Chapter 3 PDF

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE
School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering
LECTURE NOTES
for
MSE 310
Introduction to Electromechanical Sensors and

Actuators
Edward J. Park, PhD, PEng
School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering

Faculty of Applied Sciences
Simon Fraser University
2015 Edward J. Park

MSE310 1. Introduction to Sensors and Actuators in Mechatronics
1. Introduction to Sensors and Actuators in Mechatronics

The importance of mechatronic systems the application of electromechanical sensors and
actuators in industry and their impact on emerging technologies in particular has increased
dramatically in recent years. This course is an introductory course on theory and application of
such electromechanical sensors and actuators in mechatronics.
1.1 Mechatronic Systems

More and more electromechanical sensors and actuators can be considered as mechatronic
systems themselves. So, first, lets revisit the definition of the term mechatronic systems for
for a birds eye view understanding of the course subject.
Traditional Electromechanical Systems: Mechanical and electrical components are selected or

designed and manufactured separately then integrated, along with other components (hardware
and software).
Mechatronic Systems: Entire electromechanical system is treated concurrently from the early
design stage in an integrated manner by a multidisciplinary team of engineers and other
professional This design approach results in a better product! Why?
In general, a mechatronic product will be more efficient and cost effective, precise and accurate,
reliable, flexible and functional, and mechanically less complex, compared to a similar non-
mechatronic product. This is no exception when talking about sensor and actuator devices.
Notes:
What these definitions imply is that a mechatronic system requires a multidisciplinary approach
(or philosophy) starting from the early design stage, followed by development, and
implementation.
Why? Because naturally, a traditional system formed by interconnecting a set of independently

designed and manufactured components will not have the same level of performance as a
mechatronic system, which employs an integrated approach for design, development and
implementation The best match and compatibility between component functions can be
achieved in the mechatronic system.
Performance of a non-mechatronic system (or traditional electromechanical system) can be

improved through sophisticated control, but this is achieved at an additional cost of sensors,
instrumentation, and control hardware and software, and with added complexity Essentially,
the end products is a suboptimal mechatronic system that has not gone through an integrated
design process.
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Fig. 1-1 Typical links between mechatronic system components and where sensors and
actuators fit.
In a typical mechatronic system:
Actuators produce motion or cause some action (i.e. impose a state in control sense).
Sensors detect the state of the system parameters.
Digital devices control the system.
Signal conditioning and interfacing circuits provide connections between control
circuits and sensors/actuators.
Graphical displays provide visual feedback to the user
Notes:
A typical mechatronic system consists of a mechanical skeleton, actuators, sensors, controllers,

signal conditioning/modification devices, computer/digital hardware and software, interface
devices, and power sources. Note where sensors and actuators fit within the overall mechatronic
system.
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1.1.1. System Components

Mechatronic systems are made up of several interdisciplinary systems such as the sensing
(measurement) system, actuation (drive) system, control system, microprocessor system, and
computer system. A brief description of each system and its characteristics is given in the
following paragraphs.
Sensing (Measurement) System

Any system that measures parameters such as temperature, pressure, force, voltage, current, etc.
can be considered a measurement system. For example,
Output: Pressure
Input: Pressurized fluid Pressure Gauge indication on meter
The elements of a measurement system are the sensor, signal conditioner, and display unit, e.g.,
Input Weak Conditioned Output

SENSOR SIGNAL COND. DISPLAY
Quantity to be Signal Signal Measured value
Measured (measurand)
Sensor: The input quantities (measurand) such as force, temperature, etc., supplied to the
sensors are processed to give a response in the form of raw output signal relating to the quantity
to be measured.
Signal conditioner: The raw (weak) signal output from the sensor is manipulated or amplified
by a signal conditioner such as an amplifier to give a conditioned output.
Display: The analog or digital indicator is the display unit that gives out the reading of the
measured quantity taking the signal form the signal conditioner.
An example of a strain indicator is shown below:

Loaded Voltage Amplified Strain
STRAIN DIFFERENTIAL STRAIN
GAUGE AMPLIFIER DISPLAY
Beam Change Signal Reading
Notes: The resistance strain gauges mounted on a loaded beam in the form of a Wheastone
bridge give a change in voltage in voltage by a change in resistance owing to a change in length
by deformation (i.e. strain). The differential amplifier amplifies the voltage signal that is given to
the analog or digital strain indicator (display) to give out the strain reading as the output.
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Actuation (Drive) System

A drive system that provides linear or rotary motion is an actuator, which may be mechanical
such as electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic such as motors, solenoids, etc. For example,
Input: Electric power Ceiling Fan Output: blade rotation
Input: Pressurized oil Hydraulic Cylinder Output: Piston displacement
Notes: The electrical power input to an electrical motor of a ceiling fan with blades produces
rotation of the blades that results in air circulation. A ceiling fan is an example of a rotary drive.
The pressurized hydraulic oil flowing to the ends of the piston of a hydraulic cylinder makes the
piston rod to displace. A hydraulic cylinder is an example of a linear drive.
Control System
A control system can be characterized by a transfer function. If the output produced has no
bearing on the input given, then such a control system is called an open-loop control system, e.g.,
X(s): time-dependent 1 dX(s)/dt: First time

function derivative
s
If the error signal between the desired output and the actual output is fedback by a feedback
sensor, such a system is a closed-loop control system, e.g.,
Input Signal Transfer Function Output Signal
Feedback Sensor
The accuracy, sensitivity, bandwidth, and non-linearity of the system/device are all improved by
adopting a closed-loop control system over an open-loop control system. On the other hand,
open-loop systems have the advantage of stability, low cost, and ease of maintenance with
simplicity in design and development.
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Microprocessor System
This system is an electronic system with an integrated circuit compactly installed to form a chip.
The circuits are activated by control programs (firmware). The conditioned signals (from sensors)
are the inputs that can be multiple in the number. The outputs are also multiple, which through a
decoder are given to the drivers (of actuators) and the display.
Control Program
Multiple
Multiple
Microprocessor Outputs
Inputs
(e.g., actuators)
(e.g., sensors)
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1.1.2. System Models

Design of a mechatronic system, including sensors and actuators, requires an understanding and
a suitable representation of the system A model (or knowledge base) of the system. A
mechatronic system is a mixed system consisting of interdisciplinary components.
It is then useful to use analogous procedures for modeling such components, in order to
conveniently integrate component models to obtain the overall system model. By understanding
the similarities of the characteristics of the different types of mechatronic components, the
system modeling procedure can be facilitated.
System Analogies
Analogies exist between the various energy domains: mechanical (translational and rotational),
electrical, thermal, fluid, magnetic, etc.
Two groups of basic system elements:

energy-storage elements
energy-dissipation elements
Two sets of fundamental variables for each energy domain:

power conjugate variables
Hamiltonian variables
(i) Power conjugate variables

Two variables which when multiplied yield the power in a given energy domain:
Translational: force f and velocity v

Rotational: torque and angular velocity
Electrical: voltage v (or e) and current i
Magnetic: magnetomotive force mmf (or magnetomotance M) and time rate of change
of magnetic flux d/dt
Fluid: pressure P and volume flow rate Q
Thermal: temperature difference T and heat transfer rate Q
One popular analogy for relating the power conjugate variables in the various energy domains is
the Maxwell or Impedance Analogy:
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Fig. 1-2 Linear constitutive relations for some types of elements
(ii) Hamiltonian (or energy) variables

