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    Model of the Causal Interpretation of Quantum Theory in Terms of a Fluid With Irregular Fluctuations (PR 96, 208, 1954)

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    Model of the Causal Interpretation of Quantum Theory in Terms of a Fluid With Irregular Fluctuations (PR 96, 208, 1954)

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    Model of The Causal Interpretation of Quantum Theory in Terms of A Fluid With Irregular Fluctuations (PR 96, 208, 1954)

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    Model of the Causal Interpretation of Quantum Theory in Terms of a Fluid With Irregular Fluctuations (PR 96, 208, 1954)

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    PHYSICAL REVIEW vouumE NuMBER 1 ocToBER 1, 1954 ‘Model of the Causal Interpretation of Quantum Theory in Terms of a Fluid with Irregular Fluctuations D. Bou, Faculdade de Filsofa,Citucias¢ Letras, Unioesidade de Sto Paulo, Sto Pouo, Brasil J.P. Vion, Insli Henri Poincaré, Pars, ronce (Received June 14, 1954) Tn this paper, we propose a physical model leading to the cus interpretation of the quantum theory In this model, ast of fields which are equivalent in many ways toa conserved uid, with density [pl and local stream velocity, df m= VS/m, act ona partcletkeinhomogenelty which moves with the loca steam velocity of the equivalent uid. By introducing the hypothesis ofa very irregular and effectively random Auctuation in the motions ofthe dud, we are able to prove that an arbitrary probability density ultimately decays int I hus, we answer an important objection tothe causal interpretation, made by Paull and ‘others, This result is extended tothe Dirac equation and tothe many-purticle probe. 1, INTRODUCTION CAUSAL interpretation of the quantum theory thas been proposed, involving the assumption that an electron is a particle following a continuous and causally defined trajectory with a well-defined position, E(), accompanied by a physically real wave field, ¥(67). To obtain all of the results of the usual inter~ pretation, the following supplementary assumptions hhad to be made: 1, ¥Ges) satisfied Schridinger’s equation, 2, dk/dt= VS/m, wl 3. The probability distribution in an ensemble of lectrons having the same wave fun vl ‘These assumptions were shown to be consistent Assumption (3), however, has been criticized by Pauli and others on the ground that such a hypothesis isnot appropriate in a theory aimed at giving a causal explanation of the quantum mechanies. Instead, they argue it should be possible to have an arbitrary’ prob- ability distribution [a special case of which is the function P=4(x—x9), representing a partile in a well defined location], that is at least in principle inde- pendent of they field and dependent only on our degree of information concerning the location of the particle. In a more recent paper,* one of us has proposed & ‘means of dealing with this problem by explaining the relation, P= |¥|* in terms of random collision processes. Tt was shown in a simplified case that a statistical ensemble of quantum-mechanical system with an arbi- ‘rary initial probebility distribution decays in time to tan ensemble with P= |y|. This is equivalent to a proof ‘of Boltzmann's theorem in classical mechanics. Thus, 2, de Br, Compt ed 18, 47 (1926); 184,23 (1927); 185,50 (5 'D. Boh, Phys. Rev. 85, 166, 180 (1952). + Des Sent fle Monde, Colleton dade par André George, Heer de Brot, Payot Pow (Baio Abin Nie, Paris, 1953) 'B, Keller, Phys, Rey 89, 1010 (1953) ah, Phys Rev. 89, 1458 (1953), wwe can ansver the objection of Pauli, for no matter ‘what the initial probability distribution may have been Gor example, a delta function), it will eventually be given by P= ||" In the work cited above, however, certain mathe- matical difculties make a generalization of the results to an arbitrary system very difficult. (The difficulties fre rather analogous to these appeating in classical statistical mechanics when one trie rigorously to treat the approach of a distibution to equilibrium, by means of demonstrating a quasi-ergodic character’ of the motion). In the present paper, we shall avoid these dificulties by taking advantage of the fact that the causal interpretation of the quantum theory permits aan unlimited number of new physical models, of types not consistent with the usual interpretation, which lead to the usual theory only as an approximation, and which may lead to appreciably different results at new levels (eg, 10° em), The model that we shall propose here furnishes the basis for a simple deduction of the relation, P=|¥l%; and in addition, gives possible physical interpretation of the relation dé/at=S/m (postulate 2), which follows rather naturally from the ‘model. This model is an extension of the causal inter- pretation of the quantum theory already proposed, which provides a more concrete physical image of the meaning of our postulates than has been available before, and which suggests new properties of matter that may exist at deeper levels. 