such a platform is valuable
for international students in particular because of their relatively weaker
social networks in a new country. In my leadership capacity and as an
1101
international student, I was able to provide personalized guidance to other

international students, particularly those in trying circumstances, and assist
them in making informed decisions.
Peer support networks are therefore important resources for
international doctoral students in understanding the nature of supervision
relationships in a new social and cultural context. It is hoped that
universities will work alongside student groups and advocates to better meet
the particular needs of international doctoral students. For example,
university budgets can allocate funding to support social and professional
development events that allow international students to establish support
networks. Furthermore, student affairs and similar departments can co-
organize such events with student groups so that university representatives
themselves become more familiar with the needs of this particular group of
students. Finally, universities can help hone the leadership and
organizational skills of student groups and advocates by providing relevant
training, especially to new student leaders, thus also helping to ensure the
continuity of student organizations.
REFERENCES
Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Sampson, J. (Eds.). (2001). Peer learning in higher
education: Learning from and with each other. Abingdon, England:
Routledge.
Deem, R., & Brehony, K. J. (2000). Doctoral students access to research cultures-
are some more unequal than others? Studies in Higher Education, 25(2),
149165. doi:10.1080/713696138
Ellis, C. (2007). Telling secrets, revealing Lives: Relational ethics in research with
intimate others. Qualitative Inquiry, 13(1), 329.
doi:10.1177/1077800406294947
Grant, B. (2003). Mapping the pleasures and risks of supervision. Discourse:
Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 24(2), 175190.
doi:10.1080/01596300303042
Harman, G. (2003). International PhD students in Australian universities: Financial
support, course experience and career plans. International Journal of
Educational Development, 23(3), 339351. doi:10.1016/S0738-
0593(02)00054-8
Hechanova-Alampay, R., Beehr, T. A., Christiansen, N. D., & Van Horn, K. R.
(2002). Adjustment and strain among domestic and international student
sojourners: A longitudinal study. School Psychology International, 23(4),
458474.
1102
Ingleton, C., & Cadman, K. (2002). Silent issues for international postgraduate
research students: Emotion and agency in academic success. The
Australian Educational Researcher, 29, 93113. doi:10.1007/BF03219771
Johnson, L., Lee, A., & Green, B. (2000). The PhD and the autonomous self:
Gender, rationality and postgraduate pedagogy. Studies in Higher
Education, 25(2), 135147. doi:10.1080/713696141
Levecque, K., Anseel, F., De Beuckelaer, A., Van der Heyden, J., & Gisle, L.
(2017). Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students.
Research Policy, 46(4), 868879. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2017.02.008
Major, E. M. (2005). Co-national support, cultural therapy, and the adjustment of
Asian students to an English-speaking university culture. International
Education Journal, 6(1), 8495.
Malfroy, J. (2005). Doctoral supervision, workplace research and changing
pedagogic practices. Higher Education Research & Development, 24(2),
165178. doi:10.1080/07294360500062961
McWilliam, E., & Palmer, P. (1995). Teaching tech(no)bodies: Open learning and
postgraduate pedagogy. Australian Universities Review, 38, 3234.
Retrieved from http://www.aur.org.au/archive/38-02/aur_38-
02.pdf#page=33
student population. Higher Education, 60(1), 3346.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9284-z
Trice, A. G. (2004). Mixing it up: International graduate students social
interactions with American students. Journal of College Student
Development, 45(6), 671687. doi:10.1353/csd.2004.0074
Walker, G. E. (2008). The formation of scholars: Rethinking doctoral education for
the twenty-first century. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Wang, T., & Li, L. Y. (2011). Tell me what to do vs. guide me through it:
Feedback experiences of international doctoral students. Active Learning in
Higher Education, 12(2), 101112. doi:10.1177/1469787411402438
Wilkins, R. (1993). Taking it personally: A note on emotion and autobiography.
Sociology, 27(1), 93100.
SHERRIE LEE is a PhD candidate at the University of Waikato. Her doctoral

research uses the concept of brokering to explore how international students at a
New Zealand university seek help with their academic learning from peers and
significant others. Email: leesherrie@gmail.com

1103
Peer Reviewed Article

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1104-1112
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035973
Ivy League Experience: Increasing Care,

Increasing Engagement
Silvester G. Mata Jr.
University of Houston, USA
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this personal narrative is to document initiatives that were

designed and implemented to increase engagement and inclusivity for
international students. The university campus of focus is a historically elite
institution that enrolls one out of five international undergraduate students
when compared to domestic peers. Initiatives focused on welcome events
(i.e., orientation, campus tours, student panels) were implemented along
with initiatives focused on student mental health and student wellness.
Successful initiatives utilized campus resources such as university crisis and
alert teams in addition to campus resources focused on counseling and
student health.
Keywords: Codeswitching, Crisis team, Elite institution, Engagement
In recent years, there has been an increase of international students

choosing to study at higher education institutions (HEI) within the United
States. Recently, the Institute of International Education (2015) reported that
a total of 974,926 international students studied in the United States during
2014-2015. Though this equates to approximately 8% of total fulltime
students enrolled in 2015 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016),
international students have become a growing population on college
campuses.
1104
Specifically, at Cornell University, a prestigious Ivy League

institution, one out of every five undergraduate students is an international
student (Cornell University International Students & Scholars Office, 2016).
Not only are international students the largest demographic population in
their 2016 cohort, but since 2006, it has been one of the fastest growing
populations at Cornell (Cornell University International Students & Scholars
Office, 2016). It is estimated that within four years, the international
undergraduate population will grow to a steady 25% at Cornell University.
But are the services and programming created for international students
equal to the services that domestic students receive? And if so, what is the
foundation that these services are based upon?
This practitioner narrative will discuss initiatives and strategies that
were implemented at Cornell University to assist in helping the transition
and success of its growing international student population. This narrative
will include a brief overview of student development theories and literature
that were considered in the development of student improvement initiatives.
Following the overview, this narrative will examine specific initiatives that
were created to improve the student experience of international students.
Finally, a conclusion will discuss the challenges, limitations, and
implications for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Although they may be strangers to the campus, and possibly to the United
States, international students seek services and programming that is equal to
that of their domestic peers. Opportunities for engagement are extremely
important as scholars predict it is the cornerstone that will increase
opportunities for academic success (Kuh, 2009). It is imperative that
university staff understand how scholarship and research can impact the
creation process of initiatives. This understanding can possibly lead to
engagement opportunities for creating a sense of belonging, which may
generate greater academic success for students. In recent years, concepts of
diversity have become the cornerstone and foundation for increasing
services for students (Hurtado, 2007). However, programming focused on
the diversity of undergraduate students often do not include the international
student population because their formal designation as international students
often puts them in a unique category within university systems which may
often restrict them to offices focused only on International Students (Cornell
University Office of the Registrar, 2017). While methods and concepts
1105
focused on increasing diversity has shown that they do indeed work, to be

even more effective, initiatives focused on international students must be
properly adapted (Nagda, Gurin, Sorensen, & Ziga, 2009).
Seminars, workshops and other activities with outcomes to increase
building community allow international students to feel a part of the campus
and university community. Feeling inclusive of community activities allows
international students to see that they matter in the eyes of university staff
and other university students (Patton, Guido, Quaye, Forney & Evans, 2016;
Schlossberg, 1989). Additionally, when students feel that they matter, the
probability of feeling marginalized is reduced (Patton et al., 2016;
Schlossberg, 1989). Schlossbergs (1989) theory of mattering and
marginality has been used in the development of domestic students. It can
also be applied to international students if university staff takes into
consideration the holistic view of the student and the various identities that
resonate within international student communities (Patton et al., 2016).
Taking into consideration the totality of a students identity allows
university staff to employ resources and tactics for students to find their
inner voice while also taking into consideration views from within the
campus community and outside the community (Torres, Jones, & Renn,
2009).
In recent years, another great resource for international students has
been teams of university staff and faculty called crisis teams. Crisis teams
were shown to be highly influential to Texas A&M University following the
fall of a 30-foot bonfire. The annual bonfire which occurs before Texas
A&Ms Maroon Out game in 1999 ended in tragedy when the bonfire
collapsed and killed 12 current students and one alumnus (Gortner &
Pennebaker, 2003). The Texas A&M Crisis team was influential in assisting
community, parents, and students to connect with campus and local
resources. Additionally, they provided information and served as liaisons to
mental health officials to assist in grieving. The notion of a crisis team also
showed relevance when in 2007 a lone gunman killed 33 individuals
(including himself) on the campus of Virginia Tech University (Wigley &
Fontenot, 2010).
PRACTICES AND INITIATIVES
In my former professional role, it was my responsibility to draft and

implement initiatives to increase a students sense of belonging. This was
part of a university campaign, which required the participation of all
1106
colleges, academic units, and staff departments (Cornell University, 2017).

