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Actuators

3.2 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators

3.2.1 Hydraulic Actuators

Figure 3-74 Industrial hydraulic actuators and their servo amplifiers

The ferromagnetic material in an electric motor saturates at some level of magnetic flux density
This limits the torque/mass ratio that can be obtained.
Hydraulic systems are similar to pneumatic systems (i.e. works by changes of pressure), but
they use hydraulic liquid (e.g., oil) rather than compressed air.
Hydraulic systems are designed to move large loads by controlling a high-pressure fluid in
distribution lines and pistons with mechanical or electromechanical Heavy-duty actuators that
can produce high forces (and torques).
Often used for construction machines, airplane direction/attitude control, industrial machines,
vehicle steering and braking, etc.
Power conversion: Electric Mechanical Fluid Mechanical
Provide excellent speed-force (or torque) capability, variable over a wide range of speeds
without significantly affecting the power-conversion efficiency, with an added advantage over
electromagnetic actuators from the heat transfer characteristics point of view.
Components of a hydraulic system:

Figure 3-75 Hydraulic system components

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Hydraulic Pump:
o Usually driven by an electric motor (e.g., large AC motor) or an internal
combustion engine.
o Typical fluids used are mineral oils and oils in water emulsions.
o Typical fluid pressures generated are in the 500 5000 psi range.
o Typical flow rates are in the 1000 50,000 gallons/min range.
o The efficiency (~60%) of the pump is not as good as that of an electric motor, due
to dissipation, leakage and compressibility effects.
o Most hydraulic pumps act by positive displacement: They deliver a fixed volume
of fluid with each cycle or rotation of pump. Three main types: gear pump, vane
pump, and piston pump.

Figure 3-76 An industrial fluid power system

Pressure Regulator:
o The pressure of the fluid from the pump is regulated to prevent it from exceeding
design limits the threshold or the cracking pressure
o A relief valve and an accumulator

Figure 3-77 Pressure regulator

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Hydraulic Valve:
o Provides a controlled supply of fluid into the actuator, controlling both the flow
rate (and direction) and the pressure.
o It is called servovalve in feedback control setting. The servovalve is typically
driven by a valve actuator, which could be a solenoid.

Figure 3-78 Hydraulic control system

3.2.1.1 Hydraulic Pumps

The efficiency of a hydraulic pump is given by the ratio of the output fluid power to the motor
mechanical power:

PQ
p
T

where P is the pressure increase in the fluid, Q is the fluid (volume) flow rate, is the rotating
speed of the pump, and T is the drive torque to the pump.

Figure 3-79 Comparison of pump characteristics

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A. Gear Pump: Displaces the fluid around a housing between teeth of meshing gears. The
meshing teeth provide a seal and the fluid is displaced from the inlet to the outlet (high pressure
side) along the non-meshing side of the gears.
The liquid volume trapped between the pairs of teeth in each gear is transported around by the
two gear wheels from the low-pressure side to high-pressure side.
Only moderate to low pressure can be realized by gear pumps because the volume changes that
take place are small and because fluid leakage between teeth and housing can be considerable.
Gear pumps are robust and low-cost devices, which are the most commonly used hydraulic
pumps.

Figure 3-80 Gear pump

B. Vane Pump: Displaces the fluid between vanes guided in rotor slots riding against the
housing and vane guide. For a constant motor speed, the output displacement can be varied by
moving the shaft vertically relative to the housing (therefore adjusting the rotor eccentricity).
The liquid volume trapped between two vanes is transported around from the low-pressure side
to high-pressure side.
Can deliver much higher liquid volume (and pressure) than gear pumps.
A disadvantage of any rotating device with eccentricity is the centrifugal forces are generated
even while rotating at constant speed Dynamic balancing is needed.

Figure 3-81 Vane pump

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C. Piston Pumps:
Higher outlet pressures can be achieved using piston pumps, but are relatively expensive.
Common types of piston pumps are:
Swash Plate Piston Pump: This pump has a rotating cylinder containing pistons. A
spring pushes the pistons against a stationary swash plate, which sits at an angle to the
cylinder. The pistons suck in fluid during half a revolution and push fluid out during the
other half. The displacement can be changed simply by changing the angle of the fixed
swash plate.

Figure 3-82 Swash plate piston pump

Figure 3-83 Swash plate piston pump: close up

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Wobble Plate Piston Pump: This pump has pistons in a stationary block, and a
rotating wobble plate. There might be 4, 5, or more pistons (usually an odd number are
used for smooth hydraulic balance). Each piston has a valve within it and another valve
behind it. Fluid comes in on the wobble plate side and exits under pressure in the back.
The pistons are pushed against the wobble plate with large springs. A pair of smaller
springs force the valves (small metal balls) closed. This type of pump can develop
incredible pressure - 10,000 psi or more. It is commonly used for low-volume
applications.

