ADVANCED GRAMMER

INTRODUCTION
Welcome

- [Judy] My son, when he was first learning to speak, said, "Kevin and me want to
play." My response, say Kevin and I want to play. Later, my son said, "Kevin gave
this book to I." My response, say Kevin gave this book to me. Do you see where this
is going? Do you ever feel that way? You learn a rule, apply it, and then
someone points out that what you said or wrote is incorrect. You decide you just don't
have that grammar gene.
Frustrating, isn't it? Some people just give up, but not you. Hi, I'm Judy and welcome
to Practicing Advanced Grammar. Maybe you just completed my Grammar
Fundamentals courseor maybe you completed a while ago, or perhaps you decided
to bypass the fundamentalsand start with this more advanced course. In this course,
we'll practice choosing correct wordsand locating incorrect grammar use in
sentences and paragraphs. Everyone makes grammar mistakes, everyone. But just
as with any skill, the more you practice the correct way, the more that correct way is
reinforced until it becomes a habit.
Even though Jim Ryan, an American track and field athlete who medaled in the 1968
Olympic Games, was referring to running with this quote, it certainly applies
here. Motivation is what gets you started. Habit is what keeps you going. You are
definitely motivated, you've started the course. So let's get started on developing
good habits to keep you going.
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What you should know

- [Narrator] Have you ever thought that no one knows or cares what's grammatically
correct?As long as people understand you, that's all that counts. Those are
comfortable thoughts,wrong, but comfortable. So, before you begin the lessons in this
course, let's set the stage.The purpose of this advanced grammar course is to help
you become more aware of the howand the why it all works, and provide practice and
application. The more you practice the how's and why's to reinforce your
understanding, the closer you will be to your ultimate goal,using it correctly without
thinking about the how's and why's.
It just works automatically. Anything else to know before taking the advanced
grammar plunge? Certainly, first knowing rules, grammar terminology or jargon is not
the same as using correct grammar. I can memorize the entire glossary of car or
computer terminology and still wouldn't have a clue how to locate what was wrong
with the car or the computer. Merely knowing grammar rules and terms is a lot like
that. So, you've memorized all the categories of conjunctions, coordinating,
subordinating, correlative and adverbial, and you can list examples of each, but are
you sure you're using them correctly? Can you make corrections as you edit and
proofread your own writing? Something else to know is that for some of the advanced
rules, the apostrophe and prepositions for example, the experts don't always
agree, which adds to the confusion about grammar.
In these, the experts disagree areas, you may want to further examine the different
schools of thought until you decide which rule makes more sense to you so you can
decide which you will use. Third, understand that some people believe grammar rules
are archaic, that the wrong has become so common that's it's now correct. For
example, shall and will technically mean different things, but shall has disappeared
from our writing, at least for most of us, including mine. Periods didn't even exist until
the fourth century.
I'm glad that change became permanent, but grammar purists and progressives don't
always agree. The next thing to think about before you begin is that even our
location, whether we live in New York, California, or Britain may impact what we think
is correct. Do you wait on line or in line? You'll learn more about that in the
preposition lesson. The focus of this course is on standard common english. Ready
to look at advanced grammar? Let's begin.

PARTS OF SPEECH
Verb tense

- [Instructor] Every sentence must have a verb. The verb is so strong, it can be the
entire sentence, Go, Stop, Run. These commands, of course, have an
understood subject view, because all complete sentences must have a subject and a
verb. Verbs come in various categories. The four we'll discuss in this lesson
are Action, Linking, Mood, and Tense. First, the Action Verbs are the workhorse
verbs, Walk, Study, Laugh. Next are the linking or state of being.
They're called Linking Verbs because they link or connect the subject with a
word that either describes a subject, an adjective, such as She is pretty, or a word
that renames the subject,He is the winner. It's a pretty she, and he equals a
winner. Verbs can also have moods, Indicative, a fact of reality. The parking lot is
closed. Imperative, a command, visit the client.Interrogative, to question. Will you
have the report completed today? Conditional, a conditional state that will cause
something else to happen.
The meeting could be cancelled if anyone else calls in sick. Subjunctive, something
contrary to reality. If I were the CEO of the company, I'd increase employee
benefits. I'm not the CEO.These mood examples refer to the way the idea's
expressed, a question or a command for example. And verbs have tenses. Tense
refers to time. The rest of this lesson will focus on those what can be tricky
tenses. First, what does tense mean? Simply, a verb tense shows time, and six times
are possible.
Simple Present, He talks. And Simple Past, He talked. But we also need to
understand Present Perfect, They have talked. Past Perfect, They had talked. Future,
They will talk. And Future Perfect, They will have talked. Those perfect tenses are
generally the most confusing.Let's start with the Present perfect. It shows action that
began in the past but continues into the present, or the result is still ongoing.
Compare and contrast the Simple Past. Tyler worked for this company for 30
years, with the Present Perfect, Tyler has worked for this company for 30 years. The
Present Perfect implies that he still works for the company. The Present Perfect uses
a past participle, a helper, have or has, with the main verb. What about the Past
perfect? Just like the simple past, it shows action in the past, but in Past perfect, the
past action is completed before another action.
Look at this example. First, the Simple Past. Carolyn knitted blankets and gave them
to charity.Then Past Perfect. Carolyn gave blankets she had knitted to charity. The
blankets had to be knitted before they could be given away. And now, Future
perfect. Future perfect always shows action that will have been completed by some
future time. First, Simple Future. Next week I will complete the report. Now, Future
Perfect. By the end of next week, I will have completed the report.
That makes sense, sort of, right? Review it until it does before we add the next group
of verb tenses. Those Progressive Tenses, which show ongoing action in the
present, past, or future.Let's look at the sometimes slight shades of differences in
meaning. The Present progressive form often implies a process. Katelyn is driving
too fast around that corner. Is driving, happening now. But the driving too fast action
is in progress as she goes around the corner.
Now, what about Past progressive? It shows an action or state of being at a specific
time in the past with continuing action, it progresses. Kathy was rewriting the report
all day yesterday.Past progressive also is used to show that something took
place while something else was happening. While Lindsey was attending the
meeting, the other employees were planning the conference. Was attending and
were planning are in the progressive form of the past tense.Also, the Past
progressive can show an incomplete action.
Ted was completing the conference call when the rest of the committee arrived. The
conference call wasn't complete when the rest of the committee arrived. And finally,
the Past progressive can be used to criticize something that happens off and on, but
on a more or less regular basis. Trish was always arriving to work late on
Fridays. Now, Future progressive, the progressive version of future tense shows that
the action will be in progress at some time, or at a certain time in the future, such as
in this example.
Monday at 9 a.m. the employees will be attending a meeting. Do note that it's
important not to confuse the name of a verb tense with the way it's used to talk about
time. For example, I hope she wins the award tomorrow. Wins is present simple, but
it refers to tomorrow future.So a present tense verb doesn't always refer to present
time. If Mark had some extra time now, he could start the project. Had is past simple,
but refers to present now. And now let's examine the next group, one more tense.
The Continuous Tense is the last group. The Present continuous of any verb has two
parts,the present tense of the verb to be, is or are, for example, plus the present
participle of the main verb, which is the verb plus ing, walking and singing. Let's look
at a couple of its uses.It's used to describe an action that is happening at this
moment. You are listening to this lesson. It is also used to describe something which
has already been planned. You are going to dinner this evening.
The Past continuous describes something that happened in a time before now, it
began in the past and is still happening, but the action has not been completed. I was
having a good time at the conference when the fire alarm sounded. I was going to
complete the report, but I've decided to call a meeting first. And finally, the Future
continuous tense. It has three parts, will plus be, plus the present participle, which is
the root word plus ing, will be going, and will be sleeping are examples.
The Future continuous refers to something that is unfinished, that will be in
progress at a future time. The Future continuous has a variety of different
purposes but here are two of those. One, to project ourselves into the future. By this
time next year, I will be managing the company. And two, for predicting or guessing
about future events. You will be missing your co-workers after the promotion. Think
carefully about the tense. Don't shift tenses, your reader may be confused or even
misled.
You are taking, were taking, will be taking this advanced grammar course, and I will
be glad you are, or I am glad you are, or I have been glad, or let's just leave it with
present progressive tense. You are taking this advanced grammar course and I'm
glad.

Irregular verbs

- In grammar, the irregular verbs cause many more use problems than the regular
versions.Irregular verbs occasionally refer to as the strong verbs, over 100 of them
are verbs that don't follow the usual established rules for verb forms. The most
common are usually identified asBe, Do, See say Get Go Know Think Make,
Come and Take. And close to three-fourths of the time, 70% the verb we use is an
irregular one.
So what makes a verb irregular? It doesn't end with a conventional "-ed"
ending when referring to the past. Overall the irregular verbs may make no
sense because finding a pattern is hard. Okay, so we have ring and rang but not
think and thank. Instead, think and thought.And sing, sang but not sling, slang, but
sling, slung. Sound confusing? (light giggle) It is. So let's try to make some sense of
these pesky irregular verbs that have their own set of rules.
As I mentioned in the opening of the course, I am not a believer of memorizing
rules. But for irregular verbs, that's the only way to know what is correct. Memorizing
and then using the correct word over and over until it's use becomes
automatic. Knowing that go, went, gone is correct for example, has no sound that
would indicate it's correct. See, saw, seed, we just have to know that see, saw, seed
is not correct. And to add to the complication, British English and American English
have gone in noticeable different direction for a couple words.
Burn and learn for example, burn, burned or burn, burnt? Learn, learned versus
learn, learnt?And very rarely, but regular verb may become an irregular verb. Sneak,
sneaked, should be sneak, snuck, but the misuse of sneaked is making it close to
becoming acceptable. My vote goes for sneaked. In isolated cases such as
light, should lighted or lit be used? He lighted the fire, he lit the fire.
Whichever you choose, you're correct. Both are acceptable as the past tense for to
light. So, let the conjugation, memorization game begin. Let's look at Common
Irregular Verbs. Each will be conjugated, Present, Past, neither of which ever have a
helper, and Past Participle which must be used after a helper, has or have for
example. Do, did, done. You do it, you did it, you have done it. I go, Joe went, Joe
has gone.
Now look at these, the Past and the Past Participle are the same, say, said,
said. They say it will rain. They said it will rain. They have said it will rain. But in
another instance, the Presentand the Past Participle are the same. Come, came,
come. You come home. You came home.You have come home. And then there's a
group of irregulars that the word is the same in all three categories. I put the vase on
the table, I put the vase on the table yesterday, I have put the vase on the table every
day.
Even though read is also on that list, same spelling so it makes no difference when
we're writing. But it does change it's sound if we say it orally. I read everyday. I read
yesterday. I have read that book. We can group some of these irregular verbs, but
exceptions exist. So these are not rules, just common patterns. If the verb ends in D,
change to T. Examples, bend, bent and bent. And Spend, spent and spent.
But exceptions of course such as end, ended and ended. Here's a second pattern
with a long I sound, a couple examples in this category, drive, drove, driven, rise,
rose and risen.However, others change from long I to OU, such as find, found,
found and grind, ground, ground. Look also at the E, it changes from long to
short. Listen to the E's. Sleep, slept, slept.
Keep, kept, kept. So the definition of irregular is something that is different, which
certainly describes irregular verbs. They live by their own set of rules. But keep
practicing conjugating those irregular verbs, until they become habit. I hope this
lesson has taught, not teached, you about irregular verbs.