2, THE HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL ‘The model that we shall adopt in this paper is an extension of a hydrodynamic model, originally proposed by Madelung® and later developed further by Taka- bayasi? and by Schenberg’ To obtain this model, we first write down Schrédinger’s equation in terms of the E, Madelung, Z, Physik 40, 332 (1926), YE Takabayas, Progr Theoret. Phys: Gapan) 8, 148 (1982); 9, 187 (983), AN. Schenberg, Nuovo clmento (tobe published). 208 CAUSAL INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM variables, R and S, where = Rexp(i/h): RS [a+ div REVS w as (WS) BUR —+ — @ a 2m Im R ‘Now Madelung originally proposed that R® be inter- preted as the density p(x) of a continuous fluid, which had the stream velocity v=VS/m. Thus, the fluid is assumed to undergo only potential flow. Equation (1) then expresses the conservation of fluid, while Eq. (2) determines the changes of the velocity ‘potential S in terms of the classical potential V, and the “quantum potential”: PUR =e 1 (2)] amlp 2X As shown by Takabayasit and by Schenberg,* the ‘quantum potential may be thought of as arising in the clfects of an internal stress in the fluid. This stress depends, however, on derivatives of the fluid density, and therefore is not completely analogous to the usual stresses, such as pressures, which are found in macto- scopic fuids. ‘The above model is, however, not adequate by itself for it contains nothing to describe the actual location, &(), of the particle, which makes possible, as we have seen in previous papers" a consistent causal inter- pretation of the quantum theory. At this point therefore complete the model by postulating a particle, which takes the form of a highly localized inhomo- geneity that moves with the local fluid velocity, v(x) ‘The precise nature of this inhomogeneity is irrelevant or our purposes. It could be, for example, @ foreign body, of a density close to that of the fluid, which was simply being carried along with the local velocity of the fuid as a small floating body is carried along the surface of the water at the local stream velocity of the water. Or else it could be a stable dynamic structure existing in the fluid; for example, a small stable vortex ‘or some other stable localized structure, such as a small pullse-like inhomogeneity. Such structures might be stabilized by some nonlinearity that would be present in a more accurate approximation to the equations governing the fluid motions than is given by (1) and (2). Im 3, FLUCTUATIONS OF THE MADELUNG FLUID ‘Thus far we have been assuming that the Madelung fluid undergoes some regular motion, which can in principle be calculated by solving Schrédinger’s equa- tion with appropriate boundary conditions. We know, however, that in all real fuids ever met with thus far (and indeed, in all physically real fields also) the motions never take precisely the forms obtained by solving the yropriate equations with the correct boundary con- ditions. For there always exist random fluctuations. THEORY 209 ‘These fluctuations may have many origins, For ex- ample, real fuidsmay be subject to iregular disturbance originating outside the uid and transmitted to it at the boundaries. Moreover, because the equations of ‘motion flow of the fluid are, in general, nonlinear, the ffuid motion may be unstable, so that irregular’ tur- buleat motion may arise within the fuid itself, And finally, because of the underlying constitution of the fluid in terms of molecules in random thermal motion, there may exist a residual Brownian movement in the fluid, even for fluid elements that are large enough to contain a great many molecules. Thus, in a real fuid, there are ample reasons why the usual hydrodynamical equations will, in general, describe only some mean or average aspect of the motion, while the actual motion has an addition some very irregular fluctuating com- ponents, which are effectively random. Since the Madelung fuid is being assumed to be some kind of physically real fuid, itis therefore quite natural to suppose that it too undergoes more or less random fluctuations in its motions. Such random fluctuations are evidently consistent within the framework of the causal interpretation of the quantum theory. Thus, there are always random perturbations of any quantum ‘mechanical system which arise outside that system, (Indeed, as we have already shown in a previous paper,’ the effects of such perturbations are by themselves capable of explaining the probability distribution, P=|y|*, at least for certain simple systems.) We may also assume that the equations governing the ¥ field have