MAE 4242 AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL

Longitudinal Static Stability

(Nelson: 2.3)
Yongki Go

Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering

Longitudinal Static Stability Criterion
Equilibrium/Trimmed Flight
Flight stability is assessed from equilibrium/trimmed flight
conditions
In trimmed flight:
Force on horizontal
tails and elevators
Wing force
Fuselage
force Force on vertical
tail and rudder
Thrust
CG Wing force
Force on
canards Thrust
F 0
Weight M 0
Flight static stability concerns with the initial rotational
motion tendency of the aircraft when disturbed from
trimmed flight
Affected by after disturbance
Aircraft Pitching Moment
Steady pitching moment of aircraft (M) about its CG is
mainly affected by angle of attack () and elevator
deflection (e)
M ( , e ) or Cm ( , e ) in general
Typically expressed using first-order Taylor series (linear):
Cm Cm
Cm ( , e ) Cm0 Cm Cm e Cm Cm
e e
e
When aircraft is in longitudinal flight equilibrium at angle
of attack e at elevator deflection e : 0

or Cm ( e , e ) 0
0

The change in pitching moment due to changes in and e:

Cm ( , e ) Cm Cm e
e
Stick-Fixed Pitching Moment
Stick-fixed condition: control is held fixed at its trim setting
Corresponding to the situation where the pilot holds the
control at a fixed setting required to trim
Stability is property of aircraft and should be analyzed
under no control input/correction
In stick-fixed case, often assume e = 0
dCm
Cm ( ) Cm0 Cm Cm
d
Cm
Cm0 Cm0 : pitching moment coefficient
trim point when =

0 e Cm
Longitudinal Static Stability Definition
Longitudinal static stability concerns with the initial
pitching-moment response tendency after an angle-of-attack
disturbance
Longitudinal statically stable aircraft generates restoring
pitching moment opposite to the angle-of-attack disturbance
If the restoring pitching moment is in the same direction as the
disturbance, aircraft is statically unstable longitudinally
Desired Restoring Moment(-Mcg
M ( ))

V (-
Displacement a() )
V

(+a() )
Disturbance

M ())
Desired Restoring Moment (+Mcg
Longitudinal Static Stability Criterion
Pitching-moment response to angle-of-attack disturbance:
Cm ( ) Cm
Cm has opposite sign to for longitudinal static stability
Criterion for longitudinal static stability:
dCm
Cm 0
d
Pitching-moment curve for statically stable aircraft:

Cm
Degree of Longitudinal Static Stability
The value of Cm determines the degree of the stability
More Cm indicates more longitudinally statically
stable aircraft
More stable aircraft generates larger restoring moment per unit
angle-of-attack disturbance
If everything else is equal, more stable aircraft is more resistant
to
Trim Point Issue
In trimmed flight, lift is needed to counter weight
For typical lift curve, trimmed lift is preferred to be at
positive
Based on linear Cm- model, for statically stable aircraft,
useful trim point requires Cm 0 0
CL
CLmax
Aircraft can be
trimmed here
CL0 CL

L 0 stall
Aircraft cannot be
trimmed here

CL CL ( L 0 )
~ CL CL CL
0
CL0
Alternative Criterion
Longitudinal static stability criterion can also be developed
from Cm-CL relationship
dCm dCm
Cm CL
d dCL
Since CL 0, the criterion for longitudinal static stability
can be expressed equivalently as: dCm C 0
0 ~ m
dCL
Note: Cm-CL curve can also be
approximated using a straight
line before stall:
dCm
Cm CmL0 CL
dCL
Variation in Static Stability
At high : Cm- (or Cm-CL) curve may vary nonlinearly
Static stability properties of aircraft at high may differ than
its static stability properties at low
In extreme cases, there may be stability reversal at high
Aircraft may be statically stable at low but become unstable at
high

unstable
less stable
neutral
Contribution of Aircraft Components to
Longitudinal Static Stability
Contribution of Aircraft Components (1)
Contribution of each aircraft component to the whole
aircrafts pitching moment can be studied using a technique
similar to component buildup approach
In component buildup approach, total aircraft pitching
moment is estimated by summing the contributions from
aircraft components
M cg M cg w M cgt M cg f M cg p
or Cmcg Cmcg Cm cg Cm cg Cm cg
w t f p