Translational: displacement x and linear momentum p
Rotational: angular displacement and angular momentum h
Electrical: charge q and flux linkage
Magnetic: magnetic flux (only one defined)
Fluid: volume V and pressure-momentum
Thermal: heat transfer q (only one defined), where dq/dt = Q
In summary:
Trans. Rot. Elec. Mag. Fluid Thermal
Effort F v (or e) M (or mmf) P T
Flow V i d/dt Q Q
Displacement X q V Q
Momentum P H
Basic design of sensors and actuators involve the transfer of power or energy from one domain to
another.
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1.1.3. Examples of Mechatronic Systems and Their Sensors and Actuators
Example 1-1: Photocopy Machine
Fig. 1-3 Office photocopier
A true mechatronic product!
Analog circuits: control the lamp, heater, and other power circuits in the machine
Digital circuits: control the digital displays, indicator lights buttons, and switches
forming the user interface
Microprocessors: coordinate all of the functions in the machine
Sensors: optical sensors and switches - detect the presence or absence of paper, its
proper positioning, position of doors/latches
Actuators: servo and stepper motors load and transport the paper, transport the drum,
and index the sorter
Note:
A photocopy machine is a complex mechatronic system that includes analog and digital circuits,
sensors, actuators and microprocessors.
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Example 1-2: Servomotor
Fig. 1-4 Servomotor
A servomotor, which is an actuator, is also a mechatronic device, consisting of mechanical,

electrical, and electronic components:
Mechanical components: rotor and stator

Electrical components: circuitry for field windings and rotor windings (if present) and
power transmission and commutation (if needed) circuits
Electronic components: sensors (e.g., optical encoder for displacement/speed sensing
and tachometer for speed sensing only)
Its obvious that the overall design of a servomotor can be improved by a mechatronic approach.
Note:
A servomotor is a motor with the capability of sensory feedback for accurate generation of
complex motions.
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Example 1-3: Engine Management System
Fig. 1-5 Engine management system
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Fig. 1-6 Input (sensor) and output (actuator) block diagram of an engine management controller
Notes:
The use of sensors and actuators as well as microprocessor is the mechatronic approach to
controlling and processing data in an engine management system. The purpose is to improve fuel
efficiency of IC (internal combustion) engines affected by speed regulation, correct valve
operation, timely spark strike, and prevention of fuel loss in the exhaust. The input data from the
speed sensor, temperature sensor, throttle valve position sensor, and the airflow rate sensor is
processed by the microprocessor to actuate the fuel injector and throttle valve switch that
regulate the air fuel ratio to control the speed. The opening and closing sequence of the valve
(actuator) is controlled by the sequence program installed in the microprocessor. The timing
program gives the output to strike the spark by the spark plug at the right time by the actuation of
the ignition coil. The oxygen sensor present in the exhaust manifold gives the signal to re-
circulate the exhaust gas if excess oxygen ions are present so that fuel loss is prevented.
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Example 1-4: Automatic Camera
Fig. 1-7 Automatic camera
Notes:
This figure shows a schematic diagram of a modern automatic camera with auto focusing and
exposure, with basic elements such as lenses, mirrors, viewfinder, battery, flash, aperture, shutter,
etc.
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Fig. 1-8 Input (sensor) and output (actuator) block diagram of an automatic camera
Notes:
Auto focusing:
The system actuation switch sets the camera to be ready to take the snap of the object at which
the camera is pointed. Input from the range sensor is processed by the microprocessor-based
controller to give the output signal to the lens position servomotor to achieve auto focusing.
Based on the feedback signal from the lens position encoder the lens position is modified to the
desired position of correct focus.
Aperture control:
When the shutter switch is pressed to the first position, main microcontroller calculates the
shutter speed and aperture setting based on the input from the light sensors and gives out the
signal to the viewfinder and LCD display. Pressing the shutter switch to the fully depressed
second position makes the main microcontroller issue a signal to operate the mirror drive to lift
the mirror up and to change the opening of the aperture to the required extent. The shutter is kept
open for the required amount of time. When the shutter is closed the film is advanced for the
next snap.
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Example 1-5: Automatic Washing Machine
Fig. 1-9 Automatic washing machine
Notes:
The washing operation in a washing machine used to wash clothes has a set of sequence which
typically includes: (1) pre-wash cycle, (2) main wash cycle, (3) rinse cycle and (4) spin cycle. To
effectively and automatically carry out these cycles the machine is equipped with a
microprocessor-based controller, various sensors, various actuators and heater. The installed
timer determines the time for which the cycles are activated. The temperature sensor, water-level
sensor, speed sensor, and position (valve) sensor provide inputs to the controller. The pump,
heater, valve actuator, and drum motor are the output devices in the machine.
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Example 1-6: Humanoid Robot
Fig. 1-10 Honda Motors Asimo and its components
Notes:
Asimo is a more complex and intelligent mechatronic system. It involves many servomotors
and a variety of sensors.
An integrated and concurrent mechatronic approach can greatly benefit the development of
complex electromechanical systems of this nature, by calling for a fresh look at the design
process itself and also a formal consideration of information and energy transfer between
components within the system from the early design stage.
The area of human-friendly machines (i.e. humanoids, implantable sensors and actuators,
surgical robots) is one of the exciting future application areas of mechatronics.
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1.2 Mechanical Components

Even though mechatronic systems, including sensors and actuators themselves, are designed
using an integrated approach with respect to its functions and components, it is still necessary to
make a distinction between its mechanical components and non-mechanical components.
Why a distinction has to be made?
A. Energy (or power) requirements: The type and level of energy requirements differ greatly,
e.g.,
- Motors and other actuators need high levels of electrical power to generate similar
levels of mechanical power.
- Digital electronic circuits (ADC and DAC) and computer hardware use low levels
of power.
- Hence, analog devices (drive power amplifiers and power supplies) are required
to deal with high power requirements.
B. Bandwidth requirements: Mechanical components have lower time constants than

electronic components, e.g.,
- Process plants min. cycle time; robotic device/machine tools ms cycle time
- Electronic circuitry s cycle time; software-based devices ms cycle time
- Thus, for faster operating cycles (s or MHz range), cannot rely on software
solutions dedicated hardware electronic solutions are preferred.
The mechanical system has to be designed to satisfy such desirable characteristics as:
Light weight
High strength
High speed
Low noise and vibration
Long design life
Fewer moving parts
High reliability
Low cost production and distribution
Low cost (& infrequent) maintenance
Notes:
1
In todays lecture we will study some typical and most important types of mechanical
components And this topic is closely related to the topic of actuators that we will cover later.
In a mechatronic product, mechanical elements play a vital role, which may include:
Structural support or load bearing,
Mobility, transmission of motion and power or energy, and
Actuation
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Common mechanical components in a mechatronic system:
Fig. 1-11 Classification of mechanical components.
As can be seen, in selecting a mechanical component for a mechatronic application, many

mechanical engineering aspects have to be considered, in regards to the capability and
performance of the components with respect to the design requirements or specifications, e.g.,
Motion and force/torque specifications
Flexibility and deflection limits
Strength characteristics: stress-strain behavior, failure modes, limits and fatigue life, design life
Other factors: size, shape, cost and commercial availability, etc.
Long design life
Notes:
Obviously, we cannot study all the types of mechanical components summarized here. Among
these, we will further look into only a few important mechanical components that are particularly
useful in design of sensors and actuators.
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1.2.1 Transmission Components

A gear transmission is the most common transmission device:
Used in a variety applications including automotive, industrial-drive and robotics.
Gear designs range from conventional spur gears to harmonic gears.
Usage:
(i) To change the rotational speed and torque by a specific gear ratio, dictated by the
ratio of the diameters (or radii) of the two gear wheels with identical pitch (tooth
separation) and
(ii) To convert rotary motion into rectilinear motion, or vice-versa.
Disadvantage: Backlash tooth width is smaller than the tooth space of the mating
gear:
(i) Why some degree of backlash in necessary? For proper meshing otherwise
jamming will occur.
(ii) Why can it be a problem? A nonlinear phenomena! Causes irregular and noisy
operation with brief intervals of zero torque transmission, rapid wear/tear, instability.
(iii) How can its effects be reduced? Through the use of spring-loaded gears or
sophisticated feedback control.
A. Lead Screw and Nut