nonlinearities, unimportant at the level where the theory has thus far been successfully applied, but perhaps important in connection with processes in- volving very short distances. Such nonlinearities could produce, in addition to many other qualitatively new effects, the possibility of irregular turbulent motion. Moreover, we may conceive of a granular substructure of matter underlying the Madelung fluid, analogous to (but not necessarily of exactly the same kind as) the molecular structure underlying ordinary fluids. We may therefore assume that for any or all of these reasons, or perhaps for still other reasons not mentioned here, our fluid undergoes a more oF less random type of fluctuation about the Madelung motion as a mean, ‘Thus, the velocity will not be exactly equal to VS/m, nor will the density, , be exactly equal to ||. All that wwe require is that the relations p= |y|? and y= VS/m be valid as averages. Indeed, it is not even necessary that the exact velocity be derivable from a potential Thus, we would have d&/di= ¥S'/m--VXA, more gener- ally,?? where (VXA)u=0 and (VS"u=(VSje. Hence Schrédinger's equation will not apply to the Buctua- * Such vortex components of the velocity may ako explain the appearance of “pint . Component ss well as er tae Paull equa iat here we conten ourseiven only with Tevel of pron in which the spin can be nepeced, so tat Schrbogers equation BA good approximation fr the mean behavior of the full 210 ions. However, the conservation equation 3p/@t “fiv(px)=0 will be assumed to hold even during « fluctuation. Such an equation is implied almost by the very concept of uid; for there were no conservation, then the model ofa fuid would lose practically all of its content. From the above assumptions, itis clear that if we followed a given fluid element, we would discover that it undergoes an exceedingly irregular motion, whichis able in time to carry it from any speciid trajectory of the mean Madshing motion to practically any other trajectory. Such a mndom motion of the uid elements would, if it were the only factor operating, lead even tually to a uniform mean density of the fuid, For it would on the average carry away more fid from @ Tegion of high density than it carried back, The fact that the mean density remains equal to |y|?, despite the effects of the random fuctuations, implies then that a systematic tendency must exist for Quid elements to move toward regions of high mean fluid density, in such a way as to maintain the stability of the mean density, p= |¥|*. As for the origin of such a tendency, the questions ofcourse, not important forthe problem that we are treating in this paper. We may, however, suggest by way ofa posible explanation thatthe inter nal stresses in the uid are such that whenever pdevi- ates from |y|?, a kind of pressure arises that tends to Corect the deviation automatically. Such a behavior is analogous to what would happen, for example, toa gas in irvegular turbulent motion in « gravitational fd, in which the pressures automatically adjust themselves in guch away as to maintain a local mean density close to ps pur "8" if the temperature J is constant. (In this connection, note that as shown in. theoretical treatmentsof turbulence, theinreglar turbulent motions themselves rule the effective “pressure” inthe Aud, 0 thatthe effective “temperature” T is equsl to the sum ofthe mean Kinetic energy of random molecular motion find that offregular turbulent motion ) 'We must now make some assumptions concerning the bochavior ofthe particlelike inhomogeneity, We assume that even in a fluciuation, it follows the fluid velocity v(x). Such a behavior would result if the inhomo- tencity were a very small dynamic structure in the fuid (eg, vortex, ora pulse inhomogeneity) orf it were «foreign body of about the same density as the fad, provided that the wavelengths associated with the fluctuations were appreciably larger than the size of the particle. For in this case, the inhomogeneity srould have to do more oles as the fui did, since it ‘ould act, forall practical purposes, like smal element of id ‘The presence of fluctuations with wavelengths smaller than the sizeof the body could complicate the problem, especially if we were considering inhomogeneities, such as vortices and pulses, which were dynamically main- tained structures in the uid itself. For, such Auctua- tions would treat different parts of the inhomogeneity D. BOHM AND J. P. VIGIER ditferently, and thas, in genera, would tend to lead to a dispersal of the inhomogeneity. Let us recall, however, that we are by hypothesis considering only equations having such nonlinearities in them as to lead to slabe inhomogeneities. Iv is true that the equations of ordi- nary hylrodynamics do not do this. But itis not necessary that the sub-quantum-mechanical Madelung fd should have exactly the