However, because the campaign was centered on the concept of diversity,
many felt that international students were not an appropriate audience on
whom we should focus. In my college, when the word diversity is
mentioned, it was solely focused on domestic racial constructs (Parekh,
2000). Because of this reason the idea of including international students in
diversity initiatives was less receptive than expected. However, it was my
belief that the large number of international students within my college
(Cornell University International Students & Scholars Office, 2016) and the
overall diversity found within the international student population
necessitated that they were included in my initiatives.
Though there existed many different programming opportunities
(e.g., college orientation, student financial aid workshops, residence hall
tours) for our growing international student population, I felt they needed
something different and unique. To accomplish this, I began the work of
creating a new initiative focused on international students mental health.
Due to a variety of concepts and stereotypes such as model minority,
stereotypes, in addition to cultural differences, many international students
mental health issues are ignored (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010). To create a
foundation for new initiatives, I needed to reach beyond my college to create
a network of support. Cornell University hosts several cultural centers
dedicated to various cultures and demographics. Research has shown that
cultural centers have been an influential piece in creating a more inclusive
environment in addition to providing support as it relates to customs, culture
and overall campus experience (Ladson-Billings, 2012). However, I did not
want to create a support system that perpetuated notions of isolation,
ethnocentric thinking, or potentially increased opportunity for students to
alienate themselves from other students.
To challenges these notions, I hosted panels consisting of students
and staff from campus cultural centers. Inviting students that represented a
variety of cultural centers was to highlight how students may invest in their
university community by highlighting and showcasing their culture. The
benefit of including students (specifically upperclassmen) highlighted the
accomplishment of surviving at the university while maintaining a
connection to cultural artifacts, identity, and customs. This helped incoming
students understand that their academic success did not mean that they must
disavow and destroy connections to their cultural background and history.
For many students, their connection to their culture allows for support,
belief, and faith in challenging times. Within many of the seven colleges at
1107
Cornell University, students will look toward staff and faculty that may
share or have direct connections to their cultural background. However, to
increase a students cultural and professional capital, associating with
individuals who reside outside of their cultural community, who support
them while at the same time recognizing their culture and differences may
better prepare students for the world and life outside the college and
university setting.
An additional initiative that was launched was the selection of a
staff member who would serve as the college crisis manager. As the college
crisis manager, I served on university wide committees such as the Bias
Assessment Response Team, Crisis Managers, and the University Alert
Team. The insertion of a crisis manager within the college allowed us to
understand several advantages of having this role embedded in the college.
The first advantage was revealed in reviewing survey data from current
international students gathered during First-Year Parents Weekend. As
international parents would visit and interact with college administration and
admission officers, they would voice their concern of leaving their child and
the distance that was between them. They would ask questions such as,
What would happen if my child would get sick? What would happen if I
cant reach my child for several days? What would happen if my child goes
off his medication and has a severe reaction? Their worries were lessened
by knowing that through a system of protocols, their worries would be
relayed to somebody properly trained to deal with such circumstances in a
proper, professional, and caring manner. Parents were relieved that an in-
college crisis manager was available throughout the day, over summer
break, and had the support of the university police department and
community medical resources.
Students were relieved in knowing that there was somebody within
the college that actually cared about their mental health and wellbeing.
Because of the increasing numbers of international students, many students
believe that they may get lost in the system and be forgotten. By coupling a
crisis manager with a safe space location, students found the courage to talk
about issues such as mental health, depression, abuse, or academic needs
(e.g., grades, semester leave of absence, possible failure of a course) that
may have otherwise been seen as possible topics of shame or possibly
disrespect within their families. However, for some students, concepts such
as mental health, wellness, depression, and mental fatigue still presented a
challenge due to the stigma of them being topics that re often seen as taboo
within their respective cultures.
1108
To compensate for possible cultural stigmas with mental health,

workshops were done in tandem with both crisis managers and mental
health practitioners. The purpose of presenting the workshop in pairs was to
translate mental health resources, services, and concepts into a framework
that would serve the students. For example, we used code switching to relay
information to students. Code switching is often used by underrepresented
students when they switch communication techniques and standards
(Chauncey, Grainger, & Holcomb, 2008). Often used in the classroom,
students will learn various concepts and then, upon returning to their
original community, will translate what they have learned in a way that their
family or community will understand (Lin, 2013; Milroy & Muysken,
1995). However, in this situation, code switching techniques were used to
translate how mental health services could support individual academic
pursuits.
Instead of using medical terms to describe processes and possible
diagnoses, the crisis manager and the mental health technician were able to
express benefits and services in terms that an international student would
understand. To strengthen this technique, instead of focusing on language
related to university goals or that speak only towards goals of the health
center, conversations would also focus on the goals of the students. Because
many first-year students are looking for tools to assist them in their goal of
completing their first year, verbal messages were communicated in a way to
situate mental health staff and health centers as tools to accomplish their
goals. Instead of using university language such as sign-in sheets, HIPPA, or
confidentiality, concepts such as missed classes and tests, health leaves, and
additional time for work were discussed. In addition, we held a workshop
that presented mental health concepts in a way that was relatable to the
students.
CONCLUSION
This narrative is based upon my experience after serving a four-year tenure

as a student supports specialist at Cornell University. Many of my initiatives
were based with various concepts of student affairs theories serving as the
foundation for the design and implementation. However, this very concept
design made it a challenge for the implementation of initiatives for
international students. Many student development theories were created
while focusing on and studying domestic Caucasian students or students of
color. International student development theory literature is often criticized
1109
for the lack of depth, in addition to the fact that the literature on
international student experiences often focus on weaknesses and not
strengths of the students (Patton et al., 2016).
My inclusion of traditional student development theories to inform
my practice was to treat international students like any other university
student and lessen the possible marginalization of international students by
treating them differently. However, my experience proved that international
students are different. To provide services to them is to recognize their
individual differences, attributes and characteristics. I am not sure if my
efforts at Cornell saved students lives, or helped support the colleges
mission. What I do know is that students knew they had an ally, a friend,
and somebody that cared. And for me, that made the long days and nights
worth it.
This practitioner narrative will prove to be beneficial by expanding
the literature on the international student experience. While other studies
have studied the international student experience at public universities (Lee
& Rice, 2007) and international student persistence and graduation (Dill &
Soo, 2004), few studies are written from a student affairs personnel
perspective. It is my hope that this narrative will also provide a practitioner
point of view by focusing on providing services to international students in
an Ivy League university setting. Given the state of higher education
finance, state appropriations, and possible cuts to federal financial aid for
domestic students, many international students are identified as a pipeline of
tuition revenue (Cantwell, 2015). My experience has shown me that
international students do not want to be seen as revenue generating engines,
but instead just as students.
In conclusion, advising and working with international students is a
delicate process. While attempting to ensure that their college experience is
no different than their domestic peers, university staff and faculty must still
recognize cultural, religious, age, and other differences that they may have.
To truly understand their lived experiences, it is vital that student affairs
professionals continue to work with international students (both current and
alumni) to further understand their lived experiences. This understanding
may warrant seeking new training in both methodological and practical
approaches to working with international students. Associations, such as the
American College Personnel Association (ACPA), offer great professional
development and opportunities to learn of new, innovative ways to create a
more inclusive culture on their campus. My personal experience in seeking
1110
training from a variety of sources allowed me to assess if my college was

inclusive or exclusive to international students.
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relationship between new international undergraduate enrollments and
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annual statistics. Ithaca: Cornell University.
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Media coverage and community-wide health effects of the Texas A&M
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empirical foundations. New Directions for Institutional Research, 141, 5-
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identity, theory, and practice. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
perceptions of discrimination. Higher education, 53(3), 381-409.
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Linguistics Review, 4(1), 195-218.
1111
Milroy, L., & Muysken, P. (1995). One speaker, two languages: Cross-disciplinary
perspectives on code-switching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
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dialogue: Engaging diversity for personal and social responsibility.
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theory. London: Macmillan.
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community. New Directions for Student Services, 48, 5-15.
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student affairs: Origins, current status, and new approaches. Journal of
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SILVESTER MATA is a 3rd year PhD student in the Higher Education Leadership
and Policy Studies Program in the College of Education at the University of
Houston. His major research interests lie in the area of student development, higher
education finance and public policy. Email: slymata2@gmail.com

1112
Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1113-1125
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035975
Providing Culturally Relevant Services for

International Black African Collegians in the United
States: A Guide for Student Affairs Professionals
Ifeyinwa Uchechi Onyenekwu

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, USA
ABSTRACT
The experience of international Black African collegians (IBAC) in U.S.

higher education has not been adequately investigated, particularly as it
relates to understanding the diversity within Black and international student
populations. In this manuscript, I offer seven culturally relevant suggestions
for student affairs professionals, all of which build on my professional
experiences working with IBAC in student affairs as well as my research
with Nigerian collegians in U.S. higher education.
Keywords: African students, Black collegians, Nigerian, Student affairs
Shot in the streets of the United States, raped by police in France, and beat
up by citizens in India, man its tough being Black in this world.
Angel Mujahid (Mujahid, 2017)
At the time of this article, reports of Black Africansnamely Nigerians

being attacked and killed in India and South Africa are hitting the news
circuit (Unah, 2017; Wu, 2017). These unnatural deaths are a reminder that
despite ethnicity or national origin, Black bodies in the United States (U.S.)
and around the world are being destroyed. As Marc Lamont Hill (2016)
1113
pointed out in his book Nobody, there is an increasingly intense war on the
vulnerable (p. 9), and international Black African collegians (IBAC) are
not exempt from this treatment.
Situated within the current politically charged national climate that
is challenging foreign policy and the brutality to Black life, this article
explores alternative visions by addressing Black African embodiment in
U.S. higher education. With this in mind, the purpose of this article is
twofold: (1) to identify the needs and issues that are unique to IBAC in the
U.S., and (2) to discuss how student affairs professionals can implement
strategies to better serve these students. More specifically, this article is a
response to the reality that the experiences of IBAC in U.S. higher education
have not been adequately investigated, particularly as it relates to
understanding the diversity within this group. Much of the discourse around
international students primarily focuses on the experiences of Asian
students, while overlooking the experiences of students from other regions
(Fries-Britt, George Mwangi, & Peralta, 2014; Lee & Rice, 2007). This
article attends to the paucity of African experiences in international
education literature.
Using my own experience working with IBAC as a student affairs
professional and research with Nigerian collegians in U.S. higher education
as a point of reference, I provide context in understanding IBAC
experiences that adds a practitioner and scholarly lens. What follows is a
brief explanation of my two research studies on Nigerian collegians, and
seven suggestions for student affairs professionals. While this is not an
empirical study, my research provides context for a deeper understanding of
the IBAC lived experiences.
WHY FOCUS ON NIGERIANS?
It is important to note that Africa is a continent that is made up of over 50