Figure 3-84 Wobble plate piston pump

Bent Axis Piston Pump: In this pump, the pistons are at an angle to the drive shaft and
Thrust Plate. The piston block shaft is connected to the drive shaft by a universal joint
(not shown). The drive shaft, thrust plate, piston block shaft, and piston block all
revolve. The connecting rods are attached to the thrust plate and revolve with it, unlike
the swash plate pump where the piston rods slide past a stationary swash plate.

Figure 3-85 Bent axis piston pump

Radial Piston Pump: This pump can produce a very smooth flow under extreme
pressure. Generally they are variable-displacement pumps. In variable models, flow rate
changes when the shaft holding the rotating pistons is moved with relation to the casing
(in different models either the shaft or the casing moves.) Output can also be varied by
changing the rotation speed. The pistons are usually forced out by springs. They are
forced back in, expelling liquid, by the casing.

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Figure 3-86 Radial piston pump

3.2.1.2 Hydraulic Valves

Fluid valves can perform three basic functions:
1. Change the flow direction
2. Change the flow rate
3. Change the fluid pressure
The valves that accomplish the first two functions are termed flow-control valves. The valves
that regulate the fluid pressure are termed pressure-control valves.
Two main classifications:
(i) Infinite position valve that allows any position between open and closed to modulate
flow or pressure, and
(ii) Finite position valve that has discrete positions, usually just open and closed, each
providing a different pressure or flow conditions
Common types of valves are:
(i) Pressure control valves which regulate the pressure of the hydraulic fluid: e.g., relief
valve
(ii) Flow control valves which match the hydraulic fluid's flow with the requirements of
the system: e.g., directional valve (check valve) and on/off valve (poppet valve)

4/3 Valves:

Figure 3-87 4/3 valve

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Figure 3-88 (a) Check valve (directional), (b) Poppet valve (bidirectional), (c) Relief valve

Spool Valves:
Used extensively in hydraulic servo systems.
The moving unit of the valve is called the spool, which consists of a spool rod and one or more
expanded regions called the lands.
In higher-power fluid systems, two valve stages consisting of a pilot valve and a main valve
(spool) can be used: the pilot valve is a low-power valve, which operates the higher-capacity
main valve.

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Figure 3-89 Spool valve

Figure 3-90 Pilot-operated spool valve

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Figure 3-91 Open-loop spool-valve control of a hydraulic actuator

3.2.1.3 Hydraulic Actuators

Rotary hydraulic actuators (hydraulic motors) operate similarly to the hydraulic pumps, except
that the direction of flow is reversed and the mechanical power is delivered by a shaft: High-
pressure fluid enters the actuator Fluid power turns the motor and the pressure is dropped.

Figure 3-92 An industrial robot that employs hydraulic motors

Rectilinear hydraulic actuators (hydraulic ram or piston-cylinder actuator):

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1. Single-acting actuator: Held in one position by pressure and returned to the other
position by a spring or by the weight of the load pressure present in only one
side.
2. Double-acting actuator: Pressure drives the piston in both directions pressure
present in on both sides.

Figure 3-93 Single-acting and double-acting piston-cylinder hydraulic actuator

Figure 3-94 Variable of a double-acting piston-cylinder hydraulic actuator

Figure 3-95 Cross section of a commercial piston-cylinder hydraulic actuator

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Figure 3-96 Example mechanisms driven by a hydraulic cylinder

3.2.1.4 General comments

Advantages:
One of the main advantages of hydraulic actuators is that these systems can deliver a great deal
of power compared to their actuator inertia. Other aspects, which make a hydraulic actuator
useful are the low compressibility of hydraulic fluids and, the high stiffness which leads to an
associated high natural frequency and rapid response. This means that the robot using hydraulic
actuators can execute quick movements with great force. Additionally they tend to be reliable
and mechanically simplistic as well as having a low noise level, and relatively safe during
operation. As for this method of actuation, design characteristics are well known so the process
of design is made easier due to this extent of knowledge. In summary,
1. Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant, in addition to carrying away heat generated in the
system to a convenient heat exchanger.
2. Comparatively small sized hydraulic actuators can develop large forces or torques.
3. Hydraulic actuators have a higher speed or response with fast starts, stops, and speed
reversals.
4. Hydraulic actuators can be operated under continuous, intermittent, reversing, and stalled
conditions without damage.
5. Because of low leakage in hydraulic actuators (compared to pneumatic actuators), speed
drop when loads are applied is small.

Disadvantages:
One of the larger concerns with hydraulic systems is the containment of the fluid within the
actuation system. Not only is this because of the contamination of the surrounding environment,
but the leakage can also contaminate the oil and possibly lead to damage of interior surfaces.
Additionally, the hydraulic fluid is flammable and pressurized so leaks could pose an extreme
hazard to equipment and personnel. This adds the undesirable aspect of additional maintenance
to maintain a clean sealed system. Other drawbacks include lags in the control of the system due
to the transmission lines and oil viscosity changes from temperature. In fact, such temperature
changes in the fluid can be drastic enough to form vapor bubbles when combined with the
changes in fluid pressure in a phenomena called cavitation (causes a drop in the performance of
the system). In summary,
1. Hydraulic power is not readily available compared to electrical power.