same kinds of peopertcs as are possesed by ordinary fuids. Indeed, we have already’ seen that instead ofthe usual classial pressure term, it has a quantum-mechanical intemal. stress, which depends on the derivatives of the fluid density, rather than on the density itself. Thus, we may reason- ably postulate that it also has some characterstically new kind of nonlinear term which leads to. stable Inhomogencities, Hence, small fluctuations of wave length much les than the sie ofthe body will merely cause irregular oscillations in the inhomogeneities, the sffcts of which wil for practieal purposes, cancel ot Large fluctuations may destroy the inhomogeneity oF transform it into new kinds of inhomogeneity. This could, however, represent certain aspects of the “eres- tion,” “destruction,” and transformation of “ele- mentary” particles, which characteristic of phenomena Connected! with very high energies and very. short distances, Bat in the low-energy domain, which we aze treating now, where Schridinger’s equation is @ good enough approximation, such processes will not orewe We see then that if there are fuctuntions of wave length great deal shorter than the size of the body, they wll have a negligible effect on the overall motions of the body (whether it be a foreign body or stable dynamic structure in the fui. In this ease, the body wil follow the mean velocity of the fuid in a small region surrounding it. To take into account the poste bilty that such fluctuations may exst, we shall there- fore hereafter let v(x) and p(x) represent respectively the mean velocity and mean density in «small neigh- hothood. surrounding. the body, while WS(&) a (x) represent the means ofthese quantities ina region that is much larger than the sizeof the body, but still small enough so that yx) doesnot change appreciably ‘within this region. The consistency ofthese assumptions evidently requires that the body be very small; but with a choice, for example, of something ofthe order of 10" cm for its size, one obtains ample oppartanity to satisfy the above assumptions in a consistent sa Tt is clear, of course, that factuations having. @ wavelength close to the size of the body will neither cancel out completely, nor will they necessarily cause the body to move exactly with the mean of the fia velocity in a small neighborhood surrounding it, We may assume, however, that the magnitude of the longer wavelength fuctuations is s great that we can neglect the effects of fluctuations of these intermediate wavelengths, Thus, a rather wide range exsts of kinds fof ctvations that could lead to the type of motion that we are assuming for the inhomogeneity CAUSAL ‘On the basis of the above assumptions, it is evident that the inhomogeneity will undergo ‘an imegular motion, analogous to the Brownian motion.” Let us now considera statistical ensemble of fuds, each having in it an inhomogeneity, and let us denote the prob- ability density of such inhomogeneities in the ensemble by P(x). Let us further assume that the fluid motion is so irregular that in time & fluid element initially in an arbitrary region ds in the domain in which the mean fluid density 1¥(3) |? ls appreciable, has anon zero probability of reaching any other region dx in this domain. We ean then quite easly see in qualitative terms that the probability density P(%j) must approach |¥(c,)|* as an equilibrium value, First ofall itis clea that if, for any reason whatever, the distribution P= |p), is once established, then it will be maintained for all time, despite the random fluctuations in the uid motion. For the inhomogeneities simply follow the fluid velocity in a small neighborhood surrounding the body. Now by hypothesis the fluid ‘fuctuations are just such as to preserve the equilibrium mean density of P= |¥|%. Therefore, they must also preserve the equilibrium probability density of par- ticles in the same way. Let us now consider what happens when P is not equal to |¥|*. Suppose, for example, that there were a larger number of particles in a. specified clement of volume than is given by P= |¥|?. Now, the random motions carry particles away from such an element at arate proportional to their density in this element. The systematic tendency for particles to come back to the clement, which results from their following the fluid, as it defts back at a rate suficient to maintain the mean equilibrium density of p= ||, will however be just large enough to cancel the loss that would have taken place if the probability density of particles had been P=|plt. Since the density was actually greater than this, more particles are lost than are compensated by the drift back and the density therefore approaches P= |p. If the probability density of particles in this clement had been less than P= |, the element would, of course, have tended to gain particles until it had a density