countries with diverse cultures and populations. Nigeria, a country located
in West Africa, has the largest Black population in the world. It also has
been recorded as having the biggest economy in Africa, and a large sender
of students to the U.S. from Africa (Institute of International Education
[IIE], 2014; Steeves, 2016). With this in mind, Nigerians are a noteworthy
demographic to focus on, as it is a growing and understudied Black African
population in higher education.
Nigerians in the U.S. are experiencing an African American
experience that is unique and distinctive to their Black American peers.
1114
They are also graduating college and obtaining degrees at high rates (Capps,
McCabe, & Fix, 2012; Kent, 2007). Given their unique and distinctive life
experiences as an international and Black student on campus, there is a need
for student affairs professionals to learn more about how they can support
IBAC. Findings from my two research projects reveal IBAC are confronted
with difficult life decisions, and student affairs professionals are in a unique
position to help (Patton, Renn, Guido, & Quaye, 2016; Quaye & Harper,
2014; Reynolds, 2009).
The first project examined how Nigerian college students make
meaning of their racial and ethnic identity at a predominantly White
institution. Detailed interviews were conducted with 20 Nigerian college
students at a Midwestern public research university in spring 2013.
Questionnaires were administered to collect socio demographic information.
Seven participants reported that they were international students, and five
participants were considered transnational as they were born and/or raised in
Nigeria.
The second study also employed qualitative research to examine the
educational journey of Nigerian returnees with foreign degrees. In
December 2015 - January 2016, I surveyed Nigerian returnees in Lagos and
Imo State, Nigeria, regarding their economic and personal reasons for
return. Respondents were asked about their reason for studying overseas and
motivation to return to their homeland. A total of 26 valid survey responses
were received and 20 in depth semi-structured interviews were conducted.
Research was organized in two phases: (1) administering of demographic
questionnaires and (2) in depth interviews. The following research questions
were examined: What is the educational and career journey of Nigerian
returnees? How do Nigerians complicate the brain drain and brain
circulation discourse? While the data from these studies do not represent all
African international students, it does provide an example and an in-depth
understanding of potential challenges impacting IBAC. What follows are
seven suggestions for student affairs professionals.
Learn About Ethnically Diverse Black Populations
Student affairs administrators are encouraged by the profession to

be knowledgeable of identity development theory (Patton, Renn, Guido, &
Quaye, 2016). Recent work identity formation of ethnically diverse Black
students identity formation (Awokoya, 2012; Balogun, 2009), intraracial
diversity (George Mwangi, 2014), neo racism (Lee & Opio, 2011), and
1115
sense of belonging (Stebleton & Alexio, 2016) explores their lived

experience on U.S. college campuses. The aforementioned work suggests
that understanding more about the diverse academic and social experiences
of the IBAC population is essential to improving their opportunities and
outcomes.
In addition, it is important to note that Blackness in the U.S. context
has political underpinnings (George Mwangi, 2014) and many of these
international students are discovering the politics of Blackness through
multicultural engagements. In the campus environment, IBAC are being
introduced to tropes and stereotypes through formal and informal social
interactions with peers, faculty, and administrators. Research shows these
constituents have limited knowledge and exposure to the diversity within the
African continent, and often inaccurately compare Black African
international students to domestic Black students (Onyenekwu, 2015).
Research and media also suggests that higher education professionals
perceive Black international students as high academic achievers and
model Black students (Bennett & Lutz, 2009; Massey, Mooney, Torres, &
Charles, 2007; Rimer & Arenson, 2004). Awokoyas (2012) study on
Nigerian students illuminates this point. She writes:
Participants discussed how teachers noticed and often commented

on behavioral differences between the African and African
American students, describing the former as respectful,
disciplined, and hard working. Emeka recalled how a teacher
differentiated her from her Black peers: [The teacher said] she
could tell that my parents were Africans because I was disciplined
and well-behaved . . . and I felt at times that Ive been used as kind
of that example, that Black example. Likewise, Ngozi reported
how a teacher told her, I could tell immediately that you guys were
African kids . . . youre not like those Black American kids.
Through such passing comments, teachers may not have realized
that this may have contributed to African American youths
resentment toward African immigrant youth. (p. 268)
Although the aforementioned quotation pertains to Nigerian participants K-

12 experiences, I witnessed firsthand working as a college administrator that
IBAC learn and sometimes embrace anti-Black (read: Black American)
tropes through similar interactions on campus. Peers, faculty, and staff
provided indirect and direct messages that perpetuate negative stereotypes
1116
about the academic achievement of Black Americans students. For example,

the lack of representation of Black American collegians in engineering
programs at predominately white institutions is used as evidence to illustrate
that Black Americans are not intelligent and/or do not work hard. Such a
disturbing and rudimentary understanding ignores the historical legacy of
white privilege and institutional racism that has caused significant
opportunity gaps disproportionately disadvantaging Black Americans.
Accepting these comparison compliments are detrimental to
understanding Black Americans and creates intraracial tensions between
IBACs and Black Americans. To this end, the next section describes how
respectability politics manufactures the model minority thesis (see Poon et
al., 2016) as a tool that perpetuates cultural racism and intraracial tensions
within Black communities. In this context, non-U.S. Black students are
being marked as model due to perceived behavioral traits and high
academic performance.
Avoid Perpetuating the Model Black Myth Narrative
As a higher education researcher, one of my main lines of scholarly

inquiry examines how race gets conflated with ethnicity. Not only does this
conflating further complicate identity politics for IBAC, but it also promotes
tensions between native Black Americans and Africans that are based on
myths and lies supporting Whiteness (Onyenekwu, 2015; Pierre, 2004; Poon
et al., 2016). In the higher education context, oftentimes
the discursive use of Black / African immigrant ethnic and cultural

distinctiveness is predicated and repackaged in ways to perpetuate
and reinforce stereotypical understandings of native born and
foreign born Black persons. Comparative analysis have reinforced
racial myths that devalue Black American culture, and a key aspect
of these discourses impedes essential discussions about the complex
nature of United States racism and the Black immigrant
confrontation with the United States racial hierarchy. (Pierre, 2004,
p. 144)
More specifically, IBACs as a minoritized group in the U.S. are used to

diverting attention away from educational inequalities by propagating the
contentious notion that they exhibit cultural values that are appreciated by
higher education professionals. Massey, Mooney, Torres and Charles (2007)
1117
suggest that some people believe that admissions officers prefer IBACs to
Black Americans. In my experience, faculty and staff have expressed mixed
feelings regarding IBAC. For some, IBAC are being used to mask the lack
of domestic diversity on campus, and are taking the spots of domestic
Black students. Others see IBACs as model Black students who encompass
distinctive cultural attributes such as hard work and academic achievement.
Similar to other groups of color (i.e., Asian Americans), IBAC are being
presented as a model Black group through the narrative that serves to
reaffirm a racial hierarchy that perpetuates anti-Black racism (Lee & Opio,
2011; Lee & Rice, 2007; Pierre, 2004).
Learn from African Student Groups
Consistent with literature indicating that Black students seek co-

ethnic student organizations for support, IBAC engage in campus clubs
and/or organizations as a way of coping with isolation and exclusion on
campus (Baber, 2010; Museus, 2008; Onyenekwu, 2015). IBAC join
African student groups, which positively influenced their identity
(Onyenekwu, 2015). Stebleton (2007) suggests in his article on career
counseling and African immigrant college students that culturally centered
organizations are a great resource for connecting and learning about diverse
African students. It is also important to note that research data finds students
sometimes mature out of these organizations as they matriculate through
college, and pursue more professional student organizations (Onyenekwu,
2015). More specifically, African students are most likely to join and be
actively engaged in co-ethnic student organizations during their first and
second years of college (Onyenekwu, 2015).
A good way to learn about the rich diversity of African and African
diaspora populations is by attending events put on by these student
organizations. Stebleton (2007) echoes these sentiments in his article about
counseling African students. He encourages student affairs professionals to
learn more about African history, culture, and the immigrant experience so
that they are better prepared to deal with immigrant students' issues (p.
304). He also asserts that it is important to examine misconceptions about
African students. For instance, he posits that there are three main
misconceptions about African students: (1) Africans want to assimilate and
break away from their traditions; (2) life is easier in the U.S.; and (3) they
want to pursue the American Dream (Stebleton, 2007). The author asserts
that African collegians have their own dreams, and they want these dreams
1118
to be acknowledged and fostered. Student affairs professionals should

examine their biases and avoid making assumptions about students needs,
issues, and aspirations. Furthermore, student affairs professionals should be
cautious with sensationalized media reports about Africa and African
populations that focus mainly on poverty, disease, famine, poor
infrastructure, and other negative stereotypes; what Nigerian novelist
Chimamanda Adichie calls the danger of the single story [about Africa]
(Adichie, 2009).
Engage in Anti-racist Marketing of the African Continent
Professional development and training is needed for student affairs

professionals who are interested in working in areas of social justice,
diversity, and inclusion. Awokoya (2012) recommends that professionals:
use media as a pedagogical device to deconstruct African

stereotypes. Images and discussions on Africa often emphasize
political strife, poverty, and disease. Critically examining these
popular images (e.g., commercials, documentaries, magazines) can
help students to practically explore what stereotypes are, investigate
how stereotypes affect those being portrayed, and interrogate the
stereotypical ideas that they hold. Further, educators could challenge
and balance stereotypical media images with alternatives such as
diasporic films, documentaries, and self-authored works that offer
different perspectives on African peoples and lifestyles. (p. 274-
275)
Preparing and educating culturally competent student affairs professionals