This is a transmission component that converts rotary motion into rectilinear motion.
Lead screws, power screws and ball screws are used synonymously.
Numerous applications: positioning tables/stages, machine tools, gantry systems, automated
manipulators and valve actuators.
Fig. 1-12 Main components of a lead-screw unit

Fewer moving parts
Notes:
Transmission devices are indispensable in sensor and actuator applications, particularly with the
actuators. Note that while we will treat a transmission device as an independent unit, a
transmission design or selection should involve an integrated treatment of all interacting
components.
Stepping down the speed (in which case the diameter of the output gear is larger than that of the
input gear), the output torque can be increase. Larger gear ratios can be realized by employing
more than one pair of meshed gear wheels.
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Fig. 1-13 A commercial ball screw unit Fig. 1-14 Screw and nut interface
Basic equations for operation of a lead-screw drive:
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Example 1-7: A lead-screw unit:
A lead screw unit is used to drive a load of mass up an incline of angle , as shown in Fig. 1-15.
Under quasi-static conditions (i.e., neglecting inertial loads) determine the drive torque needed
by the motor to operate the device. The total mass of the moving unit (load, nut and fixtures) is m.
The efficiency of the lead screw is e and the lead is l. Assume that the axial load (thrust) due to
gravity is taken up entirely by the nut (in practice, a significant part the axial load is supported by
the end bearings, which have the thrust-bearing capability).
Fig. 1-15 A lead-screw unit driving an inclined load
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B. Harmonic Drives
Usually, motors run efficiently at high speeds. Yet in many applications, low speeds and high
output torques are needed. A straightforward way to reduce the speed and increase the torque of
a motor is to employ a gear system with high gear reduction. But, backlash in gears becomes
unacceptable in high-precision applications. Frictional loss of torque and energy consumption by
the mass of the gear system from the motor can become additional problems.
A harmonic drive is a special type of transmission device that provides the following advantages:
Very large speed reductions (e.g., 200:1) without backlash problems.
Much lighter than a standard gearbox.
Provides very high torques when used with conventional motors, particularly in direct-
drive.
Fig. 1-16 Schematic of a harmonic drive
Fig. 1-17 Components of a harmonic drive by HD Systems (www.harmonicdrive.net)
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Fig. 1-18 Harmonic drive operation
Harmonic Drive Applications:

Robotics: Harmonic Drives offer robot manufacturers many benefits including zero
backlash, high positional accuracy, low vibration and a compact design. They can be used
in any of the robot axis and their light weight design contributes minimal weight to the
robotic arm which increases robot payload capacity.
Machine tools: Harmonic drives allow accurate control of the motions for axis
positioning and for tool changing.
Medical: Applications using harmonic drives include patient beds, rehabilitations
equipment, and MRI/ CT scan gantries.
Military/aerospace: Harmonic drives are used to accurately rotate and tilt the antennas
and arrays. They are also used for driving lunar vehicle motions and positioning aerials
and telescopes, e.g., harmonic drives are used in the Hubble Telescope.
C. Other Gears
Spur Gears:
Fig. 1-19 Spur gears
Notes: Spur gears are the most

common type of gears. They have
straight teeth, and are mounted on
parallel shafts. Sometimes, many
spur gears are used at once to
create very large gear reductions.
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Helical Gears:
Fig. 1-20 Helical gears
Notes: The teeth on helical

gears are cut at an angle to the
face of the gear. When two
teeth on a helical gear system
engage, the contact starts at one
end of the tooth and gradually
spreads as the gears rotate, until
the two teeth are in full
engagement.
Bevel Gears:
Fig. 1-21 Bevel gears
Notes: Bevel gears are useful

when the direction of a shaft's
rotation needs to be changed.
They are usually mounted on
shafts that are 90 degrees apart,
but can be designed to work at
other angles as well.
The teeth on bevel gears can be

straight, spiral or hypoid.
Straight bevel gear teeth
actually have the same problem
as straight spur gear teeth -- as
each tooth engages, it impacts
the corresponding tooth all at
once.
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Worm Gears:
Fig. 1-22 Worm gears
Notes: Worm gears are used

when large gear reductions are
needed. It is common for worm
gears to have reductions of
more than 20:1, and even up to
300:1 or greater.
Many worm gears have an

interesting property that no
other gear set has: the worm can
easily turn the gear, but the gear
cannot turn the worm. This is
because the angle on the worm
is so shallow that when the gear
tries to spin it, the friction
between the gear and the worm
holds the worm in place. This
feature is useful for machines
such as conveyor systems, in
which the locking feature can
act as a brake for the conveyor
when the motor is not turning.
Rack and Pinion Gears:

Fig. 1-23 Rack and pinion gears
Notes: Rack and pinion gears are used

to convert rotation into linear motion. A
perfect example of this is the steering
system on many cars. The steering
wheel rotates a gear which engages the
rack. As the gear turns, it slides the rack
either to the right or left, depending on
which way you turn the wheel.
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Planetary Gears:
Fig. 1-24 Planetary gear set
Notes: Any planetary gearset has three main

components:
The sun gear

The planet gears and the planet gears'
carrier
The ring gear
Each of these three components can be the

input, the output or can be held stationary.
Choosing which piece plays which role
determines the gear ratio for the gearset.
1.2.2 Application of gears to sensors and actuators: e.g., rotary potentiometer
Fig. 1-25 Various types of rotary potentiometers
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Fig. 1-26 Various mechanical transmission mechanisms that can be connected to a pot
1.2.3 Bearings
There are many types of bearings, each used for different purposes. These include ball bearings,
roller bearings, ball thrust bearings, roller thrust bearings and tapered roller thrust bearings.
Ball bearings, as shown below, are probably the most common type of bearing. They are
found in everything from inline skates to hard drives. These bearings can handle both radial and
thrust loads, and are usually found in applications where the load is relatively small.
Fig. 1-27 Cutaway view of a ball bearing
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In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the outer race to the ball, and from the ball to the
inner race. Since the ball is a sphere, it only contacts the inner and outer race at a very small
point, which helps it spin very smoothly. But it also means that there is not very much contact
area holding that load, so if the bearing is overloaded, the balls can deform, damaging the
bearing.
Roller bearings like the one illustrated below are used in applications like conveyer belt
rollers, where they must hold heavy radial loads. In these bearings, the roller is a cylinder, so the
contact between the inner and outer race is not a point but a line. This spreads the load out over a
larger area, allowing the bearing to handle much greater loads than a ball bearing. However, this
type of bearing is not designed to handle much thrust loading.
A variation of this type of bearing, called a needle bearing, uses cylinders with a very small
diameter. This allows the bearing to fit into tight places.
Fig. 1-28 Cutaway view of a roller bearing
Ball thrust bearings are mostly used for low-speed applications and cannot handle much
radial load.
Fig. 1-29 Cutaway view of a roller bearing
Roller thrust bearings can support large thrust loads. They are often found in gear sets like
car transmissions between gears, and between the housing and the rotating shafts. The helical
gears used in most transmissions have angled teeth this causes a thrust load that must be
supported by a bearing.
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Fig. 1-30 Cutaway view of a roller thrust bearing
Tapered roller bearings can support large radial and large thrust loads.
Fig. 1-31 Cutaway view of tapered roller bearings
Tapered roller bearings are usually mounted in pairs facing opposite directions so that they can
handle thrust in both directions.
Magnetic Bearings: Some very high-speed devices, like advanced flywheel energy storage
systems, use magnet bearings shown below. These bearings allow the flywheel to float on a
magnetic field created by the bearing. Some of the flywheels run at speeds in excess of 50,000
revolutions per minute (rpm). Normal bearings with rollers or balls would melt down or explode
at these speeds. The magnetic bearing has no moving parts, so it can handle these incredible
speeds.
Fig. 1-32 A magnetic roller bearing from SKF Magnetic Bearings (www.skf.com)
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1.3 Electrical Components and Magnetism: Review