of [¥ In the next section, we shall give a mathematical demonstration of the above result, the correctness of which should however, already be evident from the qualitative considerations cited above. Finally, we may mention that the picture of a fuid ‘undergoing random motion about a regular mean is ‘only ane out of an infinite number of possible models leading to the same general type of theory. Indeed, all the properties that we have assumed for our fluid eould equally well belong to some 4-vector field (p,j) which ‘was conserved, and which underwent random fluctua~ * Brownian motion models ofthe quantum theory have already ep eel beri. et fn 4 very diferent ess See, SBS: a ths We Wace yak 18 Fok GOS) ias 0 (8) INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM THEORY aut tions about a mean given (in the nonrelativistic limit) by p= |y[® and j= (0/2mi) (UW.—¥O0*) = RVS/m, wwhete y is a solution of Schrédinger’s equation, And it p and } were assumed to satisfy suficiently nonlinear equations, there could also exist pulseike solutions for p and j that moved with a 4velocity parallel to oi). ‘Although iti important to keep in mind these more general possiblities when one is actually trying to formulate a more detailed theory, we have found it convenient in this paper to express our assumptions and results in terms of a hydrodynamical model, because this model not only: provides a very natural and vivid physical image of the behavior ofthe ¥ field, but also a simple explanation of the formula, a&/dt =VS/m, (postulate 2) expressing the velocity’ of an inhomogeneity in terms of the local mean stream velocity 4. PROOF THAT PROBABILITY DENSITY APPROACHES FLUID DENSITY IN RANDOM FLUCTUATIONS oF A FLUID ‘We shall now prove the following theorem. Suppose that we have a conserved fluid that undergoes random fluctuations of the velocity, v(x,), and of the density, ls), about respective mean values v(x!) and pa(x!) [so that dp/at+div(pv)=0 and dpy/at+div(pve)=01. Suppose in addition that there is an inhomogeneity that follows the fluid motions, with the local stream velocity, v(x). Then if the fluctuations are such that a uid clement starting in an arbitrary element of volume, dx’, in the region where the fluid density is appreciable has a nonzero probability of reaching any other element of volume dx in this region, it follows that an arbitrary initial probability density of inhomogeneities will in time approach P= po(x!). ‘This theorem is seen to apply to our problems as a special case, in which we set ov |Y(x)|? and velx) =VS(4,)/m, where (x) satisfies Schrédinger’s equa- tion, provided that we regard p(x,) and v(x) as the ‘mean fluid density and velocity in a small region sur- rounding the inhomogeneity. This theorem isa general- zation of a well-known theorem concerning the approach to equilibrium in a Markow process: Essentially, we hhave generalized the theorem to treat the time-de- pendent probabilities of transition and time-dependent limiting distributions with which we have to deal in cour problem. ‘To prove this theorem, we note that, as shown in the previous section, a given uid element follows an extremely irregular trajectory, in which its density p(s!) fluctuates near the mean density p(x). Now Decause the volume of a given fluid element is always See L de Broglie, La Phyigwe Quewtiqu, RestrataleFade- semi (Gathers, Pk 189) fe ee of Le de ‘Brgelle and J.P. Vigier on thls subject are discus. "SAV. Fel, Probbity Theory aud Tie Appltaions ohn Wiley and Sons, Tae, Nest York, 1980) 212 ‘changing in accordance with the changing mean fluid density in the new regions that it enters, it is rather dificult in rectangular coordinates to keep track of how much fluid is transferred on the average from fone element of volume to another. To facilitate the treatment of the problem, we shall therefore take the preliminary step of introducing a new set of coor dinates, &(x), £:(8), &(%), which are so defined that an elementary cell in the space of fy, & fy always contains a mean quantity of fluid proportional to its volume. Such a set of coordinates is easily defined. For the ‘mean quantity of fluid in a given volume element is AQ pulse pol 3.) (05/46 dts pat dtalts/J( 6/03), where J(@5/s.) isthe Jacobian ofthe transformation Now we want to have J(36/2x,)—cpo(ud) (where we shall choose ¢ to be unity for convenience). Since there is only one equation, itis clear that only one of the & can be defined in this way, so that the ther tivo can be chosen according to what isconvenient. ‘Thus, if we fx the forms of fy and fy, we see that the above equation ecomes a linear diferential equation defining fy, in terms off, , and py. Such an equation always has solutions wherever fs and po are regular. ‘There may exist singular points oF curves, but we shall later show how these are to be dealt with ‘As an