broadly has the potential of decreasing microaggressions towards African
students (Awokoya, 2012; Harwood, et al., 2015; Okaplaoka & Dillard,
2012; Stebleton, 2007; 2016).
It is as important that student affairs professionals are responsible
for teaching and sending American students to the African continent engage
in anti-racist marketing. Since we know that U.S. college students have a
very narrow perception of sub-Saharan African countries and values (Mou,
2014; Osunde, Tlou, & Brown, 1996), it is extremely important for student
affairs professionals to frame and contextualize information in ways that
help students unpack their experience before, during, and after their study
abroad trip.
1119
Misrepresentation of Africa through curriculum, study abroad

promotional materials, and service learning trips does little to affirm the
identity of IBAC. Research finds that images of Africa on campus
promotional materials are consistent with poverty porn, which is media that
exploits poverty to engage or incite attention (Onyenekwu, Angeli, Pinto, &
Douglas, 2017).
Pronounce Their Names
Consistent with reports that find Chinese students value campus

officials saying their name correctly (Fischer, 2015), research finds that
Nigerian international students also appreciate when they are called by their
preferred name (Onyenekwu, 2015). Students reported that student affairs
professionals often mispronounced or shortened their names for
convenience. For example, in one of my studies, an international graduate
student described how he noticed that faculty and staff preferred using his
Christian name in place of his Igbo name (Onyenekwu, 2015). Although the
participant stressed to his academic department in person and on official
school documents that he prefers to be called by his Igbo name, his attempt
to be called by his Igbo name was undermined by professionals who may
have thought that his name was too difficult to pronounce.
Mispronouncing names is to be expected; however, it is important
that student affairs professionals make concerted efforts to say IBAC names
correctly. In doing so, they show students that they respect and appreciate
their culture. By ignoring and unapologetically mispronouncing African
names, peers, faculty, and staff miss out on an opportunity to expand their
understanding of Black African international students.
Improve Financial Literacy Courses
While many institutions have financial wellness centers, it is

important for practitioners to have a well-versed understanding of the needs
and challenges of IBAC. While all international students pay significantly
higher tuition rates than their in-state tuition-receiving counterparts (Quaye
& Harper, 2014), IBAC end up being disproportionately impacted due to
currency exchange. The U.S. dollar is substantially stronger than any
currency coming from African countries. Given the difference in exchange
rate, even high to middle class students experience challenges and
socioeconomic jumping while they reside in the United States (Onyenekwu,
1120
2015). It is vital that students are provided appropriate budgeting skills in

order to manage their resources and the currency difference. Providing
students with the most innovative and cost effective services such as
international student friendly banks, grocery stores, and telecommunication
providers is helpful.
Research literature finds that African students remit to their family
while abroad (Obadare & Adebanwi, 2009). As a result these students pay
exorbitant fees to companies like Western Union for transferring money. It
is imperative to keep in mind these fees when sharing money management
strategies and resources on transferring money. To this end, students need
help locating funding that will help alleviate their college expenses. Since
research finds that finances are one of the top reasons students drop out of
college, connecting them to resources and budgeting strategies are crucial to
retention (Olbrecht, Romano, & Tiegen, 2016).
It is also imperative to understand and learn about students who are
becoming naturalized citizens or have mixed citizenship statuses in their
families. For example, naturalized citizens or students who have lived
abroad may have trouble navigating financial aid systems such as FASFA.
Therefore, being aware of the different citizenship statuses, and mixed status
households will help in finding students who are in need of financial
services, but are not traditional international students.
Improve Job Placement and Career Services
Research findings suggest that host institutions could do more to

assist IBAC transition back to their home country. Respondents from my
study on Nigerian returnees with foreign degrees reported that host
institutions played little to no role in them securing employment in Nigeria.
Rather, respondents explained that culturally centered social and
professional networks, along with family connections, were most beneficial
in resettlement and job placement. In addition, returnees relied heavily on
family and extended family to support their integration, which included
room and board.
While some interviewees in my studies shared that they learned
about jobs through professional networks such as the National Society for
Black Engineers (NSBE) and private companies, more participants
expressed frustration with on campus career fairs. Employers oftentimes
dismissed students credentials and talents when they learned about an
IBAC citizenship status. Sponsoring an international student and/or graduate
1121
is expensive and requires familiarity with processing work visas. Companies

oftentimes try to avoid this complicated and costly process unless they are
familiar with the procedure and possess the necessary resources to file for a
work visa. In addition, respondents felt as though their host institutions
lacked the compassion, awareness, and resources necessary to help with job
placement in their home country or another country.
CONCLUSION
In sum, connecting IBAC within the wider context of supporting

international students needs to be specific to combating anti-Black racism
and other issues concerning the African diaspora. University personnel play
an instrumental role in the identity construction of ethnically diverse Black
populations (Onyenekwu, 2015; Patton et al., 2016). To this end,
professional development is needed to help student affairs professionals
better understand this population, particularly because their personal
identities (i.e., African, Nigerian, Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa) do not fit neatly
with how U.S. society perceives race and ethnic identity. This is important
because understanding race and racial hierarchies prepares students to
identify and navigate racism.
For students, navigating the advantages and disadvantage that come
along with categories and labels can be emotionally taxing. Practitioners
who understand the process in which an individual develops attitudes and
beliefs associated with group membership will be better suited to advise and
guide students as they make meaning of their experiences. In order to meet
the diversity and internationalization initiatives of higher education,
practitioners must pay attention to the increased diversity within the Black
student population. In doing so, it is crucial to not limit the understandings
of Black populations into a U.S. and non-U.S. Black international binary.
Instead, the reality is that diversity (i.e., gender, ethnicity, generational
status, nationality, birthplace) within the Black community is going
unnoticed, and the university setting is a good space and opportunity to learn
from people across the globe. Student affairs professionals should be
prepared and culturally competent to help mitigate misunderstandings and
facilitate intercultural and inclusive dialogue.
1122
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1124
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170.
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Quaye, S. J., & Harper, S. R. (2014). Student engagement in higher education:
Theoretical perspectives and practical approaches for diverse populations.
New York: Routledge.
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IFEYINWA ONYENEKWU, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Practice in the

College Student Affairs program in the Graduate School of Education at Rutgers
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Email: ifeyinwa.onyenekwu@gse.rutgers.edu

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Peer Reviewed Article

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1126-1134
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035979
Troubling Metaphors and International Student

Adjustment: Reflections from a Transnational Place
David Starr-Glass
SUNY Empire State College, International Programs (Prague)
ABSTRACT
On many campuses, offices of International Student Affairs address the
perceived needs of international students. However, a number of underlying
assumptions and persistent metaphors shape these efforts and influence
their outcomes. All students are uniquely different and face equally different
challenges in adjusting to higher education. Labeling students
international may make institutional sense, but it can potentially hinder
their transition, adjustment, and ultimate success. Applying restrictive labels
can perpetuate stereotypes, reinforce institutional silos, and potentially
fracture international students from the rest of the student body. This article
reflects on how studentsirrespective of national originsare viewed and
assisted in a transnational setting that includes more than 70% of students
who might, in other contexts, be classified as international.
Keywords: cultural capital, inclusion, integration, labeling theory,

perceived difference, self-identity, stereotyping
A key issue at many institutions of higher education is the adjustment and

success of their international students. It is well recognized that inbound
educational migrants often confront challenges in adjusting to their new
country and its educational system, and that they may face problems in
integrating with the domestic student body (Gebhard, 2012; Vasilopoulos,
2016). Although some college administrations and faculties provide well-
intentioned assistance, the adjustment experience of many international
1126
students indicates that significant barriers and difficulties still exist. Of

course all adjustments can be complex and difficult, but it is suggested that
part of the difficulty faced by international students lies in how their
colleges perceive them and respond to them based on those perceptions
(Roberston, Line, Jones, & Thomas, 2000).
This practitioner-based reflection starts with an exploration of two
metaphors that are central to the problem. However, at the outset, it might
be helpful to clarify several issues: (a) although conceptual metaphors may
seem like rhetorical flourishes, they have the power to shape the way we
think, what we experience, and what we do every day (Lakoff & Johnson,
1980, p. 3); and (b) when metaphors are recognized and taken seriously,
they have the ability rearrange the furniture of the mind (Kittay, 1995).
This reflection considers two troubling metaphors and attempts to rearrange
the mental furniture that we might have accumulated about international
students, their adjustment, and their success.
LABEL METAPHORS:
AUTHENTIC IDENTITY AND STEREOTYPE
We may not literally attach labels, but we do metaphorically label the world
around us. Labels allow us to recognize, categorize, and make sense of what
might otherwise be a confusing and disorientating world. Labeling is an
active and intuitive processa reflexive sense-making heuristicthat
provides utility, but it also creates and perpetuates stereotypes that can blind
us and negatively impact those who are labeled. There is ample evidence
from labeling theory, attribution theory, and intuitive judgment research to
indicate that labelswhen differentially applied and reinforced through
usagesignificantly shape our perceptions of others, change our behavior
towards them, and impact their self-identities and self-definitions (Heckert
& Heckert, 2010; Kahneman, 2002; Malle, 2011).
Labeling does not automatically impose an identity, but it does
provide a starting point when we try to make sense of the other. It also
provides a less than helpful starting place for those others when they begin
to consider their own identities, generate self-narratives, and negotiate a
discourse of identity (Haugh, 2008). In this reflection, it is argued that to be
labeled an international student is to be identified as something different
and distinct from a domestic student. Thus labeled, international students
are casually relegated to a homogenous group in ways that might be
1127
institutionally helpful, but which promote stereotypes, obscure diversity, and