Conjunction overview

- [Female] Somehow I missed hearing and learning one of the most important songs
ever, the Conjunction Junction song. I'm not sure how that happened. The actual
song is quite long and you can find it at this website if you're excited to hear all of
it. For a quick review, there are four sub-categories of conjunctions. Coordinating,
subordinating, correlative, conjunctive adverbs, or sometimes called adverbial
conjunction. Coordinating think of FANBOYS, an acronym that will help you
remember the only seven words that are coordinating; For, And, Nor, But, or, Yet,
and So.
Co are the key letters to remember, the prefix co means together or with, think
coworkers.Subordinating, think of A WHITE BUS, an acronym that will help you
remember, no not all the subordinating conjunctions, there are at least 25, but A
WHITE BUS will help you remember examples of subordinating conjunctions; After,
When, How, If, Though, Even, Before, Until, and Since. Correlative, think pairs. No,
that's not an acronym, but correlative conjunctions have to be in pairs.
And each word of the pair is equal. Maybe remember the pairs of Rs in
correlative, examples are both-and. Not only-but also. Not-but. Either-or. And
Neither-nor. Now the conjunctive adverb. The best I can do for a memory hint is ICE
CARS to help you remember what conjunctive adverbs do. They Illustrate; for
example. Show Cause and effect; therefore. They Emphasize; certainly. They
Contrast; however.
They Add to; furthermore. They identify a Result; accordingly. And show Sequence;
finally.More than 50 words are in this category. So that's the review, now let's delve
more deeplyinto some of the areas that needs special care. First, what are the
special concerns for subordinating conjunctions? They have two jobs, to give the
necessary transition and to show a relationships. Time, place, cause and effect, for
example. They can be grouped into categories by what they do.
They concede. Even though, is an example. They show a condition; even if. They
can compare; whereas. Or show time; whenever. They can also indicate a reason;
because. And they can show the manner in which something was done; as if. They
can appear at the beginning or the middle of a sentence. Using one to start a
sentence may result in a sentence fragment if we're not careful because the
subordinating conjunction will always begin a dependent clause, one that can't stand
alone.
Look at these examples of how adding a subordinating conjunction completely
changes the sentences meaning. The new office building will be completed by the
end of the year. It will need to be inspected before we can move. Two sentences, no
conjunctions. Let's add one.Even though the new office building will be completed by
the end of the year. It will need to be inspected before we can move. By adding even
though, we created a sentence fragmentby putting a period at the end of the now
dependent clause.
So let's change that period to a comma, like this. Even though the new office building
will be completed by the end of the year, comma, it will need to be inspected before
we can move.Now the dependent clause is hooked to the independent one and is
correct. Next, the correlative conjunction joins similar elements. But that's also what
coordinating conjunctions do isn't it? So what's the difference? Perhaps the main
reason to use a correlative conjunctionrather than a coordinating conjunction is to
emphasize.
Look at these two examples. Paula is a dependable coworker and a trusted
friend. So we know two things about Paula. Here's the other version. Paula is not
only a dependable coworker but also a trusted friend. We still know two things about
Paula, but the second version with the correlative pair of conjunctions, not only-but
also, is that both of Paula's qualities are emphasized. Another caution is being
sure the subject and verb agree in numberwith subjects connected with the
correlative conjunction.
Neither the dog nor the cats were or was in the yard. Neither the cats nor the dog
were or was in the yard. Does the placement of cats and dog in the sentence change
the verb choice? Yes. Cat's were; dog was. The word closest to the verb
determines if the verb is singular or plural. Neither the dog nor the cats were in the
yard. Neither the cats nor the dog was in the yard. And one finally item on the beware
list when using correlative conjunctions,be sure to keep the connected items parallel.
Another lesson examines parallel issues in more depth. But look at this sentence. We
can either wait for Jon to arrive or we can call a cab. We can either wait for Jon to
arrive or call a cab. The second example is parallel. Either wait or call. The first
example changes the sentence structure by trying to connect the or to a complete
sentence. And finally, the conjunctive adverbs. Even though the word conjunctive
describes these words, they really aren't conjunctions used as the other three
categories.
These are adverbs used as transition. But in one way, they do connect ideas as the
other conjunctions do and show relationships. We'll discuss them here but work on
them some more in the adverb lesson. Listen to these two sentences. Mary is
retiring; therefore, Clark will be promoted to Mary's job. Mary is retiring;
however, Clark will not be promoted to Mary's job.The ideas connect but changing
the conjunctive adverb changes the relationship of Mary's retiring and Clark's future.
So now may be the time to learn that Conjunction Junction song. Conjunction
Junction how's that function? What's their function? Now you know the how, and the
what, of their function.

Coordinating conjunctions
- [Instructor] Coordinating Conjunctions. The acronym to help you remember these
seven words is FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. They connect equals and
those equals can be words: desk and chair. Phrases. On the desk and in the
chair. Dependent clauses. After the meeting was over, but while we were still at the
office. Or independent clauses. The meeting was over, but we were still
working. Depending on which list you use, the word and is number four or number
five on the most frequently used words in the English language.
To be used so frequently suggests that it must have a variety of uses. Let's examine
six of those possibilities, as we delve more deeply into the coordinating
conjunctions. And can be used to show a sequence. We arrived at the meeting and
waited for the speaker to arrive. Two verbs, arrived and waited, show the
sequence. Arrived before we waited. Another relationship that and can show is cause
and effect. The employees heard the news that layoffs would begin and promptly
began interviewing at other companies.
Heard and began, again, two verbs. Even though but is usually used to show
contrast, and can can also. Look at this example. Office building number three is
painted blue, and office building number five is painted green. The writer could be
contrasting the two colors. What about an unexpected result? Yet is typically used,
but and is also a possibility. Lynn is highly qualified for the position and never seems
to get the promotion. Here's the fifth possibility.
Even though a subordinating conjunction's purpose is to show a dependency of
ideas, a coordinating conjunction can also. Look at how and does that in this
example. Be late for work three times, and employee attendance points will be
deducted on your evaluation. And the sixth is that and can also be used to show
emphasis. Max was promoted instead of Andrew and that shocked everyone. What
about the next most commonly used coordinating conjunction, but? Even though it is
in the 20's or 30's on the most commonly used overall word list, but is usually the
best choice to contrast words or ideas.
Frieda had to move to a temporary office, but she still seems to be meeting her
quotas. But can also be used to support another idea in the sentence. Look at how
but does that in this example. Randa never arrived late for an interview, but always
relied on MapQuest. And another way but can support an idea: no one but Torrey
knew the answer. Here, but means "except." Let's look at or next. Or is used to link,
present, or identify alternatives.
Every day they clean the picnic area or the break room. Or can also be used to
stress, clarify, or counter a previous statement. No layoffs are projected, or so
management is telling us now. Now what about for? It's in the top 20 of the most
commonly used English words. For is also one of the common prepositions and it
functions in that capacity more than it does as a coordinating conjunction. As a
coordinating conjunction, it shows a sequence.
Because and since, which are subordinating conjunctions, are also used to show a
sequence.But for tends to be used when the connection needs a serious word to
connect the reason clause. Maybe these examples will help show when for, as a
coordinating conjunction, would be the best choice. Linda believed she would be
selected for the honor, for her three best friends were on the committee. Or, most of
the new employees were content with the new office arrangements, for at least they
no longer had to share desks.
That's the technical use of for as a coordinating conjunction. Honestly, I think
because works better than the conjunctions, and usually leave for as a
preposition. So is certainly not as common as the other coordinating conjunctions
we've examined. So can connect these independent clauses, just like and and but.
We are carpooling to the meeting, so we can't leave until Toni gets off work. Notice in
that example that the two events also show a cause and effect, which means
therefore, the conjunctive adverb, could also be used correctly, like this: we are
carpooling to the meeting; therefore, we can't leave until Toni gets off work.
So can also be used to mean "as well" or "in addition." Gail isn't the only person
being considered for the award, so are Dot, Mary, and Sami. Another use of so is to
summarize. So, in summary, the three building sites all meet the
requirements. Adding the so in this example is more common in spoken grammar
than in written. In summary would be sufficient. Another coordinating conjunction to
examine is yet. Yet probably wants a coordinating conjunction award for having the
most uses other than and.
Yet means in addition. As in, yet another coordinating conjunction to examine. Or it
can mean "still." He is is still, or yet, on probation. Or even, yet more
expensive. Eventually, they may yet be hired. Show time, she hasn't arrived yet. It
can be used much the same way as but, or as the conjunctive adverb,
nevertheless. Yet may be a stronger coordinating conjunction than but. Miley is a
computer expert, yet her favorite job is teaching. Yet is sometimes combined with
and.
Nelson had worked at the same company for 10 years, and yet had received no
promotions.And finally, the little used nor is used to show a negative connection of
ideas. I will not vote for Jane nor Sally. Nor is also part of the corelative pair
neither/nor. Karen is neither arrogant nor controlling. I know that is neither what she
said nor what she meant. Generally, when nor is used, it connects negative ideas.
Do be certain to look at your intended relationship or connection to choose the
correct conjunction to show your reader that relationship. FANBOYS: seven little
letters, but certainly more than seven choices when deciding which coordinating
conjunction to use.

Pronouns
- [Instructor] When you see those words, do you think I'm arrogant that I just lose
all my credibility of knowing grammar, or did you chuckle? I so hope you
chuckled. Let's do that quick review before we tackle some of the more weighty
pronoun issues. A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun but not all the pronoun
categories can be easily placed under that broad definition. First personal pronouns,
that's the group most people think of when they hear the word pronoun. Personal
pronouns have gender, he, masculine, she, feminine, it, neutral, number, it, she
singular, they, plural, person, I, first, you, second person, they, third,and case,
subjective, I, he, they, objective, me, her, and possessive, its and their.
In addition to personal pronouns, there's more groups. Demonstrative, those and
these,interrogative, which one, indefinite, some, somebody, reciprocal, each
other, relative, who, which, that, reflective and intensive, myself. That completes the
review of what pronouns areand how they function, but let's do another quick
review. The agreement of number error is so common that the rule needs to be
emphasized again. The rule, the pronoun must agree in number with its antecedent
and with its verb.
Indefinite pronouns are singular, somebody, everybody, anybody. Everyone should
sign their name on the roster has an agreement of number error. Their is third person
plural personal pronoun, so everyone equals singular, their equals plural creating the
grammar error. Let's correct it. Everyone should sign the roster, eliminate the
pronoun or make both plural. All attendees should sign their names on the roster or
the often cumbersome, everyone should sign his or her name on the roster.
And a quick review of one more major error, I, he, she, they, and me, him, her,
them. Even though the rule applies to all the words in each category, let's use he and
him to illustrate.Ellie and he, not him, are on the committee. Choose the subjective
case when the pronoun is used as a subject. Maria said she would send the
reports to Ellie and him, not he. Choose from the objective case when the pronoun is
the object of a preposition. A reminder that my Grammar Fundamentals course
delves deeply into those rules.
Now let's focus on some more advanced pronoun issues, a pronoun needs a clear
reference called an antecedent. Both Nancy and Caroline liked her new office. Her is
a singular possessive case pronoun, so either Nancy or Caroline could be the
antecedent, the name to whom her is referring. So how does the reader know if the
office is Nancy's or Caroline's? The reader doesn't know, only the writer knows the
actual meaning. Writing Both Nancy and Caroline liked Nancy's new office now
clarifies that it's Nancy's office.
Also, the pronoun needs to refer to a specific word in the sentence. It has been found
that half the employees prefer the new insurance plan. What has been found? It? To
what does it refer? Nothing. This is an easy fix. Half the employees prefer the new
insurance plan and at the same time, the sentence becomes more concise. Or if how
the data were collected is important, then the survey revealed that half the
employees prefer the new insurance plan.What about this example, Whether we like
Plan A or Plan B, it won't make any difference.
What won't make any difference? It? What's it? One way we could correct it would
be Whether we like Plan A or Plan B makes no difference. Let's switch to
demonstrative pronouns. Those, these, this, that. Four words that may be used as
pronouns or as adjectives and are rarely misused. Those are my reports, those
reports are mine. A pronoun in the first example, an adjective in the second
example. Those and these refer to plural items, these papers, and this and that refer
to singulars, this report, that paper.
Another antecedent situation is called the Anticipatory Reference. If the pronoun
comes before the noun of which it refers, the reader is left not knowing and has to
anticipate the antecedent. Look at this example, If they arrive today, please let me
know when I can open the supplies. Only after we get to the end of the sentence and
see supplies do we know what they is replacing. Writing If the supplies arrive
today, please let me know when I can open them doesn't keep the reader in
suspense, the antecedent before the pronoun makes the sentence meaning easier to
understand.
And no pronoun discussion would be complete without the who, whom, and
that. First, that refers to things, The vases that are broken will be replaced, that's not
the problem. The vases who are broken will be replaced would probably never be
used. The problem is if that is used referring to people. The employees that are on
the conference committee will meet today.That's incorrect. Employees are people
and people are referred to as who or whom. The employees who are on
the conference committee will meet today.
So who and whom both refer to people, but how are they used correctly? Who and
whom are relative case pronouns but need to be thought on just like any of the
other objective and subjective case pronouns. Who is subjective and whom is
objective. In the example, The employees who are on the conference committee will
meet today. Who is the subject of the verb are, so the subjective case pronoun who
is correct. Selected grammarians believe that whom must sound so formal that it
should not be used.
To whom should I address this package is correct. To is a preposition and
prepositions take objects, so the objective case whom is correct.