Not exact, but relatively simple and useful to gain physical

insight
Such approach is also used for estimating total lateral-
directional moments of aircraft
Contribution of Aircraft Components (2)
If Cm ( ) Cm Cm , then component contributions to Cm
0 0

and Cm :
Cm0 Cm0 Cm 0 Cm 0 Cm 0
w t f p

Cm Cm Cm Cm Cm
w t f p

Illustration:
Example 3.1: Horizontal Tail Requirement (1)
Wing-fuselage pitching-moment combination characteristics
of a single-engine conventional airplane:
Cm Cm Cm 0.05 0.0035 ; in degs
cg wf 0wf wf

The desired pitching moment characteristics of the complete

airplane (assume contribution from wing-fuselage and tail
only): Cm Cm Cm 0.15 0.025 ; in degs
cg 0

Determine the pitching moment requirement of the

horizontal tail
Solution: Using component build-up approach:
Cmcg Cmcg Cmcg
wf t

Cmcg Cm0 Cm (Cm0 Cm ) (Cm0 Cm )

t t t wf wf
Example 3.1: Horizontal Tail Requirement (2)

Cm0 Cm0 Cm0 0.15 (0.05)

t wf

Cm Cm Cm 0.025 (0.0035)
t wf

Cmcg 0.20 0.0215 ; in degs

t
Wing Contribution (1)
Wing contribution to aircraft pitching moment comes from
its lift, drag, and moment Note: == aircraft FRL
iw: incidence angle of the wing
wrt FRL

(FRL)
CG

Wing mean aerodynamic chord ( c )

Pitching moment about CG:

M cg w Lw cos( w iw )[ xcg xac ] Dw sin( w iw )[ xcg xac ]
Lw sin( w iw ) zcg Dw cos( w iw ) zcg M acw
Wing Contribution (2)

Dividing by 12 V 2 Sc qc :
xcg xac xcg xac
Cmcg CLw cos( w iw ) CDw sin( w iw )
c c c c
w

zcg zcg
CLw sin( w iw ) CDw cos( w iw ) Cmac
c c w

Assume small angles: cos w iw 1 sin w iw 0

Typically: CL w
CDw
Neglect vertical offset from CG:
xcg xac
Cmcg Cmac CLw
c c
w w
Wing Contribution (3)

By considering linear lift curve:

w w

Cmcg Cmac CL0w CL w
w
xcg xac

c

c


This equation can be written in the form:
Cmcg Cm0 Cm w Cmcg
w
w w w

xcg xac Cm0

w

where: Cm Cmac CL0

c c
0w w w Cm
w

xcg xac w
Cm CL
w w
c c e
Wing Contribution (4)
For a wing-alone to be statically stable:
xcg xac
Cm CL 0
c c
w w

xcg xac

Wings aerodynamic center must lie aft of the CG

To trim wing-alone at positive :
xcg xac
Cm0 Cmac CL0 0
c c
w w w

Typically Negative for

Cmac must be strongly positive
w

Note: conventional airfoils typically have Cm acw

0
Wing Contribution (5)
Wing contribution to aircraft longitudinal static stability
depends upon:
wings ac position relative to aircrafts CG
xcg xac
sign of Cmw CLw stabilizing or destabilizing
c c
xcg xac
xcg xac
wings airfoil camber
Cmac affecting Cm 0w
trim
w

Conventional wing typically has positive camber

Cmac 0 Tend to bring the value of Cm0w smaller or
w
more negative
Special Case (1)

For flying wing or tail-less aircraft, the wing should be

designed to ensure longitudinal static stability and trim
condition:
For longitudinal static stability: ac must be aft of CG
to ensure
For longitudinal trim: must have Cm 0 0w

Use reflexed type of airfoil (negative camber)

Cmac Cmac
w w

Conventional airfoil Reflexed airfoil

Cmac 0
w
Special Case (2)
Use specific wing configuration that generates Cm 0
0w

Example: swept-back wing with twisted tips

CG

Pitching moment balance can be

achieved at positive to trim the
wing:
Moment
from +Lift
CG Moment
from Lift
Example 3.2: Wing Contribution Calculation (1)
From Nelson, Example 2.2:

Assume span efficiency factor = 1

Determine the wing contribution to pitching moment for

this airplane at the given flight condition
Example 3.2: Wing Contribution Calculation (2)
Solution:
cl
CL With the assumption of e1 = :
cl
1
e1 AR
Example 3.2: Wing Contribution Calculation (3)
xcg xac
Cm0 Cmac CL0
c c
w w w
Horizontal Tail Contribution (1)
Horizontal tail is affected by flow field due to wing

Because of downwash, local

angle of attack at the
horizontal tail is lower than

The magnitude of downwash at the tail depends on the

location of the tail with respect to the wing
Horizontal Tail Contribution (2)

downwash
angle

it: incidence angle of the horizontal

tail wrt FRL (tail setting angle)
Angle of attack of aircraft:
Angle of attack at tail: t it w iw it
Assume small angles and neglect drag contribution:
Lw Lt L Lw Lt
Wing Tail
12 Vw2 SCLw 12 Vt 2 St CLt
W
Horizontal Tail Contribution (3)
Divide both sides with Vw2 S :
1
2
St
CL CLw CLt
S
Vt 2 qt
1
where: 2
Called tail efficiency
Vw qw
1
2
2
Range of values: 0.8-1.2

qt qw if the tail is located in the wake region of wing/fuselage

momentum loss
qt qw if the tail is located in the slipstream of propeller or in the
exhaust wake of a jet engine
momentum
Horizontal Tail Contribution (4)

Pitching moment due to tail:

M cgt lt Lt cos( ) Dt sin( )
zcgt Dt cos( ) Lt sin( ) M act
Assuming small angles, Lt Dt , , negligible M act :
M cgt lt Lt lt 12 Vt 2 St CLt
Horizontal Tail Contribution (5)
M cgt lt St
Nondimensionalizing: Cm CLt VH CLt
cgt
V 2 Sc
1
2 c S
lS horizontal tail
where: VH t t
cS volume ratio
Assuming CL 0 at t 0: (Reasonable assumption as tails airfoil is
t

CLt usually )
CLt CL t
t
CL
t
CL w iw it
t

t
The downwash angle can be expressed as:
d
0 w 0: downwash at
d
2CL d 2CL
For elliptical lift distribution: w
w

ARw d ARw
Horizontal Tail Contribution (6)
d
Combining: Cm VH CL 0 iw it VH CL 1 w
cgt t t
d
This equation can be put in the form:
Cm
Cmcg Cm0 Cm w cgt Cm0
t
t t t

where: Cm0 VH CL 0 iw it Cm
t
t t
w
d
Cm VH CL 1
t t
d

These equations can be used to set and size the horizontal

tail to meet the aircraft static stability and
Horizontal Tail Contribution (7)
Horizontal tail setting and sizing:
To achieve certain degree of aircraft longitudinal static
stability (Cm ): adjust Cm by adjusting VH and CL
t t
VH is set by adjusting lt and St
CL is set by adjusting tail AR
t

To ensure aircraft trimming at positive (Cm0 0): adjust Cm0t

by adjusting it
More negative it more positive Cm0t
Example 3.3: Horizontal Tail Contribution (1)
For the airplane in Example 3.2, determine the horizontal
tail contribution to pitching moment for the given flight
condition (assume elliptical tail-lift distribution)
Solution:
cl
CL With the assumption of e1 = :
cl
1
e1 AR

2CLw

ARw
d 2CL
w

d ARw
Example 3.3: Horizontal Tail Contribution (2)
Cm0 VH CL 0 iw it
t t

d
Cm VH CL 1
t t
d
Example 3.4: Horizontal Tail Setting & Sizing (1)
Geometric and aerodynamic data of the single-engine
airplane in Example 3.1 are given below:
S 178 ft 2 AR 7.3 iw 2.0
b 35.9 ft CL 0.07 / deg xcg c 0.1
w

c 5.0 ft CL0 0.26

w

For the horizontal tail: lt 14.75 ft ARt 4.85

1 CL 0.073 / deg
t

Estimate horizontal tail area and tail incidence angle to

achieve airplane stability and trim properties as calculated
in Example 3.1
Solution: From Example 3.1:
Cm 0.20 0.0215
cgt
; in degs
Example 3.4: Horizontal Tail Setting & Sizing (2)
d Cm
From: Cm VH CL 1 VH t