contribute to a slow erosion of individual selfhood (Scudamore, 2013).
All students have individual needs and face unique challenges when
they enter college. For example, in U.S. higher education, more than 30% of
all first- and second-year domestic students enroll in remedial courses to
address specific learning and academic problems (Chen & Simone, 2016).
Many studentsdomestic and internationalare challenged by the culture
of their institution, by the dynamics of the learning process, and their
inability to communicate effectively. Further, most studentsif not all
studentswould welcome richer educational experiences and greater
exposure to different perspectives in the classroom and on campus. But how
can that richness and diversity materialize if those who are the most likely to
provide it feel separated and segregated by the international label? How
can those students contribute to the social and cultural richness of the
institution if they sense that they are classed as different and that the most
prudent response to that difference is social silence or invisibility?
SILO METAPHORS:
PART-OBJECTS AND INSTITUTIONAL MYOPIA
Grain silos are storage towers that hold one type of grain and segregate it
from othersthey isolate the particular, prevent mixing, and function to
conserve separate identities. Clearly, silos provide a rich set of attributes that
can be metaphorically mapped onto seemingly unrelated situations,
behaviors, and states of mind. In particular, silo metaphors have been used
to describe the way in which some organizational participants come to
perceive themselves as separated from the broader organization, consider
themselves isolated from its central mission, andoften unintentionally and
quite unconsciouslystart to treat others as what some have termed
disconnected part-objects (Cilliers & Greyvenstein, 2012).
At the individual level, silos produce a mindset that is so
exclusively focused on the particular that individuals gradually become
unawareand often quite unconcernedabout the relationship between that
specific element and the larger organizational picture. Silos, and those who
occupy them, create barriers to the comprehensive operational integration,
information sharing, and regenerative creativity that are needed throughout
the whole organization. Once erected, silos have a remarkable ability to
persist at all levelscultural, cognitive, and behavioral (Willcock, 2014).
1128
Most colleges and universities are organized functionally and have

limited structural features that allow for the development of departmental
cross-linkage or administrative integration. As such, it seems natural that,
once a college labels a part of its student population international, it will
then create a functional unit to deal with this designated sector
International Student Affairs. These organizational units address the issues
that are perceived as relevant for the adjustment, transition, and success of
those labeled internationals (Lillyman & Bennett, 2014; Long, 2012;
Manning, Kinzie, & Schuh, 2014; Schuh, Jones, & Harper, 2011). Offices of
International Student Affairs can be seen as performing a very useful
function, but all too easilyincrementally and unwittinglythey can also
become isolated silos with unnecessarily restricted remits, overly focused
objectives, and behaviors continuously reinforced by pragmatism and
myopia about international students.
WHERE INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS ARE SIMPLY STUDENTS
As an educator practicing in international settings, I have been concerned

about the impact of stereotypical labeling and restrictive silos on student
outcomes. My initial concern was that the conceptual metaphors of labels
and silos become reified and start to impose limits on how we understand
international students and on how we work with them. My deeper concern is
that the well-intentioned classification of students as internationaland the
equally well-intentioned efforts of International Student Affairsare
essentially counterproductive and often inhibit the adjustment, integration,
and academic success of the students involved. Since these concerns are
shaped by my own experiences, it might be useful to provide some context.
I supervise students researching and writing their undergraduate
dissertations at an International Program of an accredited American college.
The college has established an educational alliance with a private university
in Prague, the Czech Republic. The college determines curriculum, monitors
the delivery of educational experiences, and maintains an on-site presence to
ensure academic quality control. At first glance, this might seem to be a
classic example of transnational education, an arrangement through which
students who are citizens of one country enroll inand subsequently
receive academic credits and qualifications froma higher education
institution located in a different country (OMahony, 2014; Ziguras &
McBurnie, 2015). However, the situation and dynamics are more complex.
1129
In most transnational education settings, the majority of enrolled

students are from the local country. In Prague, the situation is different. The
college has a stellar reputation for educational excellence and for graduate
placement and success. This well-deserved reputation attracts highly
qualified applicants not only from the Czech Republic, but also from many
neighboring Central and Eastern European countries, Russia, and the Asian
republics of the former USSR. Consequently, although Czech students form
the single largest national group on campus, they only constitute 28% of the
undergraduate population. The campus has exceptional national diversity,
with 2016 statistics showing that our 550 students come from no less than
sixty different countries.
This truly remarkable degree of national representation gives the
campus an exceptionally rich, vibrant, and exciting mix of cultures and
languages. Our campus is the epitome of an international academic
community; indeed, the adjective international seems insipid, redundant,
and quite irrelevant. In a very real sense, we have no international students.
Every student is simply recognized as a student, and every student
irrespective of ethnic or national culture heritageis regarded as an equally
privileged member of our learning community.
Given this context, we also have no International Students Affairs
office on campus. Student advisement, educational guidance, learning
assistance, and appropriate remediation are provided for all students based
on individual need, not on place of origin. We recognize every student as a
unique individual and provide services and assistance for him/her as a
person, not as a representative of a domestic or foreign group. In our
institutional lexicon, there is neither room nor reason for words such as
domestic, native-born, foreign, or international.
Indeed, in my conversations with students they rarely self-identify
as international; instead, they understand themselves to be students in an
international setting. If they have issues with their English language skills,
they sign up for workshops in which they may sit beside native English-
speakersthe focus is on a shared problem, not on a different place of
origin. In fact, on our campus the only international label is attached to a
department that deals with visa requirements and European educational
transfer opportunities (Erasmus).
This situation may be exceptional, but it is what we have created
and it is what we and our students experience. It suggests alternative ways
of thinking about nationally migrant students, about how they might be
helped to adjust, and about how they might be assisted to succeed. By
1130
labeling individuals as international, we might inadvertently be setting them

up to experience the anticipated difficulties common to international
students. By labeling them, they might be seenand might come to see
themselvesas different in ways that are as false as they are unhelpful. By
focusing too much on presumed difference, we might be neglecting the
commonalities that all students share, no matter from where they come.
By automatically applying international labels, we might be
segregating and unwittingly placing obstacles in paths to success. And by
delegating the responsibility of inbound students to the silos of International
Student Affairs, we might be distancing them and pushing them away from
the broader academic community to which they rightly belong. This is not to
claim that International Student Affairs has no place on campus. Rather, it is
to suggest that it might be more useful to integrate their services into other
student support systems, to absorb some of their specialist functions into
more general programs and initiatives, and to deliberately reduce the
perceived institutional boundaries that separate visiting students from their
domestically-based peers.
Unfortunately, in many institutions of higher education in the
United States, it is all too common for international students to be in
demand primarily because they provide a source of higher tuition:
international students have spawned an industry. Colleges need to be more
mindful of the value of inbound migrant students, because these students
bring more than moneythey bring a richness of creative diversity and a
wealth of much-needed cultural capital. Colleges also need to be more
appreciative of the social and cultural wealth associated with these students
and of how that wealth can contribute to the development of equality and
diversity awareness, knowledge and skill within students and staff that can
lead to cultural and societal change (Hanesworth, 2016, p. 2).
Deeper insights into diversity, national culture, and international
differenceall perspectives increasingly prized by academic institutions
and needed by their graduatescan only come about if inbound migrant
students are regarded as true partners (Hudzik, 2015). Critically, higher
education needs to realize that culturally inclusive pedagogies shift
responsibility for inclusion from the learner to the educational institution
(Blasco, 2015, p. 86). Incoming educational migrants are valuable
institutional resources, not administrative challenges. They need to be
accepted as valuable agents of change, not as marginalized objects to
change. They need to be acknowledged as students who are an integral
1131
component of the academy, not labeled as international students who are in

some way separate, exceptional, or problematically different.
In looking forward, it might be helpful to remember, the living
metaphor starts dying once it begins to live within language (Billig &
MacMillan, 2005, p. 461). Perhaps, in time, the metaphoric labels pinned
onto our international students might become less restrictive and
increasingly irrelevant. To create more vibrant campuses, in which all
students can grow and learn, we need to accept incoming studentswho are
often mentally courageous, motivated, and adventurousas peers and
fellow students, not as differentiated internationals.
To allow all students to growirrespective of their cultural and
national originswe need to reconfigure the dedicated silos designed to
serve only those who are perceived as different, or who are considered
temporary sojourners on our campuses. And to bring about richer, more
stimulating, and more inclusive communities of learning we need to provide
appropriate care and assistancenot circumscribed by place of birth or
predicated on perceptions of differenceto all who wish to advance,
integrate, and succeed in those communities.
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no smoking guns across time. Discourse and Society, 16(4), 459480.
Blasco, M. (2015). Making the tacit explicit: Rethinking culturally inclusive
pedagogy in international student academic adjustment. Pedagogy, Culture
& Society, 23(1), 85106.
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institutions: Scope, experiences, and outcomes (NCES 2016405). U.S.
Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education
Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016405.pdf
Cilliers, F., & Greyvenstein, H. (2012). The impact of silo mentality on team
identity: An organisational case study. SA Journal of Industrial
Psychology/ SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 38(2), Article 993. Retrieved
from http://www.sajip.co.za/index.php/sajip/article/viewPDFInterstitial/
993/1179
Gebhard, J. G. (2012). International students adjustment problems and behaviors.
Journal of International Students, 2(2), 184193.
Hanesworth, P. (Ed.) (2016). Introduction. Equality and diversity in learning and
teaching in higher education, Equality Challenge Unit and Higher
Education Academy joint conference, Edinburgh, Scotland. Retrieved from
1132
http://www.ecu.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Equality-and-diversity-
in-learning-and-teaching-Full-report.pdf
Haugh, M. (2008). The discursive negotiation of international student identities.
Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 29(2), 207222.
Heckert, A., & Heckert, D. (2010). Differential labeling theory. Sociological
Imagination, 46(1), 2440.
Hudzik, J. K. (2015). Comprehensive internationalization: Institutional pathways to
success. London, UK: Routledge.
Kahneman, D. (2002). Maps of bounded rationality: A perspective on intuitive
judgment and choice. Nobel Prize Lectures, Stockholm, December 8 (pp.
449489). Retrieved from www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-
sciences/laureates/2002/kahnemann-lecture.pdf
Kittay, E. F. (1995). Metaphor as rearranging the furniture of the minds: A reply to
Donald Davidson's What metaphors mean. In Z. Radman (Ed.), From a
metaphorical point of view: A multidisciplinary approach to the cognitive
content of metaphor (pp. 73116). Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: Chicago
University Press.
Lillyman, S., & Bennett, C. (2014). Providing a positive learning experience for
international students studying at UK universities: A literature review.
Journal of Research in International Education, 13(1), 6375.
Long, D. (2012). The foundations of student affairs: A guide to the profession. In L.
J. Hinchliffe & M. A. Wong (Eds.), Environments for student growth and
development: Librarians and student affairs in collaboration (pp. 139).
Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries.
Malle, B. F. (2011). Attribution theories: How people make sense of behavior. In D.
Chadee (Ed.), Theories in social psychology (pp. 7295). Oxford, UK:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Manning, K., Kinzie, J., & Schuh, J. H. (2014). One size does not fit all: Traditional
and innovative models of student affairs practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Roberston, M., Line, M., Jones, S., & Thomas, S. (2000). International students,
learning environments and perceptions: A case study using the Delphi
technique. Higher Education and Development, 19(1), 89102.
Schuh, J. H., Jones, S. R., & Harper, S. R. (Eds.) (2011). Student services: A
handbook for the profession (5th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley.
OMahony, J. (2014). Enhancing student learning and teacher development in
transnational education. York, UK: Higher Education Academy. Retrieved
from: https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/system/files/resources/enhancingtne_
final_080414.pdf
Scudamore, R. (2013). Engaging home and international students: A guide for new
lecturers. York, UK: Higher Education Academy. Retrieved from:
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https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/system/files/rachelscudamorereportfeb2013.
pdf
Vasilopoulos, G. (2016). A critical review of international students adjustment
research from a Deleuzian perspective. Journal of International Students,
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London, UK: Routledge.
DAVID STARR-GLASS is a mentor and undergraduate dissertation supervisor