Practically all mechatronic systems, including electromechanical sensors and actuators, contain
electrical circuits and components. To understand how to design and analyze these systems, a
firm grasp of the fundamentals of basic electrical components (and also circuit analysis
techniques) is a necessity.
This section provides a brief review on these topics, which are fundamental to understanding
how sensors work.
Fig. 1-33 Electric circuit terminology
Fig. 1-34 Basic electrical elements
1.3.1 Resistor
A resistor is a dissipative element that converts electrical energy into heat.
Ohms law defines the voltage-current characteristics of an ideal resistor:
v = Ri
where the resistance R is given by:
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L
R=
A
where is the resistivity.
Fig. 1-35 Wire resistance and resistivity
Fig. 1-36 Various resistor packaging
1.3.2 Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive element that stores energy in the form of an electric field. This field is
the result of a separation of electric charge, typically through a pair of parallel conducting plates
separated by a dielectric material, which is an electrical insulator.
Fig. 1-37 Parallel plate capacitor
The dielectric material is an insulator that increases the capacitance as a result of electric dipoles
in the material.
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A. Electric Fields and Forces

Coulombs Law: Like charges repel, unlike charges attract!
The electric force acting on a charge q1 as a result of the presence of a second point charge q2 is
given by Coulomb's Law:
k o q1q2 qq
F= 2
r = 1 2 2 r [N]
r 4 o r
where o = 8.85 10-12 (F/m) is the (absolute) permittivity of free space or vacuum, r is the
straight line distance between the two charges, and ko is the Coulombs constant given by:
1
ko = 9 10 9 [Nm/C2]
4 o
In the presence of polarizable medium (i.e. a dielectric material), o will have a different value,
which can be stated as a relative permittivity or a dielectric constant.
Electric field strength (or intensity) is defined as the electric force, F, per unit charge. The
direction of the field is taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive charge.
The electric field is radially outward from a positive charge and radially in toward a negative
point charge.
Fig. 1-38 Various forms of electric charge
The electric field from a point charge q1 (a source) can be obtained from Coulombs law:
F q1
E= = r [V/m or N/C]
q2 4 o r 2
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The electric field of a point charge can be put in the form shown below where point charge q (or
Q in the figure below) is the source of the field. The electric force in Coulomb's law follows the
inverse square law:
Electric flux is a
measure of the number
of electric field lines
passing through an area.
To calculate the flux
through a particular
surface, multiply the
surface area by the
component of the
electric field
perpendicular to the
surface. If the electric
field is parallel to the
surface, the flux will be
zero.
Fig. 1-39 Electric field intensity
B. Factors Affecting Capacitance (Plate)
Permittivity: A measure of the ability of a material to resist

the formation of an electric field within it.
Ferroelectric: Of or relating to a crystalline dielectric that can
be given a permanent electric polarization by application of
an electric field.
There are three basic factors of capacitor construction determining the amount of capacitance
created. These factors all dictate capacitance by affecting how much electric flux will develop
between the two plates for a given amount of electric force (voltage across the plates).
The electric flux is equal to (Ecos)A [Vm], where is the angle between the electric field and
the normal (the perpendicular) to the surface.
1) PLATE AREA: All other factors being equal, greater plate area gives greater capacitance;
less plate area gives less capacitance.
Larger plate area results in more field

flux (charge collected on the plates) for
a given electric field force (voltage
across the plates).
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2) PLATE SPACING: All other factors being equal, further plate spacing gives less
capacitance; closer plate spacing gives greater capacitance.
Closer spacing results in a greater field

force (voltage across the capacitor divided
by the distance between the plates), which
results in a greater field flux (charge
collected on the plates) for any given
voltage applied across the plates.
3) DIELECTRIC MATERIAL: All other factors being equal, greater permittivity of the
dielectric gives greater capacitance; less permittivity of the dielectric gives less capacitance.
Due to dielectric polarization effects,

materials with a greater permittivity
allow for more field flux (charge
collected on the plates), and thus a
greater amount of electrical energy
stored for any given amount of field
force (applied voltage).
"Relative" permittivity means the permittivity of a material, relative to that of a free space. The
greater the number, the greater the permittivity of the material. Glass, for instance, with a relative
permittivity of 7, has seven times the permittivity of a free space, and consequently will allow for
the establishment of an electric flux (charge collected on the plates) seven times stronger than
that of a vacuum, all other factors being equal.
The table below lists the relative permittivity (also known as the "dielectric constant" k) of
various common substances:
Material Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)

============================================================
Vacuum ------------------------- 1.0000
Air ---------------------------- 1.0006
PTFE, FEP ("Teflon") ----------- 2.0
Polypropylene ------------------ 2.20 to 2.28
ABS resin ---------------------- 2.4 to 3.2
Polystyrene -------------------- 2.45 to 4.0
Waxed paper -------------------- 2.5
Transformer oil ---------------- 2.5 to 4
Hard Rubber -------------------- 2.5 to 4.80
Wood (Oak) --------------------- 3.3
Silicones ---------------------- 3.4 to 4.3
Bakelite ----------------------- 3.5 to 6.0
Quartz, fused ------------------ 3.8
Wood (Maple) ------------------- 4.4
Glass -------------------------- 4.9 to 7.5
Castor oil --------------------- 5.0
E. Park 34
Wood (Birch) ------------------- 5.2

Mica, muscovite ---------------- 5.0 to 8.7
Glass-bonded mica -------------- 6.3 to 9.3
Porcelain, Steatite ------------ 6.5
Alumina ------------------------ 8.0 to 10.0
Distilled water ---------------- 80.0
Barium-strontium-titanite ------ 7500
Note that for materials, which are not strongly ferroelectric and for weak electric fields,
1
E= D

where D is the electric field density [C/m2].
All materials exhibit dielectric behavior which can be characterized by an E vs. D curve
(analogous to a BH curve). An ideal dielectric material appears as a straight line through the
origin, and many materials approximate this model quite well.
1.3.3 Inductor
An inductor is a passive energy storage that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. The
simplest form of an inductor is a wire coil, which has a tendency to maintain a magnetic field
once established.
In 1831, Faraday proved that the magnetic and electric phenomena are linked Changing
magnetic field produces a voltage (or the electromagnetic force, emf), which induces current in a
single loop of wire:
d d
e or emf (electric " effort" variable) = E dl = B da = (magnetic " flow" variable)
l dt a dt
where : E = electric field intensity [V/m]
B = magnetic flux density [Teslas, T]; = magnetic flux [Webers, Wb]
[or Wb/m2]
Because it is common for an electric conductor to be wound in a coil, it is convenient to define a

quantity called the flux linkages, i.e.
= N d d
emf = = N
where : N = no. of turns in a coil [turns] dt dt
E. Park 35
= B da
a
Fig. 1-40 Inductor flux linkage
Analogous to the electric effort variable, emf, the magnetic effort variable is
mmf = H dl =Ni [Amp - turns]

l
where : mmf = magnetomotive force or magnetomotance

H = magnetic field intensity (analogous to E )
Note that for materials which are not strongly ferromagnetic and for weak fields:
1
H= B where : = magnetic permeability

Then,
displacement
Permiance, P = = (magnetic capacitance)
mmf effort
mmf effort
Reluctance, = = (a measure of opposition to mag. flux)
displacement
A. Magnetic Materials
Magnetic behavior of materials is characterized by the magnetic field intensity vs. flux density
(H vs. B).
Ideal magnetic materials (uncommon) show a straight line through the origin on the BH curve.
More common are soft ferromagnetic materials, which resemble the ideal behavior with a small
amount of hysteresis.
Hard ferromagnetic materials exhibit a large amount of hysteresis in their BH curve, as shown
in the figure below.
E. Park 36
Fig. 1-41 Magnetic behavior of materials I
B. Ferromagnetism
Magnetic field lines form closed lines
Permanent magnets can be made from hard ferromagnetic materials
Characteristics of ferromagnetic materials:
- Exhibit a microscopic ordering of electron spins that creates magnetic domains