d d
CL 1
t t

t
d
Assuming elliptical lift distribution:
d 2CL 2(0.07)
w

d ARw (7.3)
Cm 0.0215
VH t
0.453
d 1(0.073)(1 0.35)
CLt 1
d
By definition:
c SVH (0.453)(178)(5)
St 27.3 ft 2
lt 14.75
Example 3.4: Horizontal Tail Setting & Sizing (3)
Cm0
From: it t
iw 0
VH CL
t
Assuming elliptical lift distribution:
2CL0 2(0.26)
0 0.0226 rad 1.3
ARw (7.3)
Cm0 0.20
it t
iw 0 2.0 1.3 2.7
VH CL 1(0.453)(0.073)
t
Canard Contribution (1)
Canard contribution to longitudinal static stability can be
derived in similar way as horizontal tail
Canard is located ahead of the wing
Differences between canard and horizontal tail contribution:
Canard is affected by upwash instead of downwash
Upwash effect is usually smaller than downwash

canard downwash
Canard Contribution (2)
Canard produces positive lift (desirable) to counter the wings
nose-down pitching moment, while horizontal tail generally
produces negative lift (down force, reduces total lift)

CG
Conventional configuration

CG
Canard Configuration
Canard contribution to longitudinal static stability is
destabilizing, while horizontal tail tends to be stabilizing
Not a severe limitation, since CG location can be adjusted to
achieve the desired static stability
Fuselage Contribution (1)
The primary function of fuselage: to provide room for
payloads, e.g. passengers and cargo
Not for aerodynamic reason
The goal for the shape of fuselage: to get sufficient internal
volume at minimum drag
Typically a body for which the length is larger than the width
or height
The width and height are often on the same order of magnitude
(many designs used a circular cross-section)
For analysis of fuselage contribution to longitudinal static
stability: use aerodynamic slender body theory
Mf
Lf = D f = 0 Munks theory (neglect viscosity
Mf =/0 and assume ideal fluid):

f volume, 12 V 2
dM f
d
Fuselage Contribution (2)
Multhopps method (extension of Munks theory) for
fuselage in subsonic flow:
Cm f Cm0 Cm
f f

k2 k1 l

f

f 0w i f dx
2
where: Cm0 w
f
36.5Sc 0

1 l f 2 u
Cm wf dx (deg 1 )
f
36.5Sc 0
k2 k1 x l

f
w f 0w i f x
2
Approximation: Cm 0f
36.5Sc x 0

1 x l f 2 u
Cm wf x (deg 1 )
f
36.5Sc x 0
0 : wing zero-lift angle wrt fuselage reference line
w
 Fuselage Contribution (3)
Parameter/variable definitions:

Average lf (l_f/w_fmax)
width of
fuselage Length of Fuselage total
increment fuselage length
increment

(FRL)

Incidence of fuselage
camber line wrt FRL;
Negative for nose droop
and aft upsweep
Fuselage Contribution (4)
(de/dalpha)=(2*C_Laphaw)/(pi*AR_w)

u
: change in local flow angle
with angle of attack
Fuselage Contribution (5)
Figure 2-13:

u
(b) vs. x
u

u
(a) vs. xi

xi x
or
C C
Fuselage Contribution (6)
Some notes about fuselage contribution:
For symmetric uncambered fuselage with a_ :
Cm0 0 0
f

Contribution to aircraft longitudinal static stability is typically

destabilizing
Typically: Cm 0
f
Example 3.5: Fuselage Contribution Calculation (1)
For the airplane in Example 3.2, determine its fuselage
contribution to pitching moment in the given condition
Solution:

lf

w fmax
Example 3.5: Fuselage Contribution Calculation (2)

k2 k1 x l

f
w f 0w i f x
2
Cm0
f
36.5Sc x 0

C_m= -0.037
Example 3.5: Fuselage Contribution Calculation (3)

1 x l f 2 u
Cm wf x (deg 1 )
f
36.5Sc x 0
Power Effects (1)
The propulsion unit can have significant effect on the
longitudinal trim and static stability of aircraft
The effects depend on the type of propulsion (turboprop,
turbojet, turbofan, etc.) and the propulsion configuration (inlet
location, outlet location, thrust line, etc.)
Effect can be quite complex and hard to evaluate
Power effects on longitudinal static stability:
Direct effect: caused by the propulsive forces
Indirect effect: caused by the induced flow field
Power Effects (2)
Direct power effects: depend mainly on propulsive unit
location on aircraft
Thrust line effects (important for longitudinal trim):
Power Effects (3)
Propeller/inlet normal force (important for longitudinal static
stability):
Normal force is usually
proportional with