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2. Cost of a hydraulic system may be higher than a comparable electrical system performing
a similar function.
3. Fire and explosion hazards exist unless fire-resistant fluids are used.
4. Because it is difficult to maintain a hydraulic system that is free from leaks, the system
tends to be messy.
5. Contaminated oil may cause failure in the proper functioning of a hydraulic system.
6. As a result of the nonlinear and other complex characteristics involved, the design of
sophisticated hydraulic system is quite involved.
7. Hydraulic circuits have generally poor damping characteristics. If a hydraulic circuit is
not designed properly, some unstable phenomena may occur or disappear, de pending on
the operating condition.

Additional Comments:
Particular attention is necessary to ensure that the hydraulic system is stable and satisfactory
under all operating conditions. Since the viscosity of hydraulic fluid can greatly affect damping
and fiction effects of the hydraulic circuits, stability tests must be carried out at the highest
possible operating temperature.
Note that most hydraulic systems are nonlinear. For some actuators and their operating ranges,
it is possible to linearize the equations so as to reduce their complexity and permit solutions that
are sufficiently accurate for most purposes.

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3.2.1.5 Hydraulic Control Systems and Basic Equations

The main components of a hydraulic control system are:

A. Valve (or servovalve):

Figure 3-97 A four way spool valve

The valve equation is inherently nonlinear. However, the linearized valve equation at an
operating point can be written as:

Q kq U k c P or q kq u kc p

where:
Q1 Q2
Q is the average volume flow rate into the hydraulic actuator,
2
P P2 P1 is the pressure difference on the piston of the hydraulic actuator,
Q Q
kq is the flow gain and k c is the flow-pressure coefficient.
U P P U
P kq
Note further that k p is called the pressure sensitivity.
U Q kc

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B. Hydraulic actuator:

Figure 3-98 Double-acting piston-cylinder hydraulic actuator

Thelinearizedincrementalhydraulicactuatorequationatanoperatingpointis:

d U V d P dy V dp
Q A or q A
dt 2 dt dt 2 dt

Q
where: is called the bulk modulus (inverse of fluid compressibility, measured at a
U P
constant temperature).

C. Load:
Considering an incremental motions Y aboutanoperatingpoint,thelinearizedincremental
load equation is:

d2 Y d Y d2y dy
m b A P FL or m b Ap fL
dt 2 dt dt 2 dt

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D. Feedback control element:

Figure 3-99 (a) Block diagram for an open-loop hydraulic control system, (b) equivalent block
diagram

Hydraulic time constant in the natural pressure feedback path: related to the compressibility
and the volume (capacitance) of the fluid.
Mechanical time constant (dominant) in the natural velocity feedback path: related to inertia
and energy dissipation (damping)

Figure 3-100 A computer controlled hydraulic system

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Figure 3-101 A closed-loop hydraulic system

A general control law can be written as follows:

u u ref f ( y ) if the controller is in the feedback path

u f (u ref y ) if the controller is in the forward path

7.2.1.4 Hydraulic (and Pneumatic) Circuits

Figure 3-102 Standard graphical symbols used in hydraulic circuit diagrams

3.2.2 Pneumatic Actuators

See the handout.

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3.2.3 Fluidics
The term fluidics, also known as fluidic logic or fluid electronics, represents sensing, signal
conditioning, and control accomplished by the interaction of streams of fluid (such as water or
air):
Features: small size, no moving mechanical parts, highly reliable.
First introduced by the U.S. Army engineers in 1959 as a possible replacement for electronics,
particularly in hostile environments (e.g., corrosive, electromagnetic, radioactive, shock and
vibration, high-temperature).
Applications: aircraft, aerospace, manufacturing, and process control industries, particularly as
back up systems. Specific examples: valve control for hydraulic/pneumatic actuated robotic
joints and end effectors, controllers for pneumatic power tools, braking systems, space sensors,
timing devices for household appliances, etc.
Two types of fluidic components:
1. Analog fluidic components for analog systems: e.g., fluidic motion sensors
2. Digital fluidic components for logical circuits: e.g. switches, logic gates and amplifiers

Figure 3-103 Fluidic AND gate

Figure 3-104 Fluidic motion sensors: (a) Angular displacement sensor, (b) Laminar angular
speed sensor

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Figure 3-105 Fluidic amplifier

Figure 3-106 Microfluidic applications: miniature biomedical and chemical sensors

A jet of fluid can be deflected by a weaker jet striking it at the side. This provides non-linear
amplification, similar to the transistor used in electronic digital logic. It is used mostly in
environments where electronic digital logic would be unreliable (e.g., systems exposed to high
levels of electromagnetic interference or ionizing radiation).

To build a flip-flop, a nozzle is directed at a Y junction. A laminar flow of fluid will stick to one
of the two sides. Weaker jets coming in from either side of the Y junction can switch the state of
the flip flop.

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