- Domains line up when exposed to an external magnetic field (H) Becomes
magnetized
- If imposed magnetization stays indefinitely Useful as permanent magnets
Fig. 1-42 Magnetic behavior of materials II
C. Solenoids and Electromagnets

Magnetic field lines produced by electric current in a solenoid coil is similar to that of a
permanent magnet
Inserting an iron core has the multiplying effect of the magnetic field (about 200 for iron):
- Ferromagnetic property of the iron core causes the magnifying effect

- Solenoid relationship:
E. Park 37
B = ko ni
where : k = relative permeability
(1.18)
o = magnetic permeability of free space
n = N/l (turns/m)
and = ko
Fig. 1-43 Solenoid with air or iron core
D. Faradays Law
Summarizes the ways an induced voltage (e or emf) can be generated by a changing magnetic
environment:
- Changing the magnetic flux
- Moving a magnet toward or away from the coil = B da
a
- Changing the area in the magnetic field
- Rotating the coil in the magnetic field
d
emf = N
dt
E. Park 38
E. Lentzs Law
When an induced emf is generated by a changing in magnetic flux according to Faradays Law,
the polarity of the emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change
which created it Tries to keep the magnetic flux in the loop of wires constant.
d
emf = N
dt
E. Park 39
F. Inductance of a Solenoid
For a fixed area and changing current,

B
emf = N = NA
t t
Since the magnetic flux of a solenoid is
N
B= i
l
the emf becomes
N 2 A i i
emf = = L
l t t
where : L = solenoid inductance
G. Magnetic Circuit
Fig. 1-44 Magnetic circuit
E. Park 40
1.4 Component Matching

A mechatronic system, including sensors and actuators, can consist of a variety of components,
which are interconnected to perform the intended function.
When two or more components are interconnected the behaviour of the individual components
in the integrated system can deviate significantly Matching of components with respect to
their impedance characteristics become critical.
Impedance measures how much effort is needed to drive a system at unity flow, i.e.
impedance = effort / flow (or admittance = flow / effort)
Recall power conjugate variable associated with energy domains:
Trans. Rot. Elec. Mag. Fluid Thermal

Effort F e Mmf P T
Flow V i d/dt Q Q
When components such as transducers, control board, mechanical equipment (plant) and signal
conditioning hardware are interconnected, it is necessary to match impedances properly at each
interface in order to realize their rated performance level Improper matching results in the
loading effect The resulting loading error can far exceed other types of measurement error.
Electrical loading errors result from connecting an output unit such as a measuring device that
has low input impedance to an input device such as a signal source.
Mechanical loading errors can result in an input device due to inertia, friction, and other
resistive forces generated by an interconnected output component.
Another effect of improper impedance consideration: Inadequate output signal level.
1.4.1 Interconnection of Devices
Consider a standard two-port electrical device:

- Output impedance Zo is defined as the ratio of the open-circuit (no load/impedance) voltage
at the output port to the short-circuit current at the output port.
- Input impedance Zi is defined as the ratio of the rated input voltage to the corresponding
current through the input port while the output port is maintained as an open circuit.
A generalization can be made by remembering, impedance = effort / flow.
Fig. 1-45 Input/output impedance representation of an electrical device
E. Park 41
Fig. 1-46 Cascade connection of two electrical devices
The corresponding (frequency response) transfer function relationship between the open-circuit
output voltage and the input voltage:
vo
=G
vi
Now consider two devices connected in cascade as shown in Fig. 1-46:
vo1 = G1vi and vo = G2 vi 2
Zi2
where vi 2 = vo1.
Z o1 + Z i 2
The overall input/output relation is given by:
Zi2
v0 = G2 G1vi
Z o1 + Z i 2
Then, the overall frequency transfer function differs from the ideally expected product (G2G1) by
the factor:
Zi2 1
or
Z o1 + Z i 2 Z o1 / Z i 2 + 1
Note that cascading has distorted the frequency response characteristics (i.e. dynamic
characteristics) of the two devices.
If Zo1/Zi2 << 1, this deviation becomes insignificant Cascading should be done such that the
output impedance of the first device is much smaller than the input impedance of the second
device.
Thus, a device with high input impedance has the advantage of (i) smaller loading error and (ii)
less power consumption (e.g., v2/R) for a given voltage.
E. Park 42
1.4.2 Impedance Matching
It is clear that the signal-conditioning circuitry should have a considerable large input impedance
in comparison to the output impedance of the transducer unit in order to minimize loading errors.
However, this is a serious problem in some sensors such as piezoelectric sensors, which have
very high output impedances. In such cases, the input impedance of the signal-conditioning unit
might be inadequate to reduce loading effects. Also, the output signal level of these sensors is
quite low as well. What would be a solution to this problem?
E. Park 43
1.4.3 Impedance Matching in Mechanical Systems
The concepts of impedance matching can be extended to mechanical systems and to mixed
mechatronic systems (e.g., actuators) using the system analogies. As an example, consider the
following example:
Example 1-8: Impedance matching of an inertial load driven by a motor
Consider the mechanical system where a torque source (motor) of torque T and moment of
inertia Jm is used to drive a purely inertial load of moment of inertia JL as shown in the Fig. 1-47.
What is the resulting angular acceleration !! of the system? Neglect the flexibility of the
connecting shaft. Now suppose that the load is connected to the same torque source through an
idea (loss-free) gear of motor-to-load speed ratio r:1, as shown in the figure. What is the
resulting acceleration !!g of the load?
Fig. 1-47 An inertial load driven by a motor: (a) without gear transmission, (b) with a gear
E. Park 44
Example 1-8 (Cont)
Obtain an expression for the normalized load acceleration a = !!g / !! in terms of r and
p = J L / J m . Fig. 1-48 shows a plot of a versus r for p = 0.1, 1.0, and 10.0. Determine the value
of r in terms of p that will maximize the load acceleration a.
Fig. 1-48 Normalized acceleration versus speed ratio
E. Park 45
1.5 Performance Specification

Selection of available components for a particular application, or design of new components, rely
heavily on performance specifications for these systems. In mechatronic applications, static and
dynamic characteristics of sensors and actuators are very important.
For example, a perfect sensor should possess the following characteristics:

1. Output instantly reaches the measured value fast response
2. Sensor output is sufficiently large high gain or low output impedance
3. Output remains at the measured value (without drifting or being affected by environmental
effects or noise) unless the measurand itself changes stability
4. The output signal level of the sensor varies in proportion to the signal level of the measurand
static linearity
5. Connection of measuring device does not distort the measurand itself loading effects are
absent and impedances are matched
6. Power consumption is small high input impedance
Theses are based on dynamic response characteristics of the sensor.
1.5.1 Time Domain Specifications