with the International Programs (Prague) of SUNY Empire State College. David has
earned three masters degrees: business administration, organizational psychology,
and education. His teaching and research interests include mentoring, organizational
culture, and cross-cultural management and over the last twenty years he has
published more than seventy peer-reviewed articles and book chapters. When not in
Prague, David lives in Jerusalem where he teaches economic and business-related
courses with a number of local colleges. E-mail: David.Starr-Glass@esc.edu

1134

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1135-1151
doi:10.5281/zenodo.1035989
Recurring Themes Across Fractal Issues

Facing International Students: A Thematic Analysis
of 2016 Dissertations and Theses
Krishna Bista
Uttam Gaulee
Morgan State University, USA
This section shares recent dissertations and theses with the Journal of
International Students readers. There were about 139 graduate dissertations
and theses related to the issues and challenges of international students in
2016. The complete versions of these selected dissertations are available in
the ProQuest, Michigan-based electronic publisher. ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses Global is the world's most comprehensive collection of
dissertations and theses from around the world, spanning from 1743 to the
present day. This database has found 17,164 results from 1922-2018 while
searching the keywords international student in its search engine.
The leading institutions of higher education in producing
dissertations related to international students/international education were as
follows: University of Toronto (427), Indiana University (423), University
of Southern California (401), University of Minnesota (339), The Ohio State
University (304), the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (299),
Purdue University (298), Michigan State University (275), Walden
University (258), University of California, Los Angeles (210), University of
Maryland, College Park (205), University of Florida (203), Florida State
University (198), Iowa State University (194), and Texas A&M University
(192). This does not mean all dissertations/theses were related to
international students as the keywords may appear in many other disciplines.
Written in 1922, The Foreign Student on the American Campus (by
Anne Elizabeth Neely, the University of Chicago) was the oldest
dissertation related to international student. ProQuest database indicated
1135
1,426 results related to international student with 1,259 full texts since 2016.
There were 139 doctoral dissertations and theses directly related to
international students published in 2016. These dissertations and theses
came from a variety of disciplines from American, British, and Canadian
universities.
Across the 139 dissertations that came out in 2016, we found about
a dozen themes. Not surprisingly, the most common theme was
acculturation, with 32 dissertations. Other themes in order of the frequency
were writing/academic skills (16), retention (13), language (9), counseling
(9), global awareness (8), social media technology and online education (6),
discrimination (6), identity (7), recruitment (5), teaching assistants (4),
community engagement (4), career (4), college choice and mobility trends
(4), community college (3), and miscellaneous (9). Below is a more detailed
list of key ideas that were addressed in these various themes.
Acculturation
Acculturation in the context of international students involves the
cultural adjustment of international students by adapting to or
borrowing traits from the culture of their host community including
the host institution. This theme consisted of the dissertations that
addressed key issues such as student life satisfaction and transitional
experiences ranging from food to spouses, games to campus life, and
other socio-cultural adjustment issues.
Figure 1: A Visual Representation of Acculturation Issues
1136
Writing and Academic Skills

The second theme consisted of other perennial issues facing international
students such as academic and writing skills required by the new institutions
they matriculated into. The complexities pertaining to the reading, writing,
assignments, teamwork, and academic integrity were addressed in these
studies.
Figure 2: A Visual Representation of Writing Issues
Retention
About a dozen dissertations addressed retention strategies including college
retention practices adopted by the host institutions, challenges that
international students face when integrating, persistence, student-athletes
retention, retention and achievement, overall college experience, retention in
online doctoral programs, engagement, effects of demographics on freshman
retention, and use of tracking software packages such as MAP-works for
student success and retention.
Counseling
Counseling and mental health was another theme that talked about well-
being and distress, psychological challenges, mental health resources, help-
seeking intentions, resilience, language anxiety, and health care in reducing
stigma.
1137
Language
Many dissertations addressed unique challenges as experienced by students
from various geographic regions including China and the Middle East.
Issues associated with language proficiency such as academic self-efficacy,
social relationships were addressed. Moreover, the role of language
background, role of mother tongue, communication problems, and identities
connected with accents and language learning needs were studied.
Miscellaneous
Many dissertations in 2016 addressed some unique issues such as
international students perceptions of Anglo-Saxon model, propensity to
trust, policy experiences, hopes and experiences of international students in
the UK, correcting misinformation on HIV/AIDS, roommate-pairing
program, and experiences of international students with learning disabilities.
Teaching Assistants
A small number of dissertations (4) specifically addressed experiences of
international students working as teaching or graduate assistants. Challenges
of having to adjust to new classroom culture, feedback received and
experiences of learning to teach in the U.S. were studied with various
interesting findings.
Recruiting
Recruiting of international students was another theme that addressed
various strategies including those adopted by various institutions including
the community colleges. The studies included such topics as recruitment
trends before and after 9/11, education agents in Canada, recruitment and
representations, and student enrollment patterns in U.S. colleges and
universities.
Identity
Identity issues of international students consisted of another theme. Topics
included social media on identity formation, gender identity, emerging civic
identity, cross-cultural identity, LGBTQ international students, identity and
literacy development, identity negotiation while using L2 literacies skills,
and identity and cross-cultural adaptation on social media such as the
Instagram.
1138
Community Engagement
A small number of dissertations addressed international students
volunteering experiences and various ways of community engagement.
Topics included community of practice, civic engagement, community
service experiences, and cross-cultural adjustment.
Global Awareness
Some dissertations discussed the global awareness opportunities for local
students due to the presence of international students by studying pathways
of global engagement. Many other topics included study abroad on student
academic achievement, global perspectives, cross-cultural friendship
opportunities, internationalization initiatives, improving interactions,
multicultural awareness, multiculturalism and cultural adaptation.
Discrimination
About half a dozen dissertations studied discrimination as experienced by
international students in their host communities. Topics included social
norm perception, language discrimination, Islamophobia, prejudice, veiled
incivilities, and students perceptions of social inequalities.
Career
A small number of dissertations explored career outcomes for international
students due to their studies in the host countries. Topics included early
career outcome differences, choices, experiences and perceptions of
employability, branch campus of international institutions, university-to-
work transition, and professional career navigation.
College Choice and Mobility Trends

A small number of dissertations studied student mobility trends and college
choice deliberations by international students. Topics included study abroad
decision and university choice, decision making factors, and decision to
attend a community college.
Apart from the thematic observations, interesting observations were
found in the geographic regions specifically mentioned in these
dissertations. Many of the dissertations addressed students from specific
geographic regions. Here also not surprisingly, the dissertations that talked
about Chinese students was the highest with 22 dissertations, followed by
those about Saudi Arabia (12), Africa (4), United Kingdom (5), and Canada
(2). Notable is that even though Australia attracts a large number of
1139
international students and there must be many dissertations addressing

international students, they are not usually available from ProQuest
database, which was the main source that this thematic analysis based on.
These fractal issues facing international students are awaiting
attention of host institutions student affairs professionals.
2016 Dissertations and Theses
1. Adams, S. E. (2016). International students decision to attend a small, rural

community college in Iowa (Order No. 10244679). Available from ProQuest
Dissertations & Theses A&I. (1860834009).
2. Adamu, A. E. (2016). Social cognition and the acculturation of international
students in U.S. higher education institutions: Examining the cognitive
rationales of integrative acculturation (Order No. 10270841). Available from
ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1908956418).
3. Adhikari, S. (2016). Writing at the intersection: Understanding international
student writers (Order No. 10132908). Available from ProQuest Dissertations
& Theses A&I. (1810133376).
4. Akkurt, M. N. (2016). International students in supervision: Multicultural
discussion as a moderator between supervision related constructs:
Acculturation, counselor self-efficacy, supervisory working alliance, and role
ambiguity (Order No. 10109533).
5. Al Ramadan, H. A. (2016). The experience of married international Saudi
students in respect to adjusting to study abroad in the United States of
America (Order No. 10251318). Available from ProQuest Dissertations &
Theses A&I. (1858814881).
6. Al Remaih, D. (2016). Social and academic challenges facing Saudi female
students in the United States of America (Order No. 10130059). Available from
ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I. (1815085786).
7. Alabdulwahab, R. (2016). Postsecondary education for international
undergraduate students with learning disabilities in the United States (Order
No. 10252642). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I.
(1884217938).
8. Alajlan, R. (2016). Psychological attitudes of Saudi Arabian international
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9. Albrecht, M. (2016). Cultural influences on Chinese international students
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10. Aldossari, A. S. (2016). Factors contributing to college retention of
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10154257). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I.