Adjectives and adverbs

- [Narrator] What, when, where, why, and how. Those are often referred to as the
journalistic questions. What do those have to do with adjectives and
adverbs? Knowing what questions to ask can help you know when you need an
adjective and when you need an adverb. Ask these questions to help you identify
adverbs. How, when, where, why, how much, how many, in what way? If the word
answers one of those questions, then it's an adverb. Before we take the adjective
and adverb discussion to the more advanced level, let's take a moment for a quick
adjective and adverb review.
Both are modifiers. They explain or tell more about. Adjectives modifier describe
nouns and pronouns. Her new office is in the old building. Her and new describing
office, and the and old describing building, are adjectives. Adverbs modify or tell
more about verbs, adjectives,and other adverbs. He ran quickly. Quickly modifies the
verb ran. He bought outrageously expensive shoes. Expensive is the adjective
describing shoes, and outrageously is an adverbmodifying the adjective expensive.
He ran really quickly. Really is an adverb modifying the adverb quickly. And now
another quick review. Good and well, and bad vs. badly. Those groups are
thoroughly analyzed in the grammar fundamentals course, but because they are
misused and confused so often, let's quickly review. Bad is the adjective. Badly is the
adverb. He made a bad decision. Bad describes the noun decision. So its an
adjective. And, he played the game badly. Badly describes the verb played. So it's an
adverb.
Now, good and well. He did a good job. Good modifies job, a noun. So good's an
adjective.He played the game well. Well tells how he played, a verb, so it's an
adverb. He played the game good is incorrect, and the other confusing element is
that well becomes an adjective when it describes a state of health. I don't feel well.
That's the review. Now let's delve more deeply into adjectives. Adjectives overall are
generally used correctly, with or without knowing the rules.
You did a good job. You look pretty. I don't think I've ever heard anyone say, you did
a well job or that you look prettily. However, some adjectives do get confused. Much
and many are both adjectives. Many is used with plural nouns. The company doesn't
have many new products. Much is used with singular nouns and with collective
nouns. This office doesn't get much sunshine, or the team doesn't have much time to
make a decision. Little and a little. Little without the article refers to size. The office is
little.
A little has a positive meaning with something that can't be counted. My new office
gets a little sunshine. If you wrote, my new office gets little sunshine, the tone
changes to negative. Now onto the other group of modifiers: adverbs. One trick to
remember is that many adverbs end in l y. Quick trip, adjective. Ran quickly,
adverb. Made a careful decision, adjective. Made the decision carefully, adverb. But
some words that end in l y are not adverbs.
What a lovely day. Day is a noun. Lovely describes the day. So it's an adjective. And
not all adverbs end in l y. He drove fast. We will be home soon. We need to go
now. Fast, how he drove. Soon and now both tell when. All adverbs. And one that
may surprise you is the word not, an adverb. What would you identify as the subject
and verb in these sentences? He wouldn't answer my questions, or we aren't ready
to leave.
The subjects he and we, the verbs would answer and are ready. The n apostrophe t
replacing not is an adverb. It changes the meaning from positive to negative and sort
of answers the question how or when. And finally, let's look at examples of words that
in the same form, sometimes called flat adverbs, may be an adjective or an
adverb. How can you identify which it is? By how it's used in the sentence. Examples
are early, hard, fast, deep, short, and right.
Let's dissect two of those, early and fast. I arrived early at the airport. I rode the early
bus.Early telling when you arrived is an adverb. Kind of bus, the early one, is an
adjective. The dog ran fast. Fast describes how the dog ran, an adverb. Your new car
is fast. A fast new car. Fast becomes an adjective. So far, we've looked at words that
are adjectives or adverbs. We also need to look at phrases and clauses, a group of
words that function as an adjective or adverb.
An adjective clause: the person who is running for mayor is my colleague. Adjective
phrase, the person running for mayor is my colleague. Adverb clause, before you
make a final decision, consider all your options. The clause beginning with
before, that subordinating conjunction answers the question when, so it's an
adverbial clause. An adverb phrase: The meeting will convene after the
decision. Remember those subordinating conjunctions? An adverb clause is always
introduced by a subordinating conjunction.
An adjective clause is sometimes. The next time you want to make certain you're
using adjectives and adverbs correctly, review these tips and ask those all-important
questions to help you decide. You want to be certain you choose the correct
word. Correct is the adjective, so that you write correctly, the adverb.
Prepositions
- [Tutor] Congratulations in you! I'm going on the meeting in 30 minutes. Did either of
those make sense to you? Probably not. Let's change in and on to to; congratulations
to you, I'm going to the meeting in 30 minutes. How unimportant those little words
in, to, and on look in a sentence, but oh the difference they can make; those
prepositions. Do you want me to wait on you or for you? That depends.
If you want me to stay until you arrive, then I will wait for you. But if you want me to
bring you your coffee and bagel then I will be waiting on you. Should the picture
frame be put on the table or onto the table? The frame should be placed onto the
table; something is placed onto something else. But if that object is already in
place then it's on the other object; the picture frame was on the table. Do you differ
with me or differ from me? Or are you different from meor different than me? Do we
disagree on the new policy? Then I differ with you.
But do we like different clothing styles? Then I differ from you on our preferred
style. Or I am different from you in how I dress. One slightly controversial preposition
choice in this category is different than. Grammar purist argue that different than is
unacceptable and should therefore be avoided entirely. The British may say different
to. Are you waiting on line or are you waiting in line? I would be waiting in line but
New Yorkers may be waiting on line. Will the money be divided among the winners or
between the winners? Personally if I'm one of the winners I hope the money is
divided between the winners, why? Because between refers to two.
Among refers to three or more. So I get half the money if it's divided between me and
the other winner. Look at how many different ways to use by. The book is written by
the author,the book is by my tent, I'm reading the book by fire light while the dogs are
playing by me, I have to have it read by tomorrow. Each by takes on a different
purpose. All those by's are used correctly but each is connected to different
ideas; people, locations, and time.
Yes a preposition is an important part of speech that impacts the sentence's
meaning, but we've only just begun. Let's look at more of those confusing
prepositional pairs. In and into.Into is used with movement; I unloaded the boat into
the water but once I unloaded it, the boat is now in the water. Like and as. Like
means one things is similar to something else;Talus wants to be an actor like his
father. As is used to describe how something or someone functions; Becca serves as
the team leader.
Beside and besides; only one letter as difference but a big difference in
meaning. Beside means next to; my car is parked beside Tom's car. Besides;
something is in addition to something. Ryan is getting a new promotion besides
getting a new office. What about to and at? At tells where a person or thing is; we set
up camp at the park. To identifies another place;Mary returned to the tent. Those
groups have different meanings.
What about a couple groups that have the same basic meaning? About and on for
example.Both can mean regarding but each means regarding something slightly
different. Was the regarding more ordinary or serious? Our next discussion will be
about social activities for our organization; routine and ordinary. We attended a
lecture on the impact of social media on writing skills; probably more serious or
academic. Then above and over can both mean higher than, except above is used to
mean higher than but not directly over, and over is used when the things being
discussed cover or touch one another.
The balloons were above our heads, he put a protective coat over the paint. Above is
also used to measure temperature and heights. Temperature above 70 degrees are
required for these outdoor excursions. But over is used for ages and speeds; I
received a speeding ticketfor going over the speed limit. And some prepositions that
you may be tempted to use,sometimes in a slang or idiom way should be
omitted. For example, don't write if we don't arrive early, we will miss out on getting a
good seat.
Use we will not get a good seat. And then the notorious where are you going to and
what did you do that for, and where are we at? Where are you going? Why did you
do that? And where are we? In some cases a preposition may be implied as in, the
job requirements for a computer programmer are much different than a computer
technician. Because those two positions are being compared, the second preposition
for can be omitted if it's the same as the first.
But the preposition must be included if the second phrase requires a different
preposition, for example, we went to the meeting and participated in the
discussion. The next time you type in on, in, for, or by, you just might see those
words as an important part of your message.

CORRECT WORD CHOSE

Commonly confused or incorrect words
- [Instructor] Look at this paragraph. Look carefully. Notice anything. Look again and
count the number of words or word groups that are misused. Three, five, seven. If
you said 10 you are correct. Here are the 10. Let's analyze them one by one. First,
irregardless isn't a word that has any correct use or meaning. The correct word is
regardless.
Irregardless is never correct. Why? The prefix ir means not or non. So technically,
irregardless would mean that you do have regard for something which is not the
message the writer intends. Alot. Again alot is one word is always incorrect. It needs
to be written as two words. A lot of people will vote. The word a-l-l-o-t, allot is
correct, meaning to give each person his or her share. Please allot each voter 10
minutes to complete the ballot.
Unthaw. Think about that. Un is another of those prefixes that means not or non. So
unthaw technically means, to freeze. Another word that isn't in a word group. Would
of should always be would have. We use the contraction so often, w-o-u-l-d
aprostrophe v-e, and read it as would of, and then write it the way it sounds. Would
have, along with should have and could have, should always be used.
Misunderestimate should be either misestimate, or underestimate, or overestimate. If
we misestimate we estimate incorrectly which could be under or over. So
misunderestimate is another nonword. Alright. Well it's not all right if it's spelled as
one word. This needs to be two words. An easy way to remember this is would
you ever write all wrong as one word? So if there's no all wrong as one word, there's
no all right as one word.
Supposably. No, the correct word is supposedly, e-d, not a-b. He supposedly vetoed
the amendment. Could care less. That phrase means that you do care, at least a
little. So you do have room to reduce the amount of care you have. Couldn't care less
is what most people mean when they use the phrase, meaning do not care at all. All
intensive purposes. I suppose if I thought long enough, I could think of a sentence in
which those words would make sense.
But the correct phrase is all intents and purposes, meaning for all practical
purposes. Often Henry VIII is credited with the phrase used in a legal act, so it dates
back at least to the 1500s.Undoubtably, as in undoubtably it'll be fixed by
Friday. There's that a-b again, that should be e-d, as in undoubtedly. The a-b version
is another nonword. So that takes care of the 10 errors in the paragraph. But let's
continue by looking at words that are correct, have the same letters and sound the
same, but are often used incorrectly.
All together, all ready, every one, and every day, as two words, or altogether,
already, everyone, and everyday as one word. Both versions are words but
must used in the correct context. All together as two words means collectively as a
group. We cheered for the team all together. You could write, we cheered for the
team as a group. Another way you can check this is separating the words in the
sentence.
Does the sentence still make sense? We all cheered for the team
together. Altogether as one word means entirely, completely, or totally. As employees
we are altogether too overworked.We are entirely, completely, totally
overworked. Any one of those synonyms to replace altogether make sense. All ready
as in all prepared, the children were all ready for the picnic.All the children were
ready for the picnic. It still makes sense.
But I've already, one word, applied for the next job. The one word indicates a time
statementcompleted in the past. Does everyone understand the difference? One or
two words. In that example, one word is correct. Everyone, try everybody, that works
also. You are referring to all the people in the group. What about this
sentence? Every one of the employees received a raise. Now we need two
words. Using two words means you're referring to each individual in the group.
Each person. Try inserting the word single in the second example. Every single one
of the employees. Every day we will check the reports. Inserting single is also a good
way to check every day and everyday. Everyday the one word version is an
adjective. Checking the report is an everyday occurrence. Other words in this
category are a while and any one. Before starting the meeting, wait awhile for the
sales people who haven't been to a meeting in a while to arrive.
Any one of us could be elected, but anyone who wants to remove her name from the
ballot must do so by noon. Do you hear and see the difference? Primarily in this
lesson, we've looked at two categories of misused words. Words that really don't
exist, at least for which there is no correct use, and words that sound alike, look
alike, and are spelled alike, except we have the one word, and the two word
versions. You can always check an online source to verify that you are using the
correct word.