Notes: For the best
performance of a sensor, we
wish to have the values of all
the foregoing specification
parameters as small as
possible. In actual practice,
however, it might be difficult
to meet all specifications,
particularly for conflicting
requirements.
For example, Tr can be
decreased by increasing the
time domain natural
frequency n of the sensor.
This, however, increases the
P.O. and sometimes the Ts.
On the other hand, the P.O.
and Ts can be decreased by
increasing device damping,
Fig. 1-49 Response parameters for the time domain specification of but it has the undesirable
performance effect of increasing Tr. M
E. Park 46
Rise time The time taken to pass 90% of the steady-state value of the response for the first
time represents speed of response.
Delay time The time taken to reach 50% of the steady-state value for the first time also a
measure of speed of response.
Settling time The time taken for the device response to settle down within a certain % (e.g.,
2%) of the steady-state value a measure of damping or degree of stability.
Percentage overshoot (P.O.) a measure of damping or degree of stability:
P.O. = 100(Mp 1) %
Steady-state error The deviation of the actual steady-state value from the desired value In
-state error manifests itself as an offset.
1.5.2 Frequency Domain Specifications
Notes:
Resonant Frequency
(speed and critical
frequency region),
Magnitude at Resonance
(stability), Input
Impedance (loading,
efficiency,
interconnectability),
Output Impedance
(loading, efficiency,
interconnectability),
Gain Margin (stability),
Phase Margin
Fig. 1-50 Response (transfer function) parameters for the frequency domain specification of
performance (also known as Bode diagram)
Useful Frequency Range (operating interval) This corresponds to the flat region (or with a
little bit of slope) in the gain curve and the zero-phase lead region in the phase curve. The
maximum frequency fmax in the useful range is several times smaller than fr, the dominant
E. Park 47
resonant frequency, for a typical measuring instrument (e.g., fmax = 0.25fr). Operation of a sensor
in this freq. range implies guaranteed faithful measurement, because sensor dynamics do not
corrupt the measurement larger the bandwidth the faster the speed of response, but more
susceptible to unwanted high-frequency noise and stability problems.
Bandwidth (speed of response) This is used to specify speed of response. The larger the
bandwidth, the faster the speed of response of the device, but more susceptible to high-frequency
noise. Common definition is the freq. range over which the gain drops to 70.7 percent of the
zero-frequency (or static) level. In digital control, the data sampling rate has to be at least double
the bandwidth (hertz).
Static Gain or DC Gain (steady-state performance) This is the gain of the sensor within its
useful range. A high value for static gain results in a high-sensitive sensors, which is a desirable
characteristic.
1.5.3 Linearity
Linearity For example, a linear sensor provides a measured value that varies linearly with
the value of the measurand. A device is considered linear if it can be modeled by linear
differential equations (with time t as the independent variable).
Fig. 1-51 Common nonlinearities in mechatronic devices
To reduce or eliminate nonlinearity perform calibration (in static nonlinearity case), use
linearizing elements (resistors and amplifiers) to neutralize nonlinear effects, or use nonlinear
feedback.
E. Park 48
Some general precautions to avoid nonlinearity:

1. Avoid operating the device over a wide range of signal levels
2. Avoid operation over a wide frequency band
3. Use devices that do not generate large mechanical motions
4. Minimize Coulomb friction (e.g., stiction)
5. Avoid loose joints and gear couplings (i.e. use direct drive mechanisms)
1.5.4 Instrument Ratings
Measurement instrument manufacturers do not usually provide complete dynamic

information (in the time or frequency domain) for their products. Performance specifications
provided by manufacturers are primarily static parameters, known as instrument ratings,
which are available as parameter values/tables, charts, calibration curves, etc.
Nevertheless, instrument ratings are very useful in the selection, installation, operation, and
maintenance of instruments.
Typical instrument rating parameters by:

sensitivity, dynamic range, resolution, linearity, zero drift (or full-scale drift), useful freq.
range, bandwidth, input and output impedances.
Sensitivity This is measured by the magnitude (peak, rms, etc.) of the output signal
corresponding to a unit input of the measurand.
Dynamic Range The upper or lower limits of its input or output response so as to
maintain a required level of measurement accuracy.
Resolution The smallest change in a signal that can be detected and accurately
indicated by a sensor or any pertinent instrument.
Linearity This is determined by the static calibration curve of an instrument. Static
calibration curve is the curve of output magnitude versus input magnitude under static
conditions, within the dynamic range of an instrument.
Zero Drift The drift from the null reading of the instrument when the measurand is
maintained steady for a long period. Usual causes of drift include: instrument instabilities
(e.g., amplifiers), ambient changes (e.g., temperature), changes in power supply (e.g.
changes in ref. Voltage), and parameter changes (aging, wearout, nonlinearities).
Useful Frequency Range
Bandwidth
Input and Output Impedances
1.5.5 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy (measurement error) Closeness of the measured value to the true value.
Precision (repeatability) Reproducibility of an instrument reading.
E. Park 49
Fig. 1-52 Accuracy, precision (repeatability), and resolution
1.5.6 Error Analysis
error = measured value true value of measurand
Analysis of error is a very challenging task. Difficulties arise due to:
1. True value is usually unknown (typically defined in ref. to some absolute or some standard).
2. The sensor reading may contain random error that cannot be determined exactly.
3. The error may be a complex function of many variables.
4. The sensor may be made up of many complex inter-relations, and each component may
contribute to the overall error.
These difficulties can be addressed to some extent by using statistical respresentation of errors
(not treated in this course).
For any particular measurement there always be some error due to systematic (bias) and random
(noise) error sources:
Systematic Error Sources (Bias):
Random Error Sources:
E. Park 50
Fig. 1-53 Illustration of systematic and random errors
Fig. 1-54 Statistical representation of systematic and random errors
E. Park 51
1.6 Signal Conditioning and Data Acquisition

The signals from sensors need to be conditioned for effective processing by microprocessors and
computers. The sensor signals, before being input to the next stage of processing, may have to be
conditioned for the following reasons:
The signal may be weak and has to be magnified (amplified).

It may have interference such as noise which has to be filtered.
The non-linear signal has to be manipulated (e.g., linearized).
The signal may have to be converted for a change in resistance and voltage.
In the case of sensor signals, the analog form may be need conversion to the digital form.
In the case of driving actuators, the digital form may be need conversion to the analog form.
Fig. 1-55 illustrates the concept of signal conditioning.
Fig. 1-55 Signal conditioning concept
The signal conditioning elements form the interface system between the sensors and the
microprocessors/computers, and between the microprocessors/computers and the actuators (see
Fig. 1-56).
E. Park 52
Fig. 1-56 Interface diagram
1.6.1 Operational Amplifiers
An operational amplifier is a high gain D.C. device that magnifies the input signal (current or
voltage) up to an order of 106 or more. A typical op-amp, which is supplied as a silicon chip
with an integrated circuit in it, is shown in Fig. 1-57.
Notes:
The types of inputs
of an op-amp are:
Negative
inverting input.
Positive non-
inverting input.
Negative voltage
supply.
Positive voltage
supply.
Two offset null inputs
for extracting non-ideal
behaviors from op-
amps.
Fig. 1-57 Operational amplifier
Depending on the inputs and connection of impedance, the op-amps perform as:
Voltage-to-current or current-to-voltage converter.

Signal adder.
E. Park 53
Signal magnifier.
Non-linear to linear manipulator.
A filter for noise reduction.
Analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converter.
Interface between sensors and microprocessor.
Op-amplifier analysis.
For example, when an op-amp is used as a simple comparator as shown in Fig. 1-58, the
output, Vo, of the op-amp depends on the difference between the voltage signal at its
inverting (-ve) and non-inverting (+ve) inputs. Because of the gain (A) of the amplifier is
high, the signals (V1 and V2) with small differences in voltage are enough for a large swing
in the output voltage.
For example,
Vo = A(V2 V1)
where A is the amplifier gain.
Fig. 1-58 Comparator
1.6.2 Protection
The output from sensors such as thermocouples or strain gauges or LEDs cannot be given to
the next stage, e.g., to the microprocessor (or microcontroller) directly. The microprocessor
maybe damaged by irregular and erratic signal from the sensors, and proper protection needs
to be provided in the interface between the sensor (or actuator) and the microprocessor. The
undue signal may be:
High current beyond the acceptable limit of the microprocessor.