example, consider a cylindrically symmetric density function p(R)=e-#/R. We first express the volume element in cylindrical polar coordinates (with RaR4V): P(R)RARAGAZ = *aRAGAZ. Now we want AdR=db, or &:=e-%. As for f and fs, ‘we can in this case lave them equal to @ and Z respec tively. “Here we see that when goes from 0 to 2, & goes from unity to zero, This is an example of a” charac- teristic property of the g space to be limited in valume when the function p(R) is appreciable only in a fimited domain. Such a property isto be expected, because we fare mapping the 3, on the g in just sueh a way that each region maps into a new volume proportional to the amount of fluid originally in that region. ‘Thus even infinite regions of x space may map onto negligible regions of & space, if they contain negligible quantities of uid. ‘The solution of the differential equation for fy will lead in general to multiple-valued functions. ‘This, however, causes no trouble, as we need merely establish 4 convenient cut somewhere which defines which branch of the function that we are using. Thus the transition to cylindrical polar coordinates, Rt= X°-+73; d= tant X(V/X), leads to 2 multiple valued function for 6, ‘but we deal with this problem by establishing 2 cut, say at G=0, and then defining the range of variation of @ as being from zero to 2r. Th orter to cover the D. BOHM AND J. P VIGIER entie XY plane only once, a similar definition can be sade with any mutipe-valued function TE a(S) vanishes at certain points, then at those points we cannot solve forall the fin terms of the 3 (as, for example, in cylindrical polar coordinates we cannot solve for at R-=O). As long as p(x) vanishes only ata set of folated points, or at most, on set of one-dimensional curves, where willbe no real dificult For the vanishing of p(x) means only (as in the case of eylindrical polar coordinates) that some of the & are not defined along thee curves. To avoid any ambiguities arising from the lack of definition, we may surround cach of these curves with a tube, 2s small in radius 98 wwe plesse, and ths exclide them from the region under consideration without excluding any signieant Physical effects. if, however, there are to-imensional surfaces where pu(3!)=0, this creates more serious mathematical df= Fealties. Since sich surfaces do not, infact arise in any real problem of interest to 4" we shall esume that ‘sGs!) vanishes at most on a set of oneimensional Finally, let ws note that since p changes with time, our &, will change with time corespondingly, Thus, we are adopting a moving set of coordinates (but notin general one that moves with the mean motion of the fluid elements). Tn the space of the & the mean fuid density will be a constant which also does not change with time, AS & result, the problem of describing the fuctuations wil be greatly simplified, For in the & space there is no tendency for the fctuation to favor any special region since the equilibrium density, which was x(x) in rectangular coordinate, is now « constant, Thus, in the {space the fuctuations havea truly random character, independent ofthe fu density at any particular point ‘We are now ready to setup the equations governing 5 eget oe ar a wey Set a Gn ah ce Lae Se Sh tach ae Seuecey een Sipe ert SEE Sue cea eee SSrLarest a the Mem ees at tenga Fate warrant ‘two-dimensional ‘surface. However, for the general complex clea wd is cs ee ahs Rea nti aoa 2 Si aaepataten mid Suen see Se Seavesiawy ea aanemera ae, shaded dal vartes dl Eee eer gt alr eben cy et aliatns with eachother and withthe cores the nue, there ercieal pa ce i eet Eacuetenens ders ae angen senate e mchuuurste coarsest CT suchen iip tea ea Smathers etd ae PT ie ete g rete NERS EE MS tow ot REUTENS eerctue ta et SIE GAS oe aa ns SSNs ee CAUSAL the changes of the probability density P(sf) for the inhomogeneities. We first transform to the § space, writing PUeAde Pond) Plsiydxm ae ree nae, Fe aay mad where we have defined the vector E= (Enns) in the 4 space, with the volume element, d&= d6ulalés, The probability density for the space of the fis clearly F=P/po. To prove that Pp, we then merely have to show that in & space, F() approaches a constant. Wenow define the probability that uid inan element 8, centered at the point £ at the time f, has in the process of fluctuation come from an element &&" at an earlier time with its center flying in a region (Note that si the magnitude of the volume element, ‘whereas dt is the size ofthe cell in which the center of the volume element was located at the time #). This probability is @ APRS. ® Clearly, by detniton, xceesnae=1 © Now the exact form of K (E.'s!) will depend on the precise nature of the uctuations that are taking place in the fuid. We shall se, however, that in order to prove that F(E)—, it i sufficient to assume that KEM) fails to be zero