(1836100258).
11. Alhajjuj, K. K. (2016). Learning to manage: How Saudi female doctoral
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12. Almurideef, R. (2016). The challenges that international students face when
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13. Alqarni, A. M. (2016). Saudi ESL students acculturative orientations and their
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14. Alsufyyan, K. (2016). A comparative analysis of American and Saudi Arabian
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15. Apanecatl-Ibarra, E. (2016). Exploring the views of American, International,
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16. Aslan, E. (2016). International teaching assistants in the US university
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17. Baffy, M. L. (2016). The academic discourse socialization of international
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18. Bajah, J. (2016). Factors related to persistence of international student in
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19. Battle, R. (2016). International student-athletes retention at an NCAA Division
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20. Behl, M. (2016). The needs and acculturative stress of international students in
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21. Bentzinger, E. R. (2016). International student-athlete experiences at the
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23. Brown, S. D. (2016). The impact of demographic and educational factors on

international students propensity to trust: Implications for school officials in
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24. Bruhn, T. (2016). Strategic importance of recruiting international students for
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27. Chang, W. (2016). Predictors of international students socio-cultural
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28. Chege, G. (2016). A qualitative study on lived experiences of Kenyan adult
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29. Cheng, A. Y. (2016). Being a nu tngzh in the united states: The sexual
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30. Chin, F. P. (2016). A study on retention and achievement: Assessment of
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31. Clayton, K. M. (2016). International policy experience: Short-term
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32. Click, A. B. (2016). Adapting to higher education in a new culture:
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33. Costa-String, K. (2016). Involvement patterns of international students and
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34. Crosby, L. G. (2016). A case study of non-native English-speaking
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35. Daga, S. S. (2016). Conceptualizations of well-being and distress among south
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36. Davis, J. G. (2016). Psychological challenges of Saudi female international
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37. Dykstra, E. (2016). Differences in motivation and prediction of academic
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38. Eldaba, A. (2016). Academic self-efficacy, social relationships, and English
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39. Eustice, K. L. (2016). Sociocultural facets of Asian international students
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40. Ezeofor, I. (2016). A social cognitive approach to coping with acculturative
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41. Gall, N. A. (2016). A multiple case study of Division II civic engagement by
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42. Galligan, P. K. (2016). Male Chinese international students utilization of and
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43. Gaulee, U. (2016). American students experiences with their international
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45. Gillie, R. B. (2016). The impact of social network sites on international student
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46. Gilliland, M. D. (2016). Great expectations: Exploring the hopes and
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47. Godwin, M. (2016). International students use of technology for improving

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48. Gray, M. L. (2016). Student satisfaction as an outcome of the frequency and
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50. Gu, W. (2016). Chinese international students perceptions of their
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51. Guo, X. (2016). A descriptive study of international students needs and
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53. Hart, D. (2016). The lived experiences of Muslim students academic
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54. Hozdik, E. (2016). Understanding international students community service
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55. Irudayam, I. (2016). International student satisfaction with support
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56. Jiang, X. (2016). The price of being international: Exploring early career
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57. Johnson, K. A. (2016). International student flows to the U.S. before and after
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58. Kang, J. Y. (2016). Help-seeking intention among college students: Cross-
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59. Kang, Y. (2016). Englishonly when necessary: Literacy practices of Korean
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60. Karaman, M. A. (2016). The relationship among life satisfaction, academic

stress, locus of control, and achievement motivation: A comparison of domestic
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61. Katsanos, E. (2016). Why UToledo? A study of the key factors influencing the
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62. Kavaliauskas Crain, L. (2016). Jiao Tong: A grounded theory of Chinese
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63. Kim, S. (2016). The paradox of gender in a transnational space: Persistence
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64. Kim, Y. (2016). Testing the mediating effects of resilience and mental health
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65. Krishnan, A. (2016). The broader autism phenotype: Associations with
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66. Kuder, R. D. (2016). Emerging civic identity: Understanding the experiences of
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67. Kung, M. (2016). Self-reported experiences of Chinese students with online
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68. Kwok, T. K. (2016). Maximizing the experience of international graduate
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69. Laoboonchai, N. (2016). Cross-cultural adjustment: Examining how
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70. Lee, C. (2016). International branch campus students: Choices, experiences
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72. Lee, J. (2016). Transfer from ESL academic writing to first-year composition
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73. Leeman Bartzis, O. (2016). Understanding the perceptions of US students
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75. Lestage, S. (2016). International higher education agents in Canada:
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77. Li, J. (2016). The academic and social challenges of international
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78. Li, J. (2016). The impact of study abroad on student academic achievement,
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79. Li, M. (2016). The role of adult attachment in international students
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80. Li, R. (2016). Message design for correcting misinformation on HIV/AIDS for
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81. Little, D. K. (2016). Students-as-informants: Investigating the use of feedback
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82. Liu, C. L. (2016). Global friendship in the U.S. higher education environment:
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83. Liu, J. (2016). The role of language background on college cognitive growth: A
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84. Liu, T. (2016). Learning experience of Chinese international students in master
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86. Long, D. T. (2016). Asian third culture kids: A phenomenological study of the
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91. Mathew, Z. (2016). Studying abroad: Understanding the factors influencing the
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92. Matsui, T. (2016). A graduate student perspective on how student engagements
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94. McMahon, P. (2016). A grounded theory of international postgraduate students
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95. Montgomery, K. A. (2016). Surviving and thriving: The first-year transition

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96. Mosley, C. (2016). The impact of academic performance, engagement, and
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97. Murphy, G. A. (2016). Worlds apart? international students, source-based
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99. Nayebare, E. (2016). Coping and adjustment of spouses of international
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100. Nester, L. A. (2016). Transition and integration experiences of first-year
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106. Park, L. J. (2016). WeChat red bags: How international students from China
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107. Perez Fernandez, A. (2016). Prejudice in a sample of DC-based university
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108. Prabhakar-Gippert, B. (2016). The role of integrated health care in reducing
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109. Preston, N. J. (2016). Expectations and challenges of international students
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110. Ragsdell, L. A. (2016). Multiculturalism in United States higher education
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111. Rawcliffe, W. (2016). Cultural adaptation of Chinese students in an
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113. Schaefer, L. (2016). International students perceptions of social inequalities in
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114. Schwartz, L. S. (2016). The language learning needs of beginner-level
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115. Shen, W. (2016). Chinese undergraduate students experience studying in the
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116. Simonis, J. (2016). Voice and silence among international students in the U.S.-
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118. Spencer, L. M. (2016). Exploring the transition experiences of successful

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119. Stubblefield, M. L. (2016). International student mobility in higher education:
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120. Sun, Q. (2016). The impacts of student engagement on grade point average and
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121. Tarasi, P. J. (2016). An exploration of the experiences of LGBTQ international
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122. Tezeller Arik, B. (2016). An auto ethnographic study of identity and literacy
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123. Tolman, S. (2016). Evaluation of an international roommate-pairing
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124. True, M. L. (2016). The experiences of international and foreign-born students
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125. Wahba, H. (2016). Effects of constructivist learning environments and learning
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126. Walker, S. M. K. (2016). Understanding the barriers and adjustments of
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127. Wang, F. (2016). Narrative inquiry into competing pedagogies: Chinese
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128. Wang, M. (2016). The influences of multimodality on international Chinese
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129. Wang, P. (2016). A study of drop-out Chinese international students from a
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Acculturation experiences and challenges (Order No. 10156416). Available

130. Wang, Q. (2016). Enhancing the campus experience: Helping international
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131. Weaver, M. (2016). Language proficiency and the international postgraduate
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132. Wendt, J. M. (2016). Economic fluctuations and the determinants of
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133. Weng, Z. (2016). Writing across the curriculum: Experiences of undergraduate
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134. Woychick, L. (2016). Study abroad-selfie: U.S. international student identity
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137. Zarrabi, S. (2016). Exploring metacognitive online reading strategies of non-
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138. Zhang, C. (2016). Writing their way to the university: An investigation of
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139. Zheng, K. (2016). Acculturative stress, attachment style and coping style of
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Book Review

Volume 7, Issue 4 (2017), pp. 1152-1156
doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1035983
Developing the Global Student: Higher Education in

an Era of Globalization Internationalization in
Higher Education Series
Killick, D. (2015). Developing the global student: Higher education in an

era of globalization. Internationalization in higher education series. New
York: Routledge. 209 pages. ISBN: 978-0415728058
Reviewed by
Roger Mitch Nasser Jr.
Lindenwood University, USA
Recruitment and retention of students are great

concerns of higher education institutions of
today. Increased competition combined with
student expectation have created a conundrum
for senior administrators. Leaders face
affordability concerns, access issues, and a
dwindling pool of traditional college-aged
students. One possible solution rests in
recruitment of international students. This
population has increased nearly 46% since the
2004/2005 school year according to the most
recent Open Doors 2016 findings (Institute of International Education,
2016). Many international students seek higher education in the United
States as a means to impact their home environment or remain in the country
(Killick, 2015). Some international students may view the United States as
having greater educational opportunity than their homeland (Mazzarol &
1152
Soutar, 2002). While international students may choose institutions in the