High voltage exceeding the rating of the microprocessor.
Incorrect polarity leading to malfunctioning of the microprocessor.
As shown in Fig. 1-59, to limit the high current, a resistor may be connected in the input line
and a fuse to break the circuit in case the current exceeds the safe level.
For example, a Zener diode (a semiconductor diode) connected in parallel with the input and
output protects from excessive voltage and wrong polarity. The Zener diode conducts up to a
certain breakdown voltage and beyond which drops the resistance to a low value and the
output to the next stage also drops. As the Zener diode has low resistance in one direction
and high resistance in the other direction, it provides protection to the next stage receiving
output against the wrong polarity.
E. Park 54
Fig. 1-59 Protection circuit
1.6.3 Filtering
By definition, filtering is the process of removing of a certain band of frequencies form a

signal and permitting the remaining. The components of filtering include:
Pass band: Range of frequency passed by the filter.

Stop band: Range of frequency not passed by the filter.
Cut-off frequency: The boundary between the stop band and pass band.
Types of Filtering
Depending on the range of frequency transmitted and rejected, filters are classified as:
Low-pass filters: These filters have a pass band from zero to a certain frequency value as
shown in Fig. 1-60. They operate in the lower frequencies and are generally used to filter
noise in the higher frequencies as in the case of interferences in an AC power supply.
Fig. 1-60 Low-pass filter
E. Park 55
Fig. 1-61 Low-pass passive filter Fig. 1-62 Low-pass active filter
High-pass filters: These filters transmit frequencies between a certain value to infinity. The
high-pass filters transmit only high frequencies as shown in Fig. 1-63.
Fig. 1-63 High-pass filter
Fig. 1-64 High-pass passive filter Fig. 1-65 High-pass active filter
Band-pass filters: These types of filters transmit frequencies within a specified range. With
any beyond the range, it stops transmitting (see Fig. 1-66).
Band-stop filters: Within a certain range of frequency, the filter stops transmitting. It
operates from zero to certain value, stops in a range, and transmits beyond the range (see Fig.
1-67).
E. Park 56
Fig. 1-66 Band-pass filter Fig. 1-67 Band-stop filter
1.6.4 Multiplexers
A multiplexer is basically an electronic switching device. Sometimes a processor has to

receive and process in sequence the data from multiple sources. A multiplexer enables a
processor to share a single data channel between multiple input sources. By selecting the
required channel the output from the selected source is processed. See Fig. 1-68.
Fig. 1-68 Multiplexer function
There are two types of multiplexers:

Time Division Multiplexer (TDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexer (FDM)
Notes: FDM is used when each data source signal is modulated to a subcarrier frequency.
All the subcarriers are combined in a mixer and modulated to higher frequency carriers. Then
the info is transmitted to the receiver. The receiver, after demodulation, separates the data
into such into such carriers, which is filtered to contain the individual signals.
E. Park 57
Notes:
In a TDM, the data from the data

sources is made available to the
processor at different times. Typically
used when large data slowly varies
with time. Examples of data sources
for measurement are pressure,
temperature, and static strain.
Fig. 1-69 TDM concept
Fig. 1-70 FDM concept
1.6.5 Wheatstone Bridge (Temperature Compensation)
A Wheatstone bridge, illustrated in Fig. 1-71, is formed by four resistors forming the sides of
the quadrilateral. The diagonally opposite nodes form pairs. One pair is connected to the
source (input) with voltage Vi, and the output Vo is measured from the other pair.
Notes: The resistances of the bridge are chosen such

that the following balanced bridge condition is
achieved:
R1 R 3
=
R2 R4
The output voltage Vo is then given by
R 1 R 3
Vo = VAB VAC = Vi
1R + R 2 R 3 + R 4
For a small change in resistance R1 to (R1 + R1), the

change in output voltage Vo can be
R 1
Vo Vi
R 1 + R 2
Fig. 1-71 Wheatstone bridge
E. Park 58
A change in one of the resistances proportionately shows up in the output. By replacing, say
R1, by the strain gauge (a sensor) the bridge provides a means to measure the strain in terms
of the output voltage change, which is converted to indicate the change. Such a bridge circuit
with a sensor in one of its legs is shown in Fig. 1-72.
Fig. 1-72 Wheatstone bridge with a sensor
Temperature compensation
Notes: The expansion or contraction of the

elements of a sensor due to variations in
temperature results in a change in resistance.
This change results in an offset (drift) in the
output leading to erroneous measurements.
This problem can be tackled by providing a
dummy sensor replacing R3 so that the offset
is nullified and the error is eliminated. Hence, a
dummy strain gauge which changes due to
temperature change compensates the change in
the active strain gauge. This effect is known as
temperature compensation.
Fig. 1-73 Temperature compensation using a dummy gauge
E. Park 59
Temperature compensation in a load cell
Fig. 1-74 Bridge in load cell
The arrangement of strain gauges in the load cell is shown above, which employs four strain
gauges forming the four legs of the Wheatstone bridge. The orientation of the mounting of
the strain gauges is in such that two are in tension and the other two are in compression. As
all are affected by temperature changes, equally, the change is resistance is compensated
automatically.
1.6.6 Signal Processing
A microprocessor with a substantial rated processing capability allows the performing of

operations on a wide range of data provided by the sensors. The typical signal processing
capabilities of microprocessors are:
Linearization
In practical situations, the output of the sensor bears a complex (often, non-linear) relation
with the parameter to be measured. Analog signal processing cannot handle such non-linear
relations effectively. The lookup tables and the built-in computing capabilities of
microprocessors can accommodate the use of non-linear sensors. Hence, in digital signal
processing, non-linear signals can be accommodated easily.
Compensation
The use of active materials such as silicon in sensors makes them sensitive to environmental
conditions such as variations in temperature. This distorts the output signal from the sensors.
But in digital signal processing, the microprocessor can separately sense the changing
environmental conditions and provide suitable compensation so that the output is accurate.
E. Park 60
Signal averaging
In digital signal processing, the noise in the signal of random nature is removed by signal
averaging to recover the original signal from the noise. This is done by mixing the noise
ridden signal with a Gaussian (i.e. white) noise signal. If ri signals with noise have N
successive sets of data then the average value ravg of the sample is given by:
1 N
ravg = ri
N i =1
The resulting ravg would then closely match the actual value of the signal.
Fourier analysis
The system behavior analysis in the time domain and frequency domain to extract information
(e.g., power spectral density) is widely accomplished using the powerful analytical tool of
Fourier analysis (the process of decomposing a function into simpler pieces, i.e. by sums of
simpler trigonometric functions) based on forward and reverse Fourier transform equations.
When processing sensor signals, such as audio, radio waves, light waves, and even images,
Fourier analysis can isolate individual components of a compound waveform, concentrating
them for easier detection. A large family of signal processing techniques consist of Fourier-
transforming a signal, manipulating the Fourier-transformed data in a simple way, and reversing
the transformation. In digital signal analysis, it is Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) that is
extensively applied to time and frequency domain signals of periodic and discrete form. See Fig.
1-77 below.
Fig. 1-75 DFT in time and frequency domain
Self-diagnostics and self-calibration
E. Park 61
1.6.7 Data Acquisition (DAQ)

The data to be processed by the computer has to be acquired from the sensors with the aid of
the data acquisition system. The process is known as computer data acquisition (DAQ), and
it provides more compact, electronic storage of data, can results in greater data accuracy,
allows use of the data in a real-time control/automation system, and enables data processing
long after the events have occurred. The sensors (and actuators) and the data acquisition
systems are interfaced by the signal conditioning elements before being connected to
computers for processing. For an analog input signal, DAQ is a printed circuit board (PCB)
that consists of a multiplexer, amplifier, A/D converter, and controllers. The output of DAQ
is plugged into the computer to transfer data for processing.
Fig. 1-76 DAQ functional diagram
To be able to input analog data to a computer (or microprocessor), the analog data must be
transformed into digital values. The first step is to numerically evaluate the signal at discrete
instants of time. This process is called sampling, and the result is a digitized signal, which is
an approximation to an analog signal, as illustrated in Fig. 1-77.
E. Park 62
Fig. 1-77 Analog signal and sampled digital equivalent
An important question is how fast or often the signal should be sampled to obtain an accurate
representation of the original analog signal. The nave answer might be as fast as you
possibly can. The problems with this conclusion are that specialized, high-speed hardware is
required and a large amount of computer memory is needed to store the data. A better answer
is to select the minimal sampling rate (fs) required for a give application that retains all
important signal information.
The sampling theorem, also called Shannons sampling theorem, states that we need to
sample a signal at a rate more than two times the maximum frequency component (fmax) in
the input signal to retain all frequency components, i.e.
f s > 2f max
where the minimum required rate (2fmax) is called the Nyquist frequency. If we approximate
a signal by a truncated Fourier series, the fmax is the highest harmonic frequency. The time
interval between the digital samples is then
1
t =
fs
For example, what would be the time interval between samples if the sampling rate is 5000
Hz? Answer: 0.2 ms.
If a signal is sampled at less than two times its fmax, aliasing can result. Fig. 1-80 illustrates
an example of this with an analog sine wave sampled regularly at the points shown. Under-
sampling not only results in errors but also creates information that is not really there!
E. Park 63
Fig. 1-78 Aliasing
Notes: In Fig. 1-78, twelve equally spaced samples are taken over 10 cycles of the original
signal. Therefore, the sampling frequency is 1.2fo, where fo is the frequency of the original
sine wave. Since the sampling frequency is not greater than 2fo, we do not capture the
frequency in the original signal. Furthermore, the apparent frequency in the sampled signal is
0.2fo (2 aliased signal cycles for ten original signal cycles), which creates a phantom
frequency.
Analog-to-digital conversion (A/D conversion or ADC)

Next we look at the process required to change a sampled analog voltage into digital form.
The process, called analog-to-digital conversion, conceptually involves two steps:
quantizing and coding. Quantizing is defined as the transformation of a continuous analog
input into a set of discrete output states. Coding is the assignment of a digital code word or
number to each output state. Fig. 1-79 illustrates how a continuous voltage range is divided
into discrete output states, each of which is assigned a unique code. Each output state covers
a sub-range of the overall voltage range.
E. Park 64
Fig. 1-79 Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)
An analog-to-digital converter is an electronic device that converts an analog voltage to a

digital code (see Fig. 1-80). The output of the A/D converter can be directly interfaced to
digital devices such as microprocessors and computers. The resolution of an A/D converter is
the number of bits used to digitally approximate the analog value of the input. The number of
possible states N is equal to the number of bit combinations that can be output from the
converter:
N = 2n
where n is the number of bits. How many bits are there in the device shown in Fig. 1-79? Ans.
3 bits or 8 output states.
Most commercial A/D converters are 8-, 10-, or 12-bit devices that resolve 256, 1024, and
4096 output states, respectively.
E. Park 65
Fig. 1-80 Analog-to-digital conversion
Digital-to-analog conversion (D/A conversion or DAC)

Often we need to reverse the process of A/D conversion by changing a digital value to an
analog value. This is called digital-to-analog conversion. A D/A converter allows a
computer or other digital device to interface with external analog circuits and devices such as
an actuator.
DAQ board
Fig. 1-81 Block diagram of a DAQ board
E. Park 66
Features:
Two 16-bit analog outputs (2.8 MS/s);
24 digital I/O; 32-bit counters
NI-MCal calibration technology for
increased measurement accuracy
Improved measurement accuracy,
resolution, and sensitivity by choosing
high-accuracy M Series.
NI-DAQmx driver software and NI
LabVIEW SignalExpress LE interactive
data-logging software
Fig. 1-82 Example DAQ and control board: National Instruments PCI-6251
Specifications:
8 analog inputs (12-bit, 10 kS/s)
2 analog outputs (12-bit, 150 S/s); 12 digital
I/O; 32-bit counter
Used in our laboratory experiments.
Fig. 1-83 Example DAQ and control product: National Instruments DAQ USB-6008
1.6.8 Virtual Instrumentation and LabVIEW
A virtual instrumentation consists of a (personal) computer equipped with data acquisition

hardware and software to perform the functions of traditional instruments. Stand-alone
traditional instruments such as oscilloscopes and waveform generators are very powerful, but
they can be very expensive and limiting in extending or customizing the instruments
functionality. Virtual instrumentation provides an alternative by using software to create
custom applications and appropriate user interface that a particular process requires.
LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench) from National

Instruments is an example of an easy-to-use development environment designed specifically
for computer-based data acquisition, real-time control/automation and creating virtual
instruments. In addition, LabVIEW feature graphical programming environment as shown
in Figs. 1-84 and 1-85. In this course, you will learn LabVIEW basics and programming
through laboratory exercises and projects.
E. Park 67
Fig. 1-84 Example custom graphical user interface created with LabVIEW
Fig. 1-85 Example LabVIEW block diagram
E. Park 68

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FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE

School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering

Introduction to Electromechanical Sensors and

Edward J. Park, PhD, PEng

School of Mechatronic Systems Engineering

2015 Edward J. Park

1. Introduction to Sensors and Actuators in Mechatronics

1.1 Mechatronic Systems

Traditional Electromechanical Systems: Mechanical and electrical components are selected or

Why? Because naturally, a traditional system formed by interconnecting a set of independently

Performance of a non-mechatronic system (or traditional electromechanical system) can be

In a typical mechatronic system:

A typical mechatronic system consists of a mechanical skeleton, actuators, sensors, controllers,

1.1.1. System Components

Sensing (Measurement) System

Input Weak Conditioned Output

An example of a strain indicator is shown below:

Actuation (Drive) System

Input: Electric power Ceiling Fan Output: blade rotation

Input: Pressurized oil Hydraulic Cylinder Output: Piston displacement

X(s): time-dependent 1 dX(s)/dt: First time

Input Signal Transfer Function Output Signal

1.1.2. System Models

Two groups of basic system elements:

Two sets of fundamental variables for each energy domain:

(i) Power conjugate variables

Translational: force f and velocity v

Fig. 1-2 Linear constitutive relations for some types of elements

(ii) Hamiltonian (or energy) variables

1.1.3. Examples of Mechatronic Systems and Their Sensors and Actuators

Example 1-1: Photocopy Machine

Fig. 1-3 Office photocopier

A true mechatronic product!

Example 1-2: Servomotor

Fig. 1-4 Servomotor

A servomotor, which is an actuator, is also a mechatronic device, consisting of mechanical,

Mechanical components: rotor and stator

Example 1-3: Engine Management System

Fig. 1-5 Engine management system

Example 1-4: Automatic Camera

Fig. 1-7 Automatic camera

Example 1-5: Automatic Washing Machine

Fig. 1-9 Automatic washing machine

Example 1-6: Humanoid Robot

Fig. 1-10 Honda Motors Asimo and its components

1.2 Mechanical Components

Why a distinction has to be made?

B. Bandwidth requirements: Mechanical components have lower time constants than

Common mechanical components in a mechatronic system:

Fig. 1-11 Classification of mechanical components.

As can be seen, in selecting a mechanical component for a mechatronic application, many

1.2.1 Transmission Components

A. Lead Screw and Nut

Fig. 1-12 Main components of a lead-screw unit

Basic equations for operation of a lead-screw drive:

Example 1-7: A lead-screw unit:

Fig. 1-15 A lead-screw unit driving an inclined load

Fig. 1-16 Schematic of a harmonic drive

Fig. 1-17 Components of a harmonic drive by HD Systems (www.harmonicdrive.net)

Fig. 1-18 Harmonic drive operation

Harmonic Drive Applications:

Notes: Spur gears are the most

Notes: The teeth on helical