over the part of E space corresponding to the region of x space in which pas) is appreciable. ‘This ‘a clearly just_a mathematical expression of the assumption appearing inthe first part of this section that there isa nonzero probability that an element starting at any point x in this region has a nonzero probebilty of arriving at any other point 27 in the region. Note, however, that the region of x space in which po is appreciable will include, for practical purposes, the whole of the & space (except for a region of negligible dimensions). Thus, we may postulate that K (EE ts’) fails to be zero inthe whole of & space (except possibly along some one-dimensional curves where po(X/) may be zero, which we can exclude by means of tubes of negligible dimensions). ‘As for other properties of K, they’ are irrelevant for cour purposes here, although we shall discuss some of them in Sec 6, in another conection. wg AES cha ec Hare aaa nee eee eae already ein plc wie W's desing a te mete SS Gala ae le Pt ee a Ili, then Rt ti re ny ta a Se el deta se eis te a i Ted Sa Seana datasties ge Sead gts a ance as em, ay ASP INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM THEORY 213 Let us now discuss the motions of the inhomoge- neities. Since these latter follow the fluid in its fluctua 1, itis easily seen that the probability density of inhomogeneities, F(E,), is just the average of F(E',') ‘weighted with the probability K(E,®'#,’). Thus, FEd= fREEADR EE, CO) Now, let Ew(#) represent the value of € for which F(E,t) isa maximum, £q(/) the value for which it isa imum. (If there is more than one pair of such points, let us consider any single pair.) We also let Fa(E,)=M(), and Frin(f,f)= m(#). Setting E=Ew(t) in Eq. (6), and using (5), we obtain. MO: ip KORA RE 2 f K (Eu = MED; (7 and with £=Ea(0) in Eq, (6), we get similarly md= [KeOe NRE NE 5 PK eno Omena=m(O. (8) ‘Thus, MOZMO, (a) a(t). (9b) In onder for the equal sign to hold in Eq. (a), i necessary that F(@/) bea constant. For by hypothesis, (GR) fails to Vanish anywhere in the Espace; and if Ff) is nota constant, then the integral (7) must obtain contributions from regions in which F(®/) m(0). (40b) lore times For longer times, the functional form of K is deter. Iniged in a complicated way, which Is however af no concern to tin ths paper, 214 Now we cam show that Faqs. (10a) and (106) imply that F (&) must approach a constant, with the passage of time, ‘To do this, let us consider series of times, 1 tay fo-= tay aga» We apply (108) and (10b) from one element of the series of times to the next. Thus Mt) Mlle). (tb) eis clear that M(L.) and m((,) must each approach constant limits. For If() is always decreasing and yet remains greater than. some fixed mumber, 1(), ‘where is any element of the series such that /,>%. Similarly mm(,) is always inereasing and yet less than AM(i). Now there are just two possibilities: (a) The two constant limits are diferent; (b) they are the same, We easily see that alternative (t) is self-contradictory. ‘Todo this, we denote the two limits by Af and m, respec. tively. Then M—m=lim[Af(¢,)—m(lq)]. But by (11a) and (1b), we have =m p0(%). (12) 5, APPLICATION TO DIRAC EQUATION AND EXTENSION TO MANY-PARTICLE ‘PROBLEM, We may apply the preceding results to the causal interpretation of the Dirac equation, where, as ia the Schrddinger equation, we have a stream’ velocity, vo=vral/W"y, and a’ conserved density, po=¥*y. If wwe assume a fuid of the same kind as that treated in Sec. 4, and replace VS/m by Yay/Y"P and. |yl? by ¥*%, then according to the results of Sec. 4, the prob- ability density will ultimately approach Y. (ur results can also be extended very readily to the case of many particles. We fist discuss this extension in a purely formal way. We have a wave function, (sux -Ry defined ina 31V-dimensional config- uration space. Writing ¥= R exp(iS/h), we have a set fof 3N’ velocity fields, Va= VeS (xi.X2,* Xu), where Vy refers to differentiation with respect to the coordinates of the nth particle. We have a conservation equation jn the configuration space. We may now assume that ich particle follows the line of flow given by Ya(RuXnyre-Xxd)- Thus, our model is formally just & “D, Bahn, Progr, Theoret. Phys. (Japan) 8, 273 (1958) 1 Seeeteince Paper, Eq C6) D. BOHM AND J. P VIGIER 8V-dimensional extension of the model given previ ously, Hence if we assume random flctuations of the 3N-dimensional velocity field, we shall obtain the result. that the probability density in configuration space, P(xuxn xf), approaches /¥x,x°- x) "To obtain a possible physical picture of the meaning of this model, we may use the causal interpretation of {he V-particle problem recently proposed by de Broglie:* De Broglie has shown that the usual formulation terms of a wave function in the 31

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