This illustration shows destabilizing normal force

Propeller/inlet behind cg is usually stabilizing

Power Effects (4)
Example: Differences of propeller/pusher effect

Usually increases with

Stabilizing
Destabilizing
Power Effects (5)
Indirect power effects (affects trim and static stability):
For propeller aircraft: due to propeller slipstream passing over
wing or tail surfaces

For jet aircraft: due to jet-induced flow

Total Aircraft Pitching Moment (1)
Analysis simplifications taken in this course:
Thrust vectors pass through cg
No pitching moment contribution due to thrust
Drag contribution to pitching moment can be neglected
Other power effects are ignored L_t
L_w
M act
act
M acw
acw CG
xcg

xac lt

Cmcg Cmw Cm f Cmt

Total Aircraft Pitching Moment (2)
Total aircraft pitching moment expressions (assume w ):
Cm Cm Cm
cg 0

where: Cm Cm Cm Cm
0 0 0
w 0 f t

Cm Cm Cm Cm
w f t

Reminder:
Cm0 determines aircraft longitudinal trim point
Cm determines aircraft longitudinal static stability
Depends upon CG position and aircraft aerodynamic
characteristics
Example 3.6: Total Aircraft Pitching Moment (1)
Determine the total pitching moment for the airplane in
Example 3.2 in the given flight condition and indicate
whether the airplane is trimmable and longitudinally
statically stable
Solution:
Cm0 Cm0 Cm0 Cm0 0.099 0.037 0.194 0.058
w f t

Cm Cm Cm Cm 0.1935 0.12 1.42 0.5065 rad 1

w f t

Cmcg Cm0 Cm Cmcg 0.058 0.5065

Cm0 0 airplane is trimmable

Cm 0 airplane is statically stable
Example 3.6: Total Aircraft Pitching Moment (2)
Graphical summary of the pitching moment contribution:
Stick-Fixed Neutral Point (1)
Neutral point (NP): cg location where Cm 0
Stick-fixed NP: NP estimated based on stick-fixed condition

The horizontal tail parameters can be assumed fixed at the trim

condition in stick-fixed analysis

xNP xac d
C_maplha=0 CL Cm VH CL 1 0
w
c c f t
d
xNP xac Cm f CL d
VH t
1
c c CL
w
CL
w
d

Neutral point is essentially aerodynamic center of the

whole aircraft
Stick-Fixed Neutral Point (2)
Aircraft changes from statically stable to unstable or vice
versa as CG moves past the NP
When CG moves aft of the neutral point, longitudinal static
instability occurs

Neutral point provides of allowable cg movement

for longitudinal static stability
Static Margin (1)
Static margin (SM): normalized distance between neutral
point and CG
xNP xcg
SM stick-fixed
c c
The sign indicates whether CG is located forward or aft of NP
For longitudinal static stability:
SM stick-fixed 0
The value of SMstick-fixed describes the degree of longitudinal
static stability
The more positive SMstick-fixed is, the more forward CG is
located from NP
Statically
Static Margin (2)
From NP location formulation:
xNP xac Cm f CL d
VH t
1
c c CL CL
w w
d
From Cm formulation:
xcg xac d
Cm CL Cm f VH CLt 1
w
c c d
xcg Cm xac Cm f CL d
VH t
1
c CL c CL CL d
w w w
Therefore:
xNP xcg Cm dCm
SM stick-fixed
c c CL dCL
w

Consistent with the static stability criterion previously shown

Static Margin (3)
Typical values of SMstick-fixed:
Aircraft Type Static Margin
Cessna 172 0.19
Learjet 35 0.13
Boeing 747 0.27
North American P-51 Mustang 0.05
Convair F-106 0.07
General Dynamics F-16A (early) 0.02
General Dynamics F-16C 0.01
Grumman X-29 0.33
Example 3.7: NP and SM Calculation
Determine the location of the stick-fixed NP and stick-fixed
SM of the airplane in Example 3.2
Solution:
xNP xac Cm f CL d
Stick-fixed NP: VH t
1
c c CL
w
CL
w
d

Stick-fixed SM:

SM stick-fixed 0.55 0.295 0.255