Misused or misunderstood words

- [Instructor] Does the term grammar police invoke fear when you hear it? My kids,
when they were young, would caution their friends who came to our house that Mom
will probably correct your grammar. I don't remember if I actually ever did, but I'm
sure I wanted to. So here's round two of misused, commonly confused words. The
common ones, the accept and except, affect and effect, and farther and further, for
example, are examined in my Grammar Fundamentals course. So let's start with
which word is correct groups that maybe be more difficult or not as agreed upon.
First, borrow and lend. Lend and borrow have the same basic meaning but from
different sides. Lend means that something is temporarily given to another person,
and borrow means that something is temporarily taken from another person. So will
you lend me your car?Certainly, you may borrow my car. Next, let's analyze
misinformation and disinformation. Only one letter difference in those two words, but
a major difference in what they mean.
One, I made a mistake, and the other, you would be accusing me of being
deceitful.Dishonest. Misinformation still is about giving wrong information, but
unintentionally. Are you disinterested or uninterested or maybe both? If you are
disinterested, you are impartial, so if we are having a disagreement, we want a
disinterested person to help us resolve our disagreement. On the other hand, if you
are uninterested, then you're bored. An uninterested person might leave a stage
production.
And the next question, are you anxious or eager? Those aren't synonyms
either. Actually, they're closer to antonyms, words with opposite meanings. If you're
eager, you look forward to something. I'm eager to get promoted, but you might
also be anxious about that new promotion, worried about. Will you be able to do the
job? Can you keep up with the added responsibility? So saying I'm anxious to get
started on our trip could be correct if you mean you're nervous about starting the trip,
but it would not be correct if your intended meaning is that you're excited or eager to
get started.
Next, what about elicit and illicit? They sound so similar and have similar
spellings but again, mean very different things. If you're opinion is elicited, the verb
with an E, you are being asked for your view, your opinion, but if I ask you for illicit
drugs, and adjective with the I-L opening,it's certainly not your opinion I want. It
describes something that is forbidden by law.Something illegal or criminal. Be careful
with those two words.
Not quite as damaging if misused are since and because. Since has a time sequence
to it. I've been promoted twice since I earned my degree. The promotions came after
the degree.Because, on the other hand, shows a cause-effect relationship. I
completed my degree because I wanted a promotion. Those two sentence examples
may sound similar because they are are. Since, what happened after. Because, what
caused the action to happen. Now let's look at individual words, ones that may have
been misused or misunderstood for so long.
Ironic. One headline asked, is ironic the most abused word in English? I probably
wouldn't go that far, but technically, irony is the result of something you do that is the
opposite of what was intended, something contrary to what you might expect. It does
not mean a coincidence or something unusual or funny or weird or that you mean
something sarcastic, which is a stronger emotion than irony. These are incorrect uses
of irony.
All five of us arrived wearing blue shirts -- how ironic. No, that was a
coincidence. This is the same spot I tripped and fell last year. Isn't that ironic? No,
again, it's a coincidence. So what is a correct use of ironic? I tried to save money by
training my own dog, but she bit someone which cost a lot more money than dog
training sessions would have. Isn't that ironic? Yes, it is.The end result was the total
opposite of what was intended.
Next, let's dissect peruse. When you hear that word, do you think it means to skim or
glance over something? Actually, it means the opposite. It means to review
something carefully, in depth, thoroughly, so telling your employer that you
perused all the company documents before the court case would indicate that you
prepared thoroughly. Word meanings can change, sometimes radically. We even
have a name for it. Semantic change. Are you naughty? Today, we might use that to
describe a child who used a marker on the wall, but at one time it meant evil or
immoral.
And then we have words that would have made no sense a few years ago. Cell, for
example. I lost my cell today doesn't mean I was released from prison. Who knows
what the next big word change is, but I'm rather confident that there will be
changes, and I'm just as confident that there will always be correct and incorrect
ways to use words. Keep investigating words and their meanings so you can be
confident that you're using the word correctly and the correct word. Who knows? You
may become a member of the grammar police.

3-PUNCTUATION
Commas
- [Instructor] Life is a series of commas, not periods, a quote from Matthew
McConaughey. So think about commas as pauses that give us time to slow down but
not to come to a final end.That tiny little mark has so many uses so let's delve
into how and when to use it correctly.We've discussed in other lessons in this
course, and certainly in the Grammar Fundamentals course, the main uses of the
comma. In this lesson, for each rule, we'll first review then consider possible
exceptions, and finally, cautions.
So, the first review. Two complete sentences with a coordinating conjunction. A
comma is placed before that coordinating conjunction. The meeting will start late, but
it will still last two hours. Consider the same rule except if those independent
clauses are brief, the comma may be omitted. I ran and Matt drove. If in doubt, add
the comma. But remember, the comma comes before the conjunction, not after
it. The second review. Use a comma to separate the elements in series, three or
more things.
We will attend the sessions on teamwork, on transparent communication, and on
leadership styles. But consider, the experts don't always agree on the use of the
serial comma or Oxford comma. If in doubt, use it, although understand that some
will say it should be deleted.However, it is optional. We will attend the sessions on
teamwork, on transparent communication and on leadership styles. Remember, as
you consider the Oxford or serial comma, that last comma, using it or not, may
actually result in confusion.
How many items were on the buffet table in this sentence? Five. Adding the comma
makes macaroni and cheese two different items when it was probably only one
item. Third review.Use a comma to set off introductory phrases or clauses. Because
he was trying to get the amendment passed, he called all the team leaders. But
consider, you may omit the comma after a brief introductory element if the meaning is
still clear.
While in the store I bought three loaves of bread. But remember, omitting that comma
may create confusion. Look at this sentence. All along certainly qualifies as a brief
introductory element but all along, the production line employees have
wanted updated equipment is not the same as all along the production
line, employees have wanted updated equipment. So the comma is placed after both
introductory clauses but the meaning is different in each one.
Also, if the clause comes at the end, it generally should not be set off with the
comma. He called all the team leaders because he was trying to get the amendment
passed. However, that clause that comes at the end may be set off if reading without
it would be confusing. A fourth review. Use a comma to set of parenthetical elements
or appositives, those non-essential or non-restrictive words or clauses that can be
removed without changing the sentence's meaning.
This example has a non-essential element. Highway 33, which was repaved last
week, has four rest stops. The fact that it was repaved has nothing to do with the fact
that it has four rest stops. The appositive renames. Look at this example. Fred, my
boss for 10 years, will retire next year. The fact that Fred has been your boss for 10
years can certainly be deleted without losing anything crucial in the sentence. Now
let's change the word order of Fred in the boss sentence.
My boss Fred will retire next year. We could argue that Fred is
parenthetical assuming the writer has one boss. But if the writer has more than one
boss, then Fred should not be surrounded by commas. Also, short appositives
generally need not be set off with commas.Another review. The comma is used to
separate two or more elements in dates, addresses, and titles. The conference on
May 12, 2015, was held in Santa Barbara, California.
If the day is not included then no commas are required. Our new branch office will
open in May 2018. But do consider, when the state name is part of a possessive or
compound structure, the second comma is not used. Santa Barbara, California's
conference will last three days. Remember the comma between a name and suffix is
no longer considered necessary by most writers, as in George Brown Jr. or George
Brown III. Both of those would be correct without commas.
And no commas are used in international or military format. George Washington
became president on 4 February 1789. A sixth review. The nouns of direct
address. Look at this example. I will arrive, Paula, some time in the afternoon. I'm
writing to Paula but consider that a comma should not be used if writing about
Paula. I told Paula that I would arrive some time in the afternoon. Remember, those
direct address commas should not be confused with the appositive.
A seventh rule is to use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. A review. The
report was well written, visually appealing, and mechanically correct. All three of
those adjectives are equal and should be separated by commas. You can replace a
comma with the word and and it still makes sense. But consider that not all adjectives
are equal. Look at these sentences.The short October meeting will be to plan the
project. To say the short and October meeting doesn't make sense.
Let's look at this example with two equal adjectives separated by the
comma. However, each adjective is also compound so it should be hyphenated. My
friend decided to buy all the dirt-cheap, run-down houses on the block. The eighth
review is to set off quoted elements. The news article quoted our CEO as
saying, "Within the next five years, we will be the premierehealth care facility." If the
quote comes in the middle, then two commas are necessary.
"Within the next five years," our CEO said, "we will be in the premiere health care
facility." But if the word that is used, the quote becomes indirect and no commas are
needed. Our CEO said that we will be the premiere health care facility within the next
five years. However, a colon is used to set off quoted information that is either formal
or long, more than a sentence.Look at this example. Another rule, number nine on
our list, is to use a comma to set off contrasting elements.
Those beginning with which, but, and not. She was promoted for her work ethic, not
for how long she'd worked for the company. The new equipment is necessary, but
very confusing to use. Consider though that some writers will leave out the
comma that sets off a contrasting phrase beginning with but. We were eager but also
anxious. Remember that even though the comma is used before but in both of these
examples, be sure to recognize that but serves a different purpose in each.
The new equipment is necessary, but very confusing to use. The new equipment is
necessary, but it won't arrive until next month. The but in the second sentence is a
coordinating conjunction between two independent clauses. The tenth review is that
commas may be used with interjections or exclamations. Yes, no, well, oh, wow. Yes,
I plan to update my programs tomorrow. However, when the interjection comes at the
start of the sentence, it can be followed by an exclamation mark to show that the
writer is excited or irritated.
Interjections, although not typically used in most business writing, might be used in
an informal email or text to a colleague. And finally, a catch all rule. Use a comma to
avoid confusion. Is a comma necessary in this sentence? If yes, where? Without a
comma, for most the month has been difficult, the sentence makes no sense. With a
comma, with a pause, the meaning becomes clear. For most, the month has been
difficult.
The rule that applies, use a comma to avoid confusion. But never use a comma
between a subject and a verb, even though they may be separated by several
words and a reading pause might have been necessary. Understanding the new
policies and being able to implement them are both necessary for success. Even
though you might pause after them, no comma should be used between them and
are. One final comma note. Overuse may be the biggest misuse problem with
commas.
Just because the comma has so many uses, and we haven't discussed nearly all of
them,some people get comma happy. Don't use a comma unless you know
exactly why you are choosing to insert one.

Colons and semicolons

- [Narrator] How important are the semicolon and the colon, and how do they
differ? They've been referred to as powerful punctuation marks, and they've been
identified as possibly two of the three most misunderstood punctuation marks, the
dash family is the third. The semicolon is number one on that most misunderstood
list, and some writers say to avoid the semicolon completely, that it's just an arrogant
punctuation mark. Before we delve to deeply into what you need to know to be
among those who do know how to use a semicolon, let's use Abe Lincoln as our
support for using the semicolon.
Quote, "I must say I have a great respect for the semicolon; "it's a useful little
chap," end of quote. Okay, so that's in the 1860's, but it is still regarded by most
today as an important, powerful mark. So, let's charge ahead with our
discussion. First, semicolons are used to connect ideas that are closely related, but
some place between the pause with the comma,and the end of the thought with a
period. The semicolon creates more of a longer pause. You need to analyze the
strength of your idea connection.
Look at these two independent clauses, these complete sentences. The new
employee arrived only two minutes late to the meeting; she seemed embarrassed. Or
maybe, you decide to add transition between the ideas with a conjunctive
adverb. The new employee arrived only two minutes late to the meeting; however,
she seemed embarrassed. The semicolon comes before however with a comma
after. Another use for the semicolon is to help avoid confusion with comma overuse.
Look at this example. This is her first job, but she seems to have
strong communication skills,to be self-motivated, and to like her co-workers. In this
example, because commas are used to separate the items in the series, the comma
that would normally separate the two sentences isn't strong enough, a super comma,
that semicolon, needs to be used. This is her first job; but she seems to have strong
communication skills, to be self-motivated, and to like her co-workers.
Notice that the word after the semicolon is not capitalized, unless it's a proper
noun, that would always be capitalized. Next, the colon, it too is useful and has a
variety of correct uses.It can introduce a list, as in this example. Bring these items to
the picnic: ice, napkins, and plates. One caution, most grammarians agree that the
colon should not be used after a preposition or a verb, so this example would be
incorrect. If you are going to the picnic bring:ice, napkins, and plates.
The one exception is the colon can be used correctly after a verb or preposition if a
numbered or bulleted list follows. If you're going to the picnic bring: bulleted list of
items. The colon can also show the previous idea will be further explained, clarified,
or restated. Look at the colon after insightful in this example. The CEO's opening
remark at the year-end meetingwas insightful: "No one wins if our customers don't
win." End of quote.
Notice that the first word of the sentence after the colon is capitalized. So, how do the
colon and semicolon differ? The colon is used to provide a pause before introducing
related information. The semicolon provides a break in a sentence that is stronger
than a comma, but not as strong as a period. Knowing how to use both a semicolon
and colon can help you vary your sentence structure. But be careful, don't use a
semicolon and a colon as a license to string together several ideas, resulting in hard
to read never-ending sentences.
Use them sparingly. Next time someone writes that the colon and
semicolon shouldn't be used, or are outdated, reply with, the wink will know
something they don't, and you do, the value of those two punctuation marks.

Apostrophes
- [Voiceover] That infamous apostrophe, or air comma as I've heard it called. What is
it? A little mark that serves multiple purposes. It replaces letters to form a
contraction. Does not, doesn't.It is, it's. It also replaces numbers as in '15, replacing
the 20 for 2015. And it can help avoid confusion. Look at these two sentences. "She
used three I's in the sentence" with the apostrophe.
"She used three is in the sentence" without the apostrophe. In the second sentence,
it looks like the word is, but in this example, "Do you have any DVDs that I could
buy?" is correct.There's no confusion, just plural. So the apostrophe isn't
needed. And although it's called a single quote mark rather than an apostrophe, it
looks like an apostrophe when it's used in quotes like this. According to
CareerBuilder.com, "When applying for a job, there are few faster ways "to get your
resume and cover letter thrown "out of contention than by making a 'glaring
grammatical error'." That single quote mark is to show a quote within a quote.
Probably its most common use is to show possession, both singular and plural. But
before we decide where to place the apostrophe for a singular and plural
possession, let's take a step back and analyze if the word is even possessive. Maybe
it's just plural and doesn't even need the apostrophe. Look at these examples. Which
is correct? They all are.
Let's analyze each. "The birds were in the tree." Birds, no ownership, just plural,
more than one bird. Next, "The bird's tree was in the back yard." Now we have
ownership. Reword it: The tree belonging to the bird. The bird, only one bird, that's
called singular possessive. And the third sentence, "The birds' tree was in the back
yard." Reword it again: The tree belonging to the birds. The birds, plural, more than
one bird, that's plural possessive.
So what's an easy way to determine whether the apostrophe should be before or
after the s?Is the word before the apostrophe, in our examples bird and birds,
singular or plural? The answer to that question is the answer to the
question, "Between what letters should the apostrophe be placed?" One bird only? B-
I-R-D apostrophe S. What comes before the apostrophe is that one bird. Multiple
birds? B-I-R-D-S apostrophe. What comes before the apostrophe? Birds, plural.
Sounds simple, right? Now let's take it to the next level. Which of these is
correct? Both are correct, even though in both the apostrophe is before the
s. Why? Because woman doesn't add an s to change to plural, the word changes to
women. Child and children, man to men are other examples. So look at what is
before the apostrophe. Woman singular, women plural.
Would this be correct? It couldn't be, because the word before the apostrophe is not
a word.If what is before the apostrophe is not a word, then the apostrophe is not in
the correct place.Charles's, s apostrophe s, or Charles', s apostrophe? I'll give you
differing thoughts, but you will need to supplement this discussion with a more in
depth discussion: The Chicago Manual of Style, or the Associated Press. According
to the CMOS, Charles's, C-H-A-R-L-E-S apostrophe S would be correct, but the AP
would use C-H-A-R-L-E-S apostrophe.
So why the debate? Many common and proper nouns end in the letter s. In addition
to Charles and Thomas, we have bus, class, canvas, boss, Jones, and Texas. So, C-
L-A-S-S apostrophe s or C-L-A-S-S apostrophe? A case could be made for
either, but most stylebooks agree that the rule for forming the possessive of a single
noun ending in s by adding apostrophe s is preferred.
What about names? Thomas's car, s apostrophe s, or Thomas' car, s
apostrophe? Even the Chicago Manual of Style has changed its rules. Now it
indicates that all proper names ending in s form the possessive by adding
apostrophe s. So, based on that, T-H-O-M-A-S apostrophe S would be correct. But
hold the press, because the Associated Press stylebook indicates to use a single
apostrophe for all proper names ending in s.
So T-H-O-M-A-S apostrophe would be correct. About now, you're probably
wondering how you are supposed to know what is right and wrong if the rules conflict
from one style manual to another. Personally, I usually go with the AP rules, and by
how the word sounds. Does the s apostrophe s give the unnecessary z-z-z sound, as
in the Williams's? It does to me, so I use Williams', W-I-L-L-I-A-M-S apostrophe.
Who would think that the rules for that one little mark, the apostrophe, could be so
polarizing?Punctuation is supposed to help readers, so help your reader by showing
if the word is plural, singular possessive, or plural possessive. Those are always
rules, and then keep working on those advanced apostrophe rules until you decide
which school of thought to follow, or be sure you know your employer's preference.

Dashes, hyphens, and ellipses

- [Instructor] Look carefully at these marks. Do you see the three different lengths
for the hyphen, en dash, and em dash? Let's look at how each should be used. First,
the hyphen. The hyphen connects two things that are closely related, words and
functions such as numbers:three-fourths, twenty-one. One's age is a number. If used
this way, then three hyphens are required: "The 21-year-old student will graduate this
year." All compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine are hyphenated,
as are all fractions that are written out.
We also use the hyphen for compound words that are nouns. "Daughter-in-law"
would be an example, and to separate compound adjectives, verbs, and
adverbs. Adjective examples are "sugar-free" before a beverage and "custom-built"
before a home. One "be careful" point to note is that a compound adjective that
includes the adverb "well" with a participle, such as "well-known," is also
hyphenated but an adjective phrase such as "door-to-door" uses a hyphen if it comes
before the noun it modifies.
If it comes after the noun, then it's not hyphenated, so "the well-known author will
have a book signing" and "the door-to-door salesperson wanted to show me "vacuum
cleaners" both with hyphens are correct. "The author is well known" and "the
salesperson went door to door" without the hyphens are also correct. Next let's look
at a compound verb example. If two words are used as one verb, the resulting
verb should have a hyphen. "I told the salesperson I wanted to test-drive the car" with
a hyphen, but "I wanted to take the car for a test drive" no hyphen because in this
example "drive" is a noun and "test" is an adjective.
Also use a hyphen if a phrasal verb, verb plus the adjective or preposition, is made
into a noun as in this example: "We needed the buy-in of all employees before
starting "the new team activities." But no hyphen should be used if a verb is
combined with an adverb or a preposition and still functions as a verb. "To get the
vote passed, the CEO talked at length to get "the employees to buy in to the
idea." Other common hyphen uses are to join prefixes to other words, co-
workers, and to separate a prefix from a date or name, such as "pre-1980".
A third is to show that the words connect to the same common word later in the
sentence:"The first-, second-, and third-grade teachers "were all in the break
room." This is called suspensive hyphenation. The reader is kept in suspense, not
knowing to what the "first-" and "second-" will refer until he comes to the third
item. And finally, a general-purpose hyphen rule: Use it to avoid confusion or
unclarity. What's the difference between these words, one with and the other without
the hyphen? Actually, a big difference.
Am I wishing someone will recover quickly from an illness, recover without the
hyphen, or do I want you to reupholster my chair? Re-cover, with a hyphen. So that
little hyphen serves a multitude of purposes. Now on to the en dash, the one formed
in some word processing programs by Insert/Symbol/Special Characters. It actually
gets its name from its length. "En" refers to a typographical unit that is about the
width of the capital N.
Its specific use is to connect things that are related to each other to show any kind of
range,months and pages, for example. "I need to use the magazine issues from
January - October"for my research paper." It's also used for game scores. "UCLA
beat Gonzaga, 101 - 102." And now the longest mark, the em dash. It too gets its
name from its width, which is about the same as a capital M.
It's twice as long as the en mark. It has a similar use to the parenthesis, that
interesting, perhaps, but not necessary extra thought or idea, or to emphasize a
statement: "The next new idea--whether you like it or not--will be "revealed at next
week's meeting." Or it can also be used in place of a colon: "The team members are
all here--Connie, Carol, Gary, "and Charlie."Or in place of a bullet-point list: "Bring
these items to the next meeting:" and the items are listed.
Notice that none of these examples has a space before or after the mark. That's the
preference in the United States. Here's another use of the em dash, in identifying the
author of a quote. And em dashes can be used in place of an ellipsis. The first
example uses the em dash, the second the ellipsis. So let's look specifically at the
ellipsis. Do you see the difference in those two examples? The first was made with
period space period space period,and the second is really the correct way to make
the ellipsis.
My guess is that most of use the first version and that most people would not see the
difference. More importantly, when should the ellipsis be used? It has two basic
uses: To identify a pause or a gap, as in the example "The manager stopped talking
when he noticed"someone listening..." or to show that something has been
omitted. Words have been left outin the middle of a quoted sentence. The quote has
been abbreviated. Let's look at this Steve Jobs quote: "I have a great respect for
incremental improvement, "and I've done that sort of thing in my life, but "I've always
been attracted to "the more revolutionary changes." If I wanted to condense it, I might
do this: "I have a great respect for incremental improvement...
"but I've always been attracted to "the more revolutionary changes." Do be certain
that when you leave out words to condense a quote that the author's original
idea remains the same.
- [Instructor] Look carefully at these marks. Do you see the three different lengths
for the hyphen, en dash, and em dash? Let's look at how each should be used. First,
the hyphen. The hyphen connects two things that are closely related, words and
functions such as numbers:three-fourths, twenty-one. One's age is a number. If used
this way, then three hyphens are required: "The 21-year-old student will graduate this
year." All compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine are hyphenated,
as are all fractions that are written out.
We also use the hyphen for compound words that are nouns. "Daughter-in-law"
would be an example, and to separate compound adjectives, verbs, and
adverbs. Adjective examples are "sugar-free" before a beverage and "custom-built"
before a home. One "be careful" point to note is that a compound adjective that
includes the adverb "well" with a participle, such as "well-known," is also
hyphenated but an adjective phrase such as "door-to-door" uses a hyphen if it comes
before the noun it modifies.
If it comes after the noun, then it's not hyphenated, so "the well-known author will
have a book signing" and "the door-to-door salesperson wanted to show me "vacuum
cleaners" both with hyphens are correct. "The author is well known" and "the
salesperson went door to door" without the hyphens are also correct. Next let's look
at a compound verb example. If two words are used as one verb, the resulting
verb should have a hyphen. "I told the salesperson I wanted to test-drive the car" with
a hyphen, but "I wanted to take the car for a test drive" no hyphen because in this
example "drive" is a noun and "test" is an adjective.
Also use a hyphen if a phrasal verb, verb plus the adjective or preposition, is made
into a noun as in this example: "We needed the buy-in of all employees before
starting "the new team activities." But no hyphen should be used if a verb is
combined with an adverb or a preposition and still functions as a verb. "To get the
vote passed, the CEO talked at length to get "the employees to buy in to the
idea." Other common hyphen uses are to join prefixes to other words, co-
workers, and to separate a prefix from a date or name, such as "pre-1980".
A third is to show that the words connect to the same common word later in the
sentence:"The first-, second-, and third-grade teachers "were all in the break
room." This is called suspensive hyphenation. The reader is kept in suspense, not
knowing to what the "first-" and "second-" will refer until he comes to the third
item. And finally, a general-purpose hyphen rule: Use it to avoid confusion or
unclarity. What's the difference between these words, one with and the other without
the hyphen? Actually, a big difference.
Am I wishing someone will recover quickly from an illness, recover without the
hyphen, or do I want you to reupholster my chair? Re-cover, with a hyphen. So that
little hyphen serves a multitude of purposes. Now on to the en dash, the one formed
in some word processing programs by Insert/Symbol/Special Characters. It actually
gets its name from its length. "En" refers to a typographical unit that is about the
width of the capital N.
Its specific use is to connect things that are related to each other to show any kind of
range,months and pages, for example. "I need to use the magazine issues from
January - October"for my research paper." It's also used for game scores. "UCLA
beat Gonzaga, 101 - 102." And now the longest mark, the em dash. It too gets its
name from its width, which is about the same as a capital M.
It's twice as long as the en mark. It has a similar use to the parenthesis, that
interesting, perhaps, but not necessary extra thought or idea, or to emphasize a
statement: "The next new idea--whether you like it or not--will be "revealed at next
week's meeting." Or it can also be used in place of a colon: "The team members are
all here--Connie, Carol, Gary, "and Charlie."Or in place of a bullet-point list: "Bring
these items to the next meeting:" and the items are listed.
Notice that none of these examples has a space before or after the mark. That's the
preference in the United States. Here's another use of the em dash, in identifying the
author of a quote. And em dashes can be used in place of an ellipsis. The first
example uses the em dash, the second the ellipsis. So let's look specifically at the
ellipsis. Do you see the difference in those two examples? The first was made with
period space period space period,and the second is really the correct way to make
the ellipsis.
My guess is that most of use the first version and that most people would not see the
difference. More importantly, when should the ellipsis be used? It has two basic
uses: To identify a pause or a gap, as in the example "The manager stopped talking
when he noticed"someone listening..." or to show that something has been
omitted. Words have been left outin the middle of a quoted sentence. The quote has
been abbreviated. Let's look at this Steve Jobs quote: "I have a great respect for
incremental improvement, "and I've done that sort of thing in my life, but "I've always
been attracted to "the more revolutionary changes." If I wanted to condense it, I might
do this: "I have a great respect for incremental improvement...
"but I've always been attracted to "the more revolutionary changes." Do be certain
that when you leave out words to condense a quote that the author's original
idea remains the same.

Parentheses and brackets

- [Instructor] Look at these four punctuation marks. Do you recognize them? Do you
use them? I venture a guess that you use the first one, the parentheses, sometimes
called round brackets. Maybe the second, the brackets, also referred to as square
brackets or crotches.Then next, the brace or sometimes called the curly
bracket probably not often, if ever, and the last, the angle bracket, hardly ever used
in writing, but is a common symbol in math. So let's compare and contrast
them, starting with the parentheses.
They're used to enclose information that is added to clarify or de-emphasize
something.Maybe even an afterthought. The words inside the parentheses can be
removed without changing the sentence's meaning. Look at this example. Notice that
if the second parenthesisis at the end of the sentence, the end punctuation mark is
placed outside the parenthesis if the material inside the parentheses is not a
complete sentence. Also notice that the first word inside the parentheses should be
lower case, rather than a capital.
Words, as well as complete sentences, may be in the parentheses. If a complete
sentence is surrounded by the parentheses, then the period goes inside as in this
example. So that's the major purpose of the parentheses, to enclose something that
is more an editorial comment.It's derived from Latin, to insert beside. Next, the
brackets. Parentheses and brackets are not used interchangeably. Brackets used
exclusively with quoted material let you insert editorial material inside those
quotations.
They can be used, for example, to clarify, to show a change, to identify an error, to
emphasize, even to avoid including objectionable content, and to show a
parenthetical within a parenthetical. Let's briefly discuss and look at examples for
those six bracket purposes.First, to clarify. Sometimes when a quote is taken out of
its full context, that pronoun may not be clear, and needs more explanation, as in this
example.
The flexible vacation days were discussed before the portion included in the
quote. The reader has no idea to what them refers without the bracketed
words. Second, when giving a part of a quote, we may need to change the upper or
lower case of the first word, as in this next example. In the contract, the a was
capitalized because it started a sentence. But in this quote context, a lower case a is
needed. Are you familiar with sic, not S-I-C-K sick, although they are pronounced the
same, this sic, S-I-C, is a Latin term meaning so or thus.
Writers include sic in italics to indicate that the words being quoted are exact, errors
and all.Without sic, the reader may wonder if the writer made the mistake. Used the
wrong word or spelled the word incorrectly, for example. Look at this example. Of
course, T-H-E-R-E should be T-H-E-I-R, and I want my reader knowing that I
know the difference, even if the writer of the original email or memo didn't. Or what if I
want to emphasize some portion of the material I quote.
I can do that with italics, but I need to let my reader know that the original had no
italics. So that's the fourth use of brackets, like this. A fifth use of the brackets is if I
want to quote someone's exact words, but my reader may find a word
objectionable. So I bracket the word expletive, to indicate that a profane, obscene, or
curse word was used. Rarely, but on occasion, you might want to include a
parenthetical within a parenthetical.
So that's the sixth bracket use. It would look like this. Now we're ready to look at the
brace, or curly bracket. They're used primarily in math, science, poetry, and music. I
can think of only one time we would use them in our normal writing. To show a third
level of parentheticals.First level, parentheses, second level, brackets, third level,
braces, like this. Guess how many times I've ever used that third level bracket
construction. One, to come up with the example I just gave you, and I had to think
long and hard to create it.
So let's go on to the angle bracket. These also have very limited use in
writing, although they are common in math. The most common use for angle brackets
for writing is to include the URL in the text. The web address is enclosed between the
angle brackets like this. So, four types of brackets, all with the basic purpose of
setting off parenthetical information, but each with a slightly different use.

Misfits that distract readers

- No one likes to be a misfit. If you've ever watched Rudolf during the holiday
season, you may recall the Island of Misfit Toys. Among the misfits are Charlie-In-
The-Box, a spotted elephant, and a boat that can't float. Although misfits is not a
technical grammatical term,some elements just don't tie together logically, no matter
how hard we try. We know something is just not quite right. Something needs to be
changed. Just take the spots off the elephant and it's no longer a misfit.
We've already examined some errors in our misfits such as the misplaced or
dangling modifier and verb tense shifts, but let's look at some more misfits that don't
fit neatly into one category. One more way they are misfits. Misfit one, the reason is
because. Think about those words. Reason means the why or the cause, so that
phrase creates a redundancy. In a sense, the subject become the predicate. Misfit
number two, two more phrases that can create an illogical construction are is when
and is where.
When refers to a time element and where refers to a place or location. Do you
remember the time where we go lost? Time isn't a where. Do you remember the time
when we got lost? Or where were we when we got lost? That where correctly asked
for a location, so no longer a misfit. Misfit number three, better than any or better than
any other. Michael Phelps is better than any swimmer. No, Michael Phelps is an
American swimmer and the most decorated Olympian of all time, so he can't be
better than he himself is, so let's make the ideas fit.
Michael Phelps is better than any other swimmer. Misfit number four, double
negatives.Double negatives have even been referred to as the bad boy of standard
English. You may have read that two negatives make a positive. (chuckles) True in
math, but not always in writing. Negatives include the obvious ones such as isn't,
can't, didn't, haven't, and won't, and the adverb negatives such as hardly, scarcely,
nothing, and no. I can't hardly understand your concern about the requirements
should be I can hardly understand your concern or I cannot understand your concern.
Either negative is correct, but always avoid using two negatives together. Misfit
number five, confusing comparisons. Jon tried to analyze the team's progress more
than Fred. Your reader may think you mean that Jon was trying to analyze two
things, the team's progress and Fred,and that Jon spent more time analyzing the
team than the time he spent analyzing Fred.Adding the work did clarifies the
meaning. Jon tried to analyze the team's progress more than Fred did.
Easy fix to stay out of that misfit category. Misfit number six, too much separation
between a pronoun and its antecedent. The reader gets confused trying to fit the
parts together. Look at this example. The inters immediately seemed to
understand the company's organization and bond with the management team who
were hired last month. Who was hired, the interns or the management team? The
cause of this misfit is the distance between interns and who were hired last month.
Let's fix it. The interns, who were hired last month, immediately seemed to
understand the company's organization and bond with the management team. Misfit
number seven, consistent use of narrative voice, another pronoun misfit. We know
that pronouns have first, second, and third person. Here's an example of a misfit: one
of the responsibilities of my job is that you have to contact three potential clients
every day. Wait, why should I have to contact those clients if that is one of your job
responsibilities? One of the responsibilities of my job is that I have to contact.
Now the pronouns fit logically. Misfit number eight, split infinitive. In its simplest
terms, to split and infinitive is to put an adverb between to, the infinitive, and the
verb. Together, that's called an infinitive phrase. To critically analyze would be
labelled a split infinitive. To analyze critically would keep the words to analyze
together. My personal view is that the correction is so simple, why not avoid the split
infinitive? I do have to confess that I do always notice it.
For misfit number nine, let's discuss two all too common incorrect wordings. Try and
and hopefully. Try and should always be replaced with try to. Whatever you are
trying, you are trying to do something. Try to learn to drive. Try to get a
promotion. Simply, try to is standard usage in both speaking and writing. Another
common incorrectly used word is hopefully. It's been called the most abused word in
the English language.
Hopefully, of course, means with hope, a hopeful feeling. It doesn't mean it is hoped
that.Remember those adverbs, the L-Y form, modifying verbs, adverbs, and
adjectives? What does hopefully modify in these examples? Hopefully, you will
achieve your goals. Hopefully, Sam will win. A pronoun, you, and a noun, Sam. An
adverb can't do that, that's what adjectives do. I am hopeful you will achieve your
goals. I hope Sam wins.
Hope and hopeful avoid the hopefully misfits. And misfit number 10, unnecessary
repetitiveness. The engineers, they submitted the revised plans. Simply delete the
they. Only one subject should be used. Dozens of these types of misfit phrases creep
into our writing.My course on business writing fundamentals analyzes wordiness in
more depth. So a Jack-in-the-box named Charlie or spots on an elephant in a kid's
movie may be cute, but grammar misfits aren't cute.
They can distract your reader and may even weaken your credibility as a writer. So
remember, a misfit is usually defined as being set apart in an uncomfortable
way. Work on eliminating those writing misfits.

4-SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Review sentence structure
- [Instructor] Buildings, organizations, and the government all have structures, but
each type of structure is different. That's also true when we talk about sentence
structure. Using different sentence structures can make an important difference in
your writing. By sentence structure, do we mean the type of sentence, simple,
compound, complex, and compound/complex? Or do we mean what is emphasized
and de-emphasized by the way the sentence is structured?Maybe we mean passive
or active structure, or maybe loose or periodic, or the normal sentence order versus
the inverted sentence structure.
Or do we mean whether the sentence is declarative, interrogative, rhetorical,
exclamatory, or imperative? That's a lot of different ways to analyze a sentence's
structure. Before we begin analyzing those structure categories, let's analyze this
question. What difference does structure make? A sentence is a sentence,
right? Analyzing sentence structure is important for at least three reasons. It provides
variety for your reader.
You may be familiar with the Dick and Jane, along with their dog Spot, reading
books, which were used from the 1930s to the 1970s to help children learn to
read. The words were something like this. See Spot run. Dick and Jane see Spot
run. Spot can see Dick and Jane. I think you get the point. Simple sentences are
certainly easy to read and comprehend but choppy, redundant, and boring. A second
way that understanding sentence structure and sentence placement in a paragraph
or document helps is that it lets you emphasize or de-emphasize certain elements for
your reader.
The same combination of facts can be packaged in a variety of ways. Business
Writing Fundamentals and Business Writing Strategies thoroughly discuss emphasis
techniques, but here's a quick review. Even though she said she would get the report
to us on time, we still don't have it. The main sentence clause, we still don't have
it, emphasizes that we are still waiting and are doubtful. This version, even though we
still don't have the report, she said she would get it to us on time, emphasizes that we
believe she will provide the report on time.
And a third reason to focus on sentence structure is to help with the writing flow, how
easy our ideas are for the reader to follow. Earlier in the lesson, we identified the
short sentence structures being choppy and boring. Let's give it some praise here. If
all the other sentences are the 20-word average length, a short sentence can
emphasize. It draws attention to itself.The committee asked us to submit our
revisions, along with reasons for the changes, by noon tomorrow.
We were reminded that Sections 12, 15, and 27 were unclear, and that Sections
three and nine were repetitive. All the other sections were accepted. Having that six-
word sentence follow those 17 and 19-word sentences gets our attention. So now
that we know how sentence structure can impact our writing, let's begin with a review
of clauses. Dependent and independent, those grammar terms that are the basis of
understanding a simple, compound, complex, and compound/complex structure.
To be a clause, the word group must have a subject and a verb. That clause may be
dependent or independent. The marketing department will submit a justification
report.Department is the subject, will submit is the verb. So that's a clause. It can
stand alone as a complete thought, which makes it an independent clause. Even
though the marketing department will submit a justification report. Department is the
subject, will submit is the verb.So it's still a clause, but adding the words even
though, those subordinating conjunctions,makes the clause dependent.
The reader is waiting for the rest of the thought. Even though the marketing
department will submit a justification report comma, the manager wants other
departments also to submit their ideas. Those two examples lead us into the rest of
the sentence structure review. The first, that independent clause, is a simple
sentence structure, one clause. The marketing department will submit a justification
report. The second example shows the complex sentence structure, two clauses, the
dependent clause and the independent clause.
Even though the marketing department will submit a justification report, the manager
wants other departments to also submit their ideas. The third example also has two
clauses, but both are independent, joined with a coordinating conjunction, making it a
compound sentence. The marketing department will submit a justification
report comma, but the manager wants other departments also to submit their
ideas. One more structure in this category, three clauses, two independent and one
dependent.
The dependent, beginning with a subordinating conjunction, and the two independent
clauses, joined by a coordinating conjunction, equals a compound/complex
sentence. Even though the marketing department will submit a justification report, the
manager wants other departments to also submit their ideas; and she wants those by
the end of the week. In the third clause, she is the subject and wants is the verb, and
it is independent. Both those subordinating and coordinating conjunctions help the
writer tie together the idea's meaning in the sentences and to show the reader the
relationship.
The two clauses in a compound sentence show that the ideas are closely
connected. We were in the break room. We heard the announcement. Two
completely different ideas, short, unconnected sentences. Look at these four
sentences combining the ideas in those two short sentences. While we were in the
break room, we heard the announcement. We heard the announcement even
though we were in the break room. Even though we were in the break room, we
heard the announcement. And we were in the break room, but we heard the
announcement.
A different point is being made in each of those versions. The first is the time element
of the two events. The second and third show a time and location connection, but
each has a different emphasis. Location is emphasized in the first and hearing the
announcement in the second. And the fourth, with the coordinating conjunction
but, shows a contrast. Which of the four is correct? Certainly, they all are, but each
sentence structure sends a different message.

Components of a sentence
FromAdvanced Grammar
- [Narrator] Yes, the sentence structure can add variety, can emphasize and
deemphasize certain ideas, and can connect the ideas so that your writing flows. But
now, let's look at other sentence structure possibilities to consider. Do you want your
sentence to have a passive or active structure? Most grammar checkers will flag
passive structure, but not all passive's bad.My Business Writing Fundamentals and
Business Writing Strategies courses have an in depth discussion. But the short
answer for whether you should use active or passive is it depends.
Active, when the subject is acting, is stronger. Passive, when the subject receives the
action,is considered a weaker structure. But look at these two sentences. First, the
passive. Cell phone use is permitted only in Corridors A and C. Or, active. You can't
use your cell phone any place except A and C. I don't know about you, but if the first
warning I received, especially if I didn't know the rule, was the active structure, I
might be offended and defensive. The passive version is much more tactful.
Or maybe the action is more important than the action doer. Or maybe the doer is
unknown.The main door was left unlocked all night. Here, the passive sounds more
serious than,someone left the main door unlocked all night. Another structure to
consider is whether to use the loose or periodic structure. A loose, or sometimes
called a cumulative sentence, is one that has your main point or idea at the beginning
of the sentence. I'm willing to drive an hour each day to work at Ryal, Inc., because
the benefits are generous, my coworkers are great people, and the management staff
makes me feel valued.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer likes working at Ryal, Inc. Once that
main point is made the beginning, everything that follows is support. How does that
loose sentence structure differ from a periodic, or also called climactic sentence
structure? The opposite, the main point is at the end of a long sentence, and is
sometimes called backing into a sentence.A periodic sentence can have more of a
dramatic effect, but it's usually more difficult to follow the flow. Because the benefits
are generous, my coworkers are great people, and the management staff makes me
feel valued, I'm willing to drive an hour each day to work at Ryal, Inc.
The main point is still that the writer likes working at Ryal, but the reader doesn't
know that is the main point until the end. All the support information has to be
read without knowing the conclusion. Using a periodic structure occasionally can
serve as a persuasive, suspenseful element. If I think you might disagree with
me, then I'll provide the support first. What about the normal sentence order versus
the inverted sentence structure? And let's add to this discussion front shifting.
The normal structure is subject, verb, object. The customers, subject. Refused,
verb. The shipments, object. Inverted sentences are sentences with an irregular verb
placement of the verb before the subject. Not only did, that's the irregular verb, the
customers refuse the shipments, but they also were boycotting our company. How do
you decide if the normal or inverted sentence structure should be used? Generally,
an inverted sentence emphasizes the situation and begins with a negative idea.
Now, how does the inverted structure differ from the front shifting arrangement? The
word order is sort of unexpected, and the emphasis is reversed. Very similar to the
inverted structure. Look at this example. Some friendships you cherish, but some you
think take too much effort. The emphasis is on friendship differences, cherish and too
much effort. In this structure. You cherish some friendships, but you think some take
too much effort, has a different focus. The focus is on the active subject, you.
Sentence structure can also refer to whether the sentence is declarative,
interrogative,rhetorical, exclamatory, or imperative. The declarative sentence states a
fact and ends with a period. The weather forecast predicted rain. The interrogative
sentence asks a direct question and ends with a question mark. Did the weather
forecaster predict rain? The direct question differs from the rhetorical question. If I
ask you about the weather forecaster's prediction of rain, I expect an answer. But
with the rhetorical question, I really don't expect you to answer.
The question is being asked more as transition into a discussion, or, we both already
know the answer. Used occasionally, it can be effective. Early in this lesson, I
asked, Do you want your sentence to have a passive or active structure? I didn't
expect an answer. I used the rhetorical question as a segue to begin talking about
the difference in those two structures.The exclamatory sentence is more forceful than
a declarative one. It shows excitement, but rarely are these used in business
writing, although I might email a colleague with,congratulations on the award! And
then the imperative sentence.
This one gives a command and actually may be a one word sentence with an
understood subject of you. Get that report ready in five minutes. So, as you consider
sentence structure,keep thinking about the message you're sending, by where you
place your words and the punctuation used.

Sentence structure errors

- [Instructor] Even though a variety of correct sentence structures is possible, three
majorincorrect structures also occur: fragment, run-on, and comma splice. For each
of these three, we will look first at how to recognize it, and then how to change the
structure to correct it.Let's look at the sentence fragment, or the incomplete
sentence. First, determine if you have a clause, a subject, and a verb. Remember
that a phrase is just a group of words: to the park, getting paid are two examples, but
a clause at first glance may look like it has a correct sentence structure.
Let's compare these two examples. James quit the team. James is the subject, quit
the verb, the team the object. Four words. Independent clause, complete
sentence. Now this one.While we were spending five hours driving to the
conference in Washington. We's the subject, were spending the verb, and the tail,
five hours driving conference Washington, 12 words, but it's a dependent clause, one
that can't stand alone, which means it can't end with a period. If you were to say that
to someone, your listener would look at you in anticipation.
Yes, what about while you were driving to that conference? You got lost, you had an
accident? That group of words needs an independent clause added to it. So let's
correct it by adding an independent clause at either the beginning or at the end. Our
colleagues completed the report while we spent five hours driving to the conference
in Washington. Or, while we spent five hours driving to the conference in
Washington, our colleagues completed the report. So look for dependent
clauses. Some clues could be a clause beginning with a participle phrase, that ing.
Thinking that he was overworked, or the infinitive, to show that he thought he was
overworked. Or an afterthought. Except when he was asleep. Or have a long verb
structure.And was always trying to get others to sympathize with him. And a
positives. A habit his colleagues found annoying. Each of those examples is a
dependent clause, that if ended with a period, would be a sentence fragment. So let's
add Tom complained loudly, an independent clause to correct those fragments.
Thinking he was overworked, Tom complained loudly. Except when he was asleep,
Tom complained loudly. Tom complained loudly, a habit his colleagues found
annoying. Now let's go another direction, this time we have two or more independent
clauses so we have our complete sentences, but still have two possible problems: a
run-on sentence and a comma splice. Some sources will merge those two
problems under one heading, a run-on, but I'm separating them because they really
are two different situations.
First the run-on. Two complete sentences without any punctuation. Let's look at an
example of a run-on sentence, sometimes called a fused sentence. The committee
members decided to continue the discussion they reached a decision in two
hours. The committee members decided to continue the discussion is a complete
sentence, an independent clause. They reached a decision in two hours is also a
complete sentence, but two complete sentencesneed to be separated. We have
choices.
The committee members decided to continue the discussion, comma, and they
reached a decision in two hours. That coordinating conjunction and a comma, or two
complete sentences with a period between them. The committee members decided
to continue the discussion, period. They reached a decision in two hours. The
conjunctive adverb is also a possible correction, with a semicolon before and the
comma after. The committee members decided to continue the
discussion, semicolon, as a result, comma, they reached a decision in two hours.
Or maybe you want to turn one into a dependent clause for a complex, rather than a
compound, sentence, like this. Because the committee members decided to
continue the discussion, comma, they reached a decision in two hours. Did you
notice that not one of our choices was to add a comma? If we had, like this, we no
longer would have a run-on sentence structure, but we have a different error, a
comma splice. Two sentences incorrectly joined or spliced together with a comma.
A comma is a weak punctuation mark, so it's not strong enough to connect two
independent clauses. Any of the choices we looked at to correct the run-on are the
same choices to correct the comma splice. Let's look at one more sentence structure
caution. Don't try to use the length of the sentence to determine if a fragment, run-on,
or comma splice exist. Brad likes flextime he can take his kids to school. That's 10
words. Now look at this 40-word sentence.
Flextime or flexible work schedule allows employees who have family or personal
obligations to select the hours or days they prefer to work within a specified time limit
set by the employer who still requires a 40-hour work week. A glance at these two
might result in the wrong conclusion, that the 10-word sentence is correct, and the
40-word sentence must certainly need punctuation some place. Look more
closely. The 10 words need punctuation.As it is, we have a run-on.
Something has to separate Brad likes flextime and he can take his kids to
school, either a semicolon or a coordinating conjunction could be added. The 40-
word sentence, on the other hand, meets all the sentence structure requirements. It's
complete, it can't be a comma splicebecause no comma is used in it. So is it a run-
on? No, because it has two restrictive clauses,who have family or personal
obligations and who still requires a 40-hour work week. And restrictive clauses can't
be set off by commas.
Sentence structure is incredibly important, both in learning what to do and what not to
do.People who know what is correct and incorrect sentence structure often judge
those who don't. That prospective employer, that client, any professional with whom
you come in contact, you want to leave a positive impression and be taken
seriously. One way to show that is by using correct sentence structures.

Parallel structure
- [Instructor] Do you like a predictable rhythm? Do you like symmetrical patterns? You
order a flat of 36 marigolds and when the flat is delivered, it contains 34
marigolds and two yellow pansies. All 36 are yellow flowers, but something is just
different, a little askew. Well, grammatical parallel structure is sort of like that. The
reader gets into your writing flow, is expecting a pattern, and then all of a sudden the
structure or pattern changes. Something's just not right.
A writer may mistakenly believe that constantly varying the wording for variety to
avoid redundancy is always a good idea. While that theory may be true, effective
writers should pay special attention to parallel structure. Let's start with the simplest
possible parallel structure,articles and prepositions. The letters, the memos, and
email all need to be professional. Or,The letters, the memos, and the email all need
to be professional. Adding that one little article makes the sentence parallel.
And notice the little preposition in these two examples. Whether in the yard, the
house, or in the park, the dogs liked to run and play. Or, Whether in the yard, in the
house, or in the park,the dogs liked to run and play. Yes, I agree, that "the" and
"in" don't cause major problems,but keep that flow of rhythm in mind as we look at
other examples. When your writing includes a series, whether it's nouns, adjectives,
prepositions, or participial phrases or clauses, each part of the series must: one, use
the same grammatical form, and two, serve the same grammatical purpose.
If those two criteria aren't met, then you have a non-parallel construction. Once you
discover a non-parallel issue, then you have to change something and sometimes
you will have a couple choices. Here's a simple example. Reading, exercising, and to
go to the lake are my favorite activities. Reading, exercising, so far parallel, two
gerunds for subjects and then the switch, an infinitive to go. So the choices
are: reading, exercising and going, all gerunds, Or to read, to exercise, and to go, all
infinitive phrases, both versions are equally correct.
Now, looking at an example of unparallel structure that might be harder to see. The
supervisor called a meeting not only to discuss the new company policies but also
wanted to present the employee-of-the-month award. Not only, joins a direct object,
meeting, with a verb, wanted, but what is joined must be equal, so let's make the
sentence parallel this way.The supervisor called a meeting, not only to discuss the
new company policies, but also to present the employee-of-the-month award.
Now, to discuss and to present, are both objects of why the meeting was
called. Next, let's look at this non-parallel structure. When Ted saw Ellie's
recommendation, he asked to see what secondary research she had collected and
her primary survey results. In this sentence, the two things that Ted wanted are
objects of the infinitive, to see. Here we need noun clauses. So let's make it
parallel. When Ted saw Ellie's recommendation, he asked to seewhat secondary
research she had collected and how she had collected her primary survey results.
Now the two noun clauses, what and how, are parallel. Are these adverbs
parallel? The supervisor needed to write the report accurately, thoroughly, and in a
quick manner. No.Accurately, thoroughly, and quickly. Sometimes you may want to
revise the sentence to make it both more concise and parallel. It was both a long
meeting and very boring. Why not, The meeting was both long and
boring. Sometimes lack of parallel wording when comparing things sounds, well,
strange.
My work fringe benefits are larger than my sister. Not sure how you compare your
sister's sizeand your benefits' size. Let's revise that to, My work fringe benefits are
larger than my sister's work fringe benefits are. My work fringe benefits, my sister's
work fringe benefits. Parallel possessive structure. And finally, the principle of parallel
construction applies not only to items in a series but also to items in a list, whether a
vertical list, or after a colon in a sentence,whether single words, phrases or clauses.
The following supplies are required: food, first aid kit, and be sure to pack warm
clothing. Let's make it parallel. The following supplies are required: food, first aid kit,
and warm clothing.Look at this bulleted list. The risks of this plan are: That enough
customers won't visit the website An increase of sales won't happen Doesn't really
promote the new products We will risk alienating our current customers This non-
parallel list can be made parallel in several ways.
Let's look at a couple. The risks of this plan are: customers won't, sales won't, new
products won't, current customers will, all clauses. Or, the risks of this new plan
are: all complete sentences, our customers won't visit the website, our sales won't
increase, our new products won't be promoted, our current customers will be
alienated. And one final example of a parallel situation, major and minor points of an
outline, and the document headings in a report.
Use either all complete sentences or all phrases of the same grammatical
structure. Do you see the non-parallelism in these headings? Enhancing the
Experience Through Omnichannel Strategies. Use of OmniChannel Technology to
Appeal to William's Main Customers. Allot a Time Frame and Budget for
Implementation. Any one of those forms is acceptable, but all three can't be used for
them to be parallel. Enhance, use, allot, all verbs, or enhancing, using, allotting, all
gerunds, or enhancement of, use of, allotment of, participial phrases.
Parallel structure helps the reader recognize a pattern, a likeness, rather than
noticing something that seems to be out of place, that yellow pansy among the yellow
marigolds. It's similar, but it needs to be identical, just like all parts of your writing
need to be identical in the same parallel arrangement.

Dangling modifiers
- [Narrator] While studying dangling and misplaced modifiers, the phone rang. The
grammar exercise are being returned to the group, which have some major
errors. Are those sentences clear? I hope not. Did you find yourself muttering, I think
I know what those are supposed to mean. Let's look at what those sentences where
really intended to mean, rather than your having to determine what you think the
writer was trying to say. The phone probably wasn't studying dangling and misplaced
modifiers, and the grammar exercises, rather than the group, probably had the major
errors.
So, what's the problem? Each of those examples has a dangling or misplaced
modifier. What exactly does that mean? The simplest explanation is that a word, or
group of words is placed in the wrong location. It's not placed by the words it actually
describes or tells more about,which is what a modifier does. So, even though the first
examples we looked at are grammatically incorrect, we may know what the writer
was trying to say. Sometimes, we really don't know the intended meaning.
Look at this sentence. I saw her yesterday. Makes sense, right? Now, let's add the
word only,a modifier, in that sentence. Where should it be placed, before I, before
saw, or before her?Maybe before or after yesterday. Exactly, any place only is placed
in the sentence is grammatically correct, but each location results in a different
meaning. Only I saw her, nobody else saw her.
I only saw her, didn't speak or wave to her, just saw her. I saw only her, not all those
other people, she was the only person I saw. I saw her only yesterday, the recency of
having seen her. And I saw her yesterday only, yesterday was the only time I've seen
that person. In this example, your reader has no way of knowing your intended
meaning. Almost, already, even, just, nearly, merely, and always are other words that
could be added in various places, but each placement results in a different meaning.
Either way, whether the reader probably knows what you meant or has no idea your
meaning,you as the writer have a responsibility of making your sentence's meaning
exact. The examples we've looked at area really in two groups, dangling modifiers
and misplaced modifiers. A dangling modifier is just there, it has nothing logically to
describe, so something needs to be added to the sentence. Dangling modifier errors
can be corrected two ways.First, change the subject of the independent clause, like
this, while studying dangling and misplaced modifiers, I heard the phone ring.
Or, add a subject to the dependent clause like this, while I was studying dangling and
misplaced modifiers, the phone rang. In both revisions, I was added as the
subject. The misplaced modifier, on the other hand, is just in the wrong place in the
sentence. Let's move the clause, which have some major errors, to a different
location. The grammar exercises are being returned to the group, which have some
major errors should be, the grammar exercises, which have some major errors, are
being returned to the group.
Whether it dangles or it's misplaced, we have a grammar problem, so be sure all the
words are in the correct place in the sentence so your reader knows exactly what you
mean. We often see a list of funny modifier errors, here's a link to one of those, and a
couple examples.While doing the dishes, a mouse ran across the floor. Flying
overhead, I saw the geese pass by in a V-formation. Yeah, sometimes those
misplaced modifiers result in funny sentences, but having someone laugh at our
writing is usually not our intended our goal.
I hope this pastry store's ad was soon changed. Covered in whipped cream, you will
enjoy the pumpkin pie.

CONCLUSION
Next steps
- [Instructor] I have learned that not everyone appreciates have his or her errors
noted,whether it's a spouse, an employee, or a student. I probably shouldn't share
this but my family makes sure I have no Sharpie markers with me when we go to a
public place. They once caught me using my Sharpie to correct a sign that had
except when the word should've been accept, as in "we no longer accept checks". I
see it as being helpful. Not everyone agrees. So what's next? Take your time.
Let each of the new habits sink in for a while. Identify two or three, maybe four of
your reoccurring grammar mistakes. Maybe you'll want to delve into those areas with
more vigor.Maybe if other have mentioned an error that you make, either speaking or
writing, take time to write the error category and delve more deeply into that
topic. Learn how to recognize and correct the error. Keep this list on a pice of
paper or in a separate document on your computer. Take time to write five or more
sentences, practicing how to correct the error.
Take the time to really think about the mistake when practicing. Chances are, you'll
never make the mistake again. Once you understand the common mistake, start
listening to other people or reading their documents. Can you spot common mistakes
they make? You might also take the key points in each lesson and identify the
concepts in others' or your own writing. For example, parallel structure. Go through
your own writing, or others' writing, even newspapers articles, and circle the
coordinating conjunctions and the correlative conjunctions.
Then look at each. Check to see if the structures are grammatically parallel and
punctuated correctly. One important thing that needs to be emphasized one more
time, sometimes more than one way to punctuate something is correct. The Oxford
comma, for example. In those situations, do decide which you think is better and
follow that rule consistently. Being able to discuss intelligently the different
views adds credibility to your choice.
Another point that needs to be made is even those who pride themselves on using
correct grammar occasionally make mistakes. One television news person repeatedly
uses myself incorrectly. "My colleagues and myself will have a panel discussion with
our next guest."Nope, "my colleagues and I will have". So, just because someone is
important, does not necessarily guarantee 100% perfect spoken grammar or error
free written documents.
Dozens of online grammar and punctuation diagnostic tests and exercises are
available. For example, check out this website from Forbes, introduced as
"Grammarly, quickly and easilymakes your writing better as identifying critical
errors." So it could be one device to help. But certainly don't count on it to resolve all
of your mechanical issues. Which is also true of the built-in grammar check in word
processing programs. It too may give bad advice, such as telling me my
sentence should be changed to active voice rather than passive.
You have to know the difference, the advantages and disadvantages of each, and
say "thanks or thanks but no thanks." Your final step is to keep working on the
laborious process until using correct mechanics become second nature to you. Like
riding that bicycle or playing the piano. Who knows, you may decide to carry a
Sharpie marker with you too. H.G. Wells understood when he said "no compulsion in
the world is stronger than the urge to edit someone else's document." But your goal
from following all these next steps should be to edit correctly your own
documents before someone else does.