United States for academic reasons, administrators must contemplate
educating the whole student. Killick (2015) reminds us of this idea when he
states, Of those who return home with their Western degree, in many of
cases there is little evidence that much more than personal gain flows from
the investment made in them (p. 7).
While administrators may consider increasing their international
student population as a plausible solution to the enrollment crisis, they must
also consider how these students navigate the campus environments. What
are our responsibilities as higher education administrators? How will U.S.
students respond to their international classmates? Moreover, will native
students understand and accept the differences they encounter? David
Killicks book, Developing the Global Student: Higher Education in an Era
of Globalization asks how prepared students are for the international
community. Killicks discussion methods include philosophy, student
development, and self-reflection, which will appeal to most readers.
Higher education administrators may read Killicks work through
three different perspectives. First, professionals might review the work as an
enlightened journey through the lens of historic and contemporary thinkers.
Killick carefully weaves in key concepts from multiple scholars ranging
from philosophers to student development theorists. This background
provides structure and credibility to the book. Second, administrators may
read the book through a student development viewpoint. The author guides
the reader through a students development of self, identification of others,
and means to bridge understanding. Finally, and perhaps most importantly,
professionals may read the book as a method of self-reflection. Killick
challenges us to look inside ourselves to identify bias and shortcomings. He
includes reflection questions throughout the book in addition to asking the
reader, What are you doing to solve this issue?
Killicks message in this book shifts the view of higher education
away from supporting international students through isolated measures
towards educating U.S. students through inclusion methods. The author
suggests students define their identities while in college indicating a place in
society. This sense of place directly impacts the action that students take
throughout their lives to improve society. Killick holds higher education
professionals responsible to improving the climate on college campuses for
international students. He suggests climate improves only when U.S.
students reflect on the perspectives of international students,
1153
I propose this (improving climate) requires that we enable our

students to gain a sense of how they stand in the world which rests
upon the will, the confidence, and the capabilities to seek out the
perspectives of others and to adopt critical stances to their own
established thoughts and behaviors. (Killick, 2015 p. 2)
How do administrators accomplish this task? The author suggests we
provide deep intentional interactions between international students and
U.S. students. Killick indicates these deep experiences will cause a shift in
identity and understanding, which in turn creates a more comfortable
environment for all students.
Killick begins his book by laying the groundwork for his discussion.
Chapter one examines the responsibility of higher education as a change
agent. The writer indicates we, as higher education professionals, bear a
great responsibility in creating an environment supportive of all students
through dedicated learning strategies in and out of the classroom. The author
argues institutions define international campuses poorly, perhaps to the
point of considering themselves international simply due to enrolling
international students. In addition, Killick states many institutions rely on
international students to build understanding throughout the campus
community by sharing their stories and engaging in programming efforts.
Should this responsibility lay with the international students themselves?
The answer, according to Killick, is a resounding no. The author
recommends higher education professionals rethink and refocus their efforts
of inclusion.
Chapters two and three examine our understanding of others within
the context of our own identities. Killick believes each of us identifies
within a culture made up of multiple identities, which may include racial,
ethnic, and social class status. This identification, which he explains as a
lifeworld, defines our existence. This same lifeworld, however, also
prevents us from accepting difference, stating that learning is driven by an
urge to return to a state of equilibrium; what is more, the greater the
cognitive dissonance the stronger the drive to resolve it (Killick, 2015 p.
110). Killick argues we have an immediate response when encountering
difference. This response quickly analyzes the difference and interprets
meaning within the structure of the lifeworld. If the individuals lifeworld
does not immediately understand the difference, the individual rejects the
difference as not acceptable. This lack of acceptance subsequently creates an
intolerance of others, according to Killick. The solution to this instant bias
rests in higher education professionals.
1154
Chapter four reviews methods of learning. Killick utilizes student

development theory, specifically David Kolb and Marcia Baxter Magolda,
in his argument for intentional learning experiences. Killick states a
students time in higher education is ideal for challenging assumptions and
identity. College students identify themselves and their purpose while in
college, which provides perfect opportunities to engage them in meaningful
experiences. These experiences must include challenging elements to both
the intellectual and emotional psyche of students to create change. Killick
reviews typical programming techniques and labels them as non-impactful.
For example, many higher education professionals feel providing media
experiences, such as movies, with international themes create movement
within students acceptance of difference. Unfortunately, this tactic typically
addresses only the intellectual component of the student experience. As a
result, many students may enjoy the film but not internalize the message.
These programs may not have the impact professionals anticipate. This
discussion of learning bridges into Killicks final chapter.
Killick concludes his book with a discussion on practice. He
explains practice in higher education is three-fold, including: formal
curriculum, informal curriculum, and hidden curriculum. Formal curriculum
refers to classroom education models. Informal curriculum includes outside
activities, such as student organizations. Finally, the hidden curriculum
refers to value identification through experiences. Student interactions with
administrators are key developmental experiences. Students view faculty
and staff as role models and may adopt their beliefs subconsciously, which
suggests the hidden curriculum may be the most important of the three.
These experiences must be mediated by professionals to build on learning.
The mediated learning experiences impact the student and create a value
system of inclusion.
The reviewer noticed two areas of concern with this book. First,
readers may become distracted with Killicks philosophical writing style.
The author quotes several historical thinkers in his arguments. The reviewer
at times focused on these quotes rather than Killicks central argument.
Administrators may face similar distractions reading the text. Second, while
Killick provides a foundation for discussion among students, staff, and
faculty, the author does not provide answers to practice. Killicks method of
writing creates discussion rather than providing step-by-step solutions. This
issue may frustrate some readers.
The reviewer recommends this book to all higher education
professionals. The philosophical, development, and reflective themes
1155
challenge us to be better for our students. Professionals may use the book as
a training tool for staff, structured discussion among colleagues, and their
own journeys of self-understanding. Killick educates while he challenges,
providing the total experience we should replicate for our students.
REFERENCES
Killick, D. (2015). Developing the global student: Higher education in an era of

globalization. New York: Routledge.
Institute for International Education. (2016). Open doors 2016 fast facts. Retrieved
from https://www.iie.org/en/Research-and-Insights/Open-Doors/Fact-
Sheets-and-Infographics
student destination choice. International Journal of Educational
Management, 16(2), 82-90.
ROGER MITCH NASSER JR, PhD, is an Assistant Professor and Higher

Education Program Chair, Educational Leadership, Lindenwood University. His
major research interests lie in the area of supervision, emergency response, and
social issues in higher education. Email: rnasser@lindenwood.edu

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JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS

Vol. 7/No. 4 October/November 2017

Vol. 7/No. 4 October/November 2017

Access this journal online at: https://jistudents.org/

Authors and Submissions

The Journal audience includes international and domestic students, faculty,

Please e-mail your manuscript to the Editor, Dr. Krishna Bista at

For further information

THE ROLE OF STUDENT AFFAIRS IN

Editor-in-Chief: Krishna Bista

Special Issue Reviewers

Amir Reza (Babson College)

Special Issue on the Role of Student Affairs in International Student

1. Racializing Experiences of Foreign-Born and Ethnically 925-943

2. Academic Advisors and Their Diverse Advisees: Towards More 944-962

3. Supporting Chinese Undergraduate Students in Transition at U.S. 963-989

4. International Students Cocurricular Involvement at a University 990-1009

5. Exploring the Influence of Student Affairs on Adjustment and 1010-1029

6. Problematic areas of host university support services for short- 1030-1047

7. The Role of Student Affairs in a New University in a 1048-1064

8. Strategies and Initiatives in Acculturation: Voices from Ghana 1065-1079

10. Peer support for international doctoral students in managing 1096-1103

11. Ivy League Experience: Increasing care, increasing engagement 1104-1112

12. Providing Culturally Relevant Services for International Black 1113-1125

13. Troubling Metaphors and International Student Adjustment: 1126-1134

14. Recurring Themes Across Fractal Issues Facing International 1135-1151

15. Developing the Global Student: Higher Education in an Era of 1152-1156

ISSN: 2162-3104 Print/ ISSN: 2166-3750 Online

Role of Student Affairs in International Student

International student mobility has grown significantly in recent years, with

Institute of International Education. (2016). Project Atlas- Current Infographics.

CHRISTINA W. YAO, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Educational

CHRYSTAL A. GEORGE MWANGI, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Higher

ISSN: 2162-3104 Print/ ISSN: 2166-3750 Online

Racializing Experiences of Foreign-Born and

Keywords: Black males, foreign-born, graduate students, engineering,

Literature related to the experiences of foreign-born Black men in

According to the Institute of International Education (IIE), between 2006

occurred, but their views on these experiences varied by race and

To better understand how foreign-born students and/or those who identify

foreign-born and/or identify ethnically as other than African American? (2)

Table 1: Demographic Data for Study Participants

Pseudonym Class Engineering Ethnicity Origin Undergraduate Career

Data Collection Procedures

afforded opportunities to probe more deeply into participants lived

Three themes emerged that explain students racialized educational

Racialization as an Ongoing Transitional Process

Cultural Identity (Dis)integrity

Ive always had the comfort of being around Caribbean

Racialized Imposter Syndrome

because youre Black, that youre really not supposed to be

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

struggling to interpret a compass. True north (i.e., what it means to be

accomplish this promising practice, program staff, counselors, and academic

previously noted, it was challenging to determine who was considered

this happens is through the development and implementation of well-

Burt, B. A. (forthcoming) Demystifying the monolithic Black male mystique:

international college students: A qualitative analysis. Journal of

BRIAN A. BURT, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Higher Education at Iowa State

ALEXANDER KNIGHT is a recent graduate of the Student Affairs program at

JUSTIN ROBERSON is a Masters student in the Student Affairs in Higher

Manuscript submitted: April 1, 2017

ISSN: 2162-3104 Print/ ISSN: 2166-3750 Online

Academic Advisors and Their Diverse Advisees: