Vol 3 No 1 - March 2014

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Vol.3 No.1
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VOLUME 3 NUMBER 1 March 2014
Table of Contents
Study of the Conceptions Related to Learning of Complex Concepts: The Case of the Ecosystem ............................ 1
Lamjed Messoussi, Andr Giordan and Mohamed Hdi El Aouni
A Comparison of Experimental Designs for Assessment and Research in Higher Education ................................... 14
Jack T. Tessier, Nana-Yaw Andoh, Kristin DeForest, Matthew W. Juba, Akira Odani, John J. Padovani, Elizabeth F. Sova,
and Lisa M. Tessier
Designing Teaching Methods in Curriculum of Irans Higher Education based on Development of Social Capital
................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Forouzan Tonkaboni, Alireza Yousefy and Narges Keshtiaray
Autocratic and Participative Coaching Styles and Its Effects on Students Dance Performance .............................. 32
Desiree B. Castillo, Martina Alexandria V. Balibay, Jhuzel M. Alarcon, Justine M. Picar, Raniel R. Lampitoc, Ma.
Crizandra Baylon
Impact of Teacher-Gender on Primary Students Achievement: A Case Study at Bangladesh Standpoint ............. 45
Dr. Kazi Enamul Hoque and Mosa Fatema Zohora
Problem-Based Learning in Construction Engineering within a South African context ............................................. 69

Pauline Machika (Dr) and Chris Abrahams
Teaching Competency of Secondary School Teachers In Relation To Emotional Intelligence ................................... 83

Dr. Mandeep Kaur and Mrs. Arti Talwar
1
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-13, March 2014
Study of the Conceptions Related to Learning of

Complex Concepts: The Case of the Ecosystem
Lamjed Messoussi
University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia
Andr Giordan
University of Geneva, Switzerland
Mohamed Hdi El Aouni

University of Carthage, Tunisia
Abstract. To what extend does the apprehension of a so-called "systemic"

thought ensure success in the process of learning of complex concepts? That is
the main question underlying this didactic research. This study tries to
approach the conceptions of the teachers about the concept of the system and
its complexity, by emerging modes of reasoning and by identifying the
educational choices related to the learning styles. An approach to
categorization of conceptions is carried out; it highlights particular complexity
barriers in the case of the concept of the ecosystem. The analysis of educational
choices related to this teaching of the ecosystem can be used to develop hands-
on activities to introduce the systems approach as a didactic approach to the
teaching of the concept of the ecosystem.
Keywords: system, conceptions; complexity; ecosystem; systemic approach
Introduction
Ecology, this 'science of ecological systems' as described by specialists, has been
recognized by (Haeckel, 1866) as the science of the relationships between organisms
and the surrounding world, (Dajoz, 1983) it was defined as the science of knowledge
of the existence of interactions for (Buican, 1997) it was the science of the relationships
with the environment. Its history dates back to nearly 150 years, introduced many
inputs (concepts, methodology) to enable the understanding of the ecosystems, their
diversity, their structures and their functioning. According to conventional physics,
the second law of thermodynamics known as Carnot's principle states that any system
evolves in the direction of greater disorder. This principle is used to measure the
degree of disorder of a system at a microscopic level and applies only to closed
systems. Discoveries in biology have shown that any open system naturally evolves
into a more complex structure. The interaction "system - environment" can overcome
this apparent contradiction. In the case of the ecosystem, emerging concepts as
organization, order and Exchange, have been linked to translate a tangle and a layout
of connection, paving the way for the complexity, recognized in other areas such as
biology, sociology, economics, urbanization, organizations, etc. The complexity of
2
ecosystems cannot be understood without a comprehensive approach, taking into

account the interactions between components while keeping the overall unity of the
ecosystem; an approach based on the concept of system, so-called 'systemic approach',
allows to better understand the various aspects of the complexity.
In the field of education, the learning of the ecological concepts should, with
references to the prescribed lead to understand the complexity of the ecosystem.
However, do teachers have a conceptual approach, method, tools and techniques
sufficiently adequate for shaping and addressing this complexity?
The concept of a system: A complex concept

The idea of "system" is old; its use can be found in Arab science confused with the
notion of model or tool which is used in everyday life. Management of water and
irrigation of agricultural land, constituted a basis for reflection on the system model.
The premises
The relationship between the systemic approach and the concept of system were
reported by many specialists. De Rosnay (1975) considers that the systemic approach is
based on the concept of system." "This term often vague and ambiguous, [is] yet used today in
a growing number of disciplines because of its power of unification and integration. Since the
last century, Bertalanffy (1973) had sought to identify, in the General systems theory, the
common concepts of system and its properties, and proposed to define a system as ' a
complex of elements in interaction".". Taking this point of view, De Rosnay (1975) defines
a system by a collection of elements in dynamic interaction, organized around an objective .
Le Moigne (1983) considers a system as an object in an environment with goals, which

performs an activity and sees its internal structure evolving over time, yet without losing its
unique identity. Based on the concept of complementarily between the elements of the
system, the same author then defines a set of interacting components where the
modification of one of them causes the modification of all the others (This modification is
clearly based on the relationship and not on the elements) . Emphasis on the
interrelationships, Morin (1977), talks about ' An overall unit organized around
interrelationships between elements, actions, or individuals '.
Sketching the history of some of these definitions, Durand (1979) adds other
definitions of Linguistics, relating them either to a classic rationalist approach, or to
the systemic approach. This set of definition highlights the concept of the system
which can be summarized as follows (it is not an arithmetic sum, but the
characteristics of the interrelationships between elements):
(elt: element ;) Env: environment)

Which can be boiled down to:
System = set of structures + set of operating
Understanding a system takes into account the structural aspects (elements) and the
functional ones (interactions). Once one takes into account the interaction of new
properties, so-called emerging, appearing as the flow of dynamics, reorganization and
feedback, which gives the complexity of the concept of the system, the ecological
system does not escape from this perspective. Understanding this complexity through
3
a process of conceptualization and description of links. That is the subject of the

systems approach. What makes Le Moigne write in (1990) "the concept of the system,
understood as an intelligible and finalized tangle of interdependent actions, was quickly
adopted to describe the complexity".
Macy conferences, organized in New York by the 'Josiah Macy Foundation' at the
initiative of Warren McCulloch neurologist had met at regular intervals from 1942 to
1956 a group of specialists from various scientific backgrounds (mathematicians,
logicians, anthropologists psychologists and economists) and their work has been the
source of cybernetics and cognitive science, areas much used to the emergence of
systems. Until then scientific research based on the method of Descartes advocated
dividing and isolating each item or variable to be studied separately. With cybernetics
it is, not to deal with elements taken in isolation, but to seek links between these
elements, particularly through feedback. Already since the XXVII century, the
complementarily between the part and the whole was a main concern. Pascal (1669), in
his thoughts, part I, art. 6, said the flame cannot exist without air: therefore, to find the
one you need to know each other [...] I would not know the parts without knowing the
whole, nor to know the whole without knowing the specific parts ".
The systemic: science or art?

Walliser (1977) has engaged in an analysis for wondering about the scope and
limitations of the systems approach and make clarifications. Donnadieu & Karsky
(2002) evoke "the systemic exploration" as well as a practical conceptual approach, to
'think and to act in the complexity. The systemic appears as a methodology and an
approach that seeks to define a rational system design approach (physical, biological
or social) and analysis based on modeling. The challenges associated with the
complexity that the systemic attempts to answer, faces obstacles under the designs
around the notion of system, as well as those regarding didactics related to
educational choices.
The work of De Rosnay (1975); Walliser (1977); Le Moigne (1983); Durand (1979);
Giordan & Souchon (1991, 2008); Donnadieu & Karsky (2002), have helped to
conceptualize the systemic approach, its methods, its areas of application and its
analysis tools. Aracil (1984) has described, for its part, the evolution of the systems in
his Introduction to the dynamics of systems and even indicated that this dynamics was
based on models such as theorized and symbolized by Forrester.
Modeling is used in the systems approach as a means of conceptualization. One of the

modeling techniques based on the schematisations, which can be found in the
literature of the designations of the concept map type, introduced in the field of
education by Novak (1990, 1991) and in the field of didactics by Giordan & Febvre
(1990).
Conceptual analysis of this approach, Giordan & Souchon (2008) describe it as a

practical approach for " pass identification of major concepts to a conceptogramme and
clarify that in General," the systemic approach is much more a description and analysis of
situations, structures and processes'.
4
Centers of
Flow circulating decision
between reservoirs set of
element in
dynamic
interaction
Set formed of
whole
Limits and
elements
borders in the
environment
System
concept
Network of reservoirs of feedback

communication material, loops
and traffic energy and
information
Structural approach Functional approach
: trained of, : to show, : related to
Figure 1: representation concepts defining the notion of system networked
Slightly present in the literature, the term systemic approach tends to refer to an
educational dimension versus "systemic approach". In our case, we are actually
applying the ecosystem approach in the classroom, in order to build an instruction
based on scientific concepts functioning in system.
Issues and research methodology

If several authors have focused on analysis conceptions (Giordan, 1978; Giordan &
Martinand, 1988; Giordan, 2002, 1999; Giordan & Vecchi, 1987; Sanner, 1983) in
understanding the mechanisms that they under tend in learning; and on the
analysis of the issues of complexity (De Rosnay, 1975, Morin, 1977, 1990, 1999;
Donnadieu & Karsky, 2002) in connection with the ways of thinking, few references
are interested in interactions 'designs - complexity - learning '. On the educational
front, the usual modes of learning are to rethink to introduce the systemic approach.
This study chose to start with the main players in the process of teaching / learning:
teacher. Analysis of their designs, about the concept of system, could provide
information on their modes of reasoning. Similarly, analysis of educational tools
selected by the teachers for the teaching of the concept of ecosystem following training
on the systems approach can provide information on the degree of understanding of
systems thinking in the learning of complex concepts.
Beyond knowledge of the concept of system alone, this study sought to see the degree
of influence related to this concept in the process of learning and especially if the only
apprehension of systemic thought enough for learning of complex concepts. Works
such as those of Giordan & Souchon (2008) developed the systems approach as a
conceptual framework for the study of complex ecological concepts, that of sustainable
development. Morin (1990) stresses that a disciplinary barrier prevents the assumption
of multidimensionality. Relevant training and a practical guide available to teacher
teaching resources to integrate the aspect of 'complexity' in learning.
5
Research on the conceptions of the teachers in connection with the systemic approach,
the following research questions have been put forward in the below statements:
1. Doesnt the notion of system appear in the teachers concepts as a limited frame
with a structural dominance?
2. An education based on a teaching approach that is systemic allows a better
understanding of the complexity of the ecosystem concept? A complementary
training, predominantly "functional" would be more relevant?
The methodology was of a qualitative type, it relies on semi-structured questionnaires.
The structuring of the results is based on grids per items which allow to group
responses to the various questionnaires.
The questionnaires were made up by the following questions:

A system consists of elements interacting.
What is a system for you (Question 1)?
Examples of systems (Question 2)?
How does a system work (Question 3)?
What are the types of interactions in a system (Question 4)?
What are the relationships between the parties and the system
(Question 5)?
A system is in relationship with its environment:
What are the nature, extent and density Exchange (Question 6)? What
are the sensors in place (Question 6b)?
Y' there the boundaries between a system and its environment
(Question 7)?
A system meets the disruptions that it receives from its environment. These
disturbances modify the structure of the system (Question 8)?
If so, how?
If not, why?
In the post-test questionnaire we have added the following questions:
What is a systemic approach for you (Question 9)?
How is it different from the classical approach (Question 10)?
Beyond these issues, the study focused also on the modes of reasoning in relation to
the concept of system in various areas of biology to the economy, and on the degree of
involvement in the understanding of complexity. The study focused on teachers of
SVT (life and Earth Science) 2nd year secondary Tunisian (17-19 years old) concerned
with the teaching of the ecosystem. It is held during the school years 2008 / 2009 and
2009 / 2010. Pre-test questionnaires, conducted respectively with two groups: 19
teachers (Group 1) and 17 teachers (Group 2) of the Regional Directorate of Tunis 2
education.
A training for teachers on the systemic approach took place in the same meeting, after
the responses to the questionnaires. It focused on the basis of the systemic approach,
its basic concepts, his educational contributions and some application domains.
Practical examples were discussed. At the end of the training session, teachers were
asked to apply the systems approach in a class situation during the teaching of the
concept of the ecosystem, the didactic framework aimed at enabling students to build
an instruction based on scientific concepts in operating in a system?.
6
At a second meeting, post-test questionnaires were conducted with the teachers of the
same groups. A sheet of the teaching tools used in class, by each of the teachers of the
group, described the chosen tool and its benefits. An interview was conducted with
some teachers of each group on the issues listed in the pre-test and post-test to
complement the written replies. In the descriptive profiles, and to determine the
degree of understanding of the systems approach as a pedagogical choice by teachers,
the following issues were raised.
Where/which of the following teaching tools have you used in the classroom for the
teaching of the concept of ecosystem (Question 1)?
-A concept map or a conceptogramme
-A folder prepared by each student on a theme chosen in advance
-Output on the field with the students in the class
-A debate in class from a specific document or topic
-Another tool, to describe
Describe the benefits of the educational tool that you used in the classroom: how did
they allow you to help students understand the ecosystem, the network relationship
between the components, the hierarchy of relationships, the exchange with the
environment (Question 2)?
Can you describe the contributions of the schematisations compared to other
educational tools in the teaching of the ecological concepts (Question 3)?
Which are the most successful teaching educational tools you can use according to the
systemic approach ecological concepts (Question 4)?
Selected teaching tool:
Justify your choice:
Our approaches to analysis are supplemented by a grid that allows you to

categorize the replies to the questionnaires and analysis of educational choices,
either in the structural approach or in the functional approach (see figure 2).
Analysis of the conceptions

questionnaire of Questionnaire of
pre-test post-test
1.System concept (definition, The processes 1.Identification of conceptual change
Operating modes, interactions) (structural and functional aspects )
2.Systme / environnement
Relationship (borders, exchange,
balance,) 2.Research favorable / unfavorable
3.System and regulation Analysis factors of the complexity
(dynamic, reorganization, 3.Identification of modes of
complexity,) Mthodology reasoning (emergent properties of
the system, systemic approach
The approaches
and complexity,)
Index cards
pedagogical
1. Analysis of educational choices for
teaching ecosystem (field trip on the
ground, conceptogramme, debate, )
Research for new Research of educational objectives bound
educational culture to choices (global vision, understanding of
the complexity, research of links,)
3.Identification of modes of thinking
(systemic approach and pedagogical choice)
Based on Related to
Figure 2: analysis approaches and methodologies being used

7
Conceptions and modes of reasoning systems: previous barriers highlighted

These studies showed significant numbers of results. Questionnaires for both the pre-
test and the pos-test responses benefit the structural approach with regard to the
definition of the system, its operation and the complementarities between its parts.
Double answers to questions about whether or not there are boundaries between the
system and its environment, the lack of answers to some other questions about the
dynamics of the system and its exchanges, express some uncertainty and number of
ambiguity, in the way of thinking of teachers around the notion of system. Some
emergent properties of the system, such as reorganization, regulation and flow, can
be expressed loosely: feedback used to balance the system, relationship between the
parties and the system that can be positive or negative, importance and density of
exchanges at the origin of the survival of the system, which would prevent accession
to the complexity of the system. Reference, often socio-professional order among
teachers, appears to be an obstacle to think on the concept of the system outside the
realm of teaching. The justification on the notion of borders, the sensors involved in
trade and the reorganization due to external disturbances, is 'obvious' if the concept
of a system is planned in areas other than biology.
Excerpt from the AO teacher responses
Excerpt from the CR teacher responses

Examples of responses reflecting the blur and ambiguity around the concepts of
borders and regulation in the concept of system.
8
Table 1: comparison of trends between the answers to the pre-test and

the post-test for each group of teachers
Behavior change
Question 1 Question Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question Question 8
2 (a and b) 7
Group 79 % 92 % 85 % 26 % 31 % 68.4% to 58 % 85 % to 94 %
1 to to to to to 40.2% (SR) to Modification
74 % 89 % 88 % 50 % 25 % N: 81 % 83 % of structure
Set of Physical Complemen- Action / Complemen- Exchange With (+)
elements biology tarity retroaction tarity I: 46% to 19 border 15 % to 5 %
16 % 8% 10 % 42 % 37 % % 42 % Modifying
(unchanged) to to to to Balance to structure
Organized / 11 % 5% 33 % 31 % D: 67% to 17 % (-)
structured Sociology Rules and laws Positive/ Exchange / 83 % Without
negative balance Variability border
6 (b)
50 % Relay
(unchanged)
Group 71 % 86 % 35 % 18 % 36 % 82.3% to 81 % 94 % to 87%
2 to to to to to 50% (SR) to Modification
43 % 84 % 69 % 23 % 45 % N: 46% to 93 % of structure
Set of Physical Complemen- Action / Complemen- 50 % With (+)
elements biology tarity retroaction tarity Exchange border 6 % to 13 %
12 % 14 % 47 % 70 % 36 % I: 43% to 20 18 % Modifying
to to to to to % to structure
36 % 16 % 8% 54 % 9% Balance 7% (-)
Organized / Sociology Rules and Positive Exchange / D: 12% to Without
structured /negative balance 67 % border
laws
Variability
6 (b)
42% to 50%
Relay
SR: no response; N: nature, I: importance, D: density
Percentages expressed at the forefront are relative to the answers to the pre-test, those second
place belongs to answering the post-test.
The configuration of the replies to the questionnaires of the post-test expresses a

'timid' change at the level of the designs incorporating the functional aspect of the
system. The systems begin to be more recognized in sociology and economics, the
complementarity appears in the mode of operation between the parties and the
system, regulation and dynamics become source of equilibrium of the system. There
is a possibility that the teacher adheres to a thinking taking into account the dual
approach of the systems. Responses which continue to express a blur, ambiguity on
notions such as feedback and reorganization, constitute a challenge and change of
design may not be sustainable, it needs to be strengthened.
The systems approach is a didactic approach meant to clarify to teachers with the
ultimate objective to enable learners to achieve this change in way of thinking.
When the situation is at the experimental level, we can recognize the results, but
how to generalize them, to make them "educational" and put them within reach of
all teachers? Educational tools selected by each of the teachers can be seen as 'limits'
to changes in designs. Only the inclusion of the systemic approach as curriculum
option and the training of teachers in this learning process can enhance the
9
understanding of the systemic thinking and address the complexity in the learning
process of complex concepts. In responses to the post-test questionnaires, some
teachers interviewed have changed the responses between questionnaires and
interview. With the second group, this change reflects a "trend" towards answers and
justifications related to a way of thinking taking into account the functional aspects of
the systems. Appropriate training of teachers on the systemic approach could
facilitate the understanding of the complexity of the systems and the development of
its emergent properties.
Comment and discussion: Obstacles facing the generalization of the concept of

system
Teacher training on the systemic approach and analysis of case studies, participated in
the change in SVT teachers' responses towards more functional aspects of the systems
The notion of system is now thought into areas such as sociology and economics, and
the types of interactions and relationships between the parties and the system,
promote complementarily and exchange. The operating mode of the systems and their
dynamic integrate regulation and balance. The major difficulty remains regarding the
ability of teachers to put into practice the systemic approach and enable learners in
their turn, to achieve a change in way of thinking that integrates complexity. Proposals
for responses based on global and blurry ideas seem to prevent linking structural
and functional aspects for a better conceptualization of the concept of system. The
sustainability of a change the designs in support of functional system approach would
need to be strengthened through training in the didactic approach promoting a way of
thinking which apprehends the complexity of systems. The analysis of designs
highlights 'what works' or 'adverse' factors in order to access the complexity of the
concept of system (see figure 3).
In connection with the notion of system, key concepts such as borders, dynamics and
flows, are seen differently if we place ourselves on the side of the structural approach
or the functional approach. In the case of designs promoting systemic approach
borders are seen as boundaries between elements or subsystems, the dynamics
appears to be necessary interactions to ensure system balance and exchanges are
expressed in terms' of 'tools' and 'relay'.
Structural approach of
system
Subsystem, Communicatio
Element n network
Limits Interaction, Tools, relay

balance
BORDERS DYNAMIC OF SYSTEM EXCHANGES Complexity
Permeable Reorganization
Flow : energy, matter,
information
Complementarity,
Types of interaction, Unit
interdependence
Functional approach of
system
: Consist of, leads to : Related to
Figure 3: the complexity of the concept of system-related concepts

10
With the conceptual change, the same concepts are translated differently; borders are
seen as non-watertight limitations to exchange. The dynamics of the system is related
to the concept of reorganization which enjoys the system to ensure its survival and the
exchanges are designed as energy, material and information flows. In the first category
of designs, the key concepts appear as 'obstacles' to access the emergent properties of
the system. Only the complementarity between structural and functional approaches
to make the concepts of borders, dynamics and Exchange factors 'favourable' to the
complexity of the concept of system.
Table 2: summary of the results of the analysis of tools teaching of groups 1 and 2
Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4

Selected Benefits of the chosen Contribution of the Tool to foster
educational Tools educational tool schematisation systemic approach
Group Conceptual C. 3 % Understanding 5 % Exchange 18 % Conceptual C. 9 %
1 Folder 14% Research of network Evaluation 29 % Exit 68 %
Output 42 % 31 % Network 47% Debate 5%
Debate 19 % Exchange with the Viewing 6% Other 18 %
Other 21 % environment 19 %
Group Conceptual C. 11 Understanding 50 % Exchange 29 % Conceptual C. 12
2 % Search P. emerging 15% %
Folder 20% Network 29 % Network 21% Output 50
Output 25 Exchange with the No answer 35% %
% environment 21 % Folder 6%
Debate 22 % Other 31
Other 22 % %
No response 3%
The choice of teaching materials remains in the same orientation as the designs. The
field trips are the most widely used educational tool. On the one hand it is prescribed
in the curriculum, and secondly the teacher 'dares' not try a new teaching tool, some
have done at our request by trying other options such as the conceptual map. The
benefits of applied educational tools focus on the understanding of the ecosystem,
looking for links to establish a network of relations between its elements or the
identification of the exchange between the ecosystem and the environment. Although
teachers recognize that the schematisations have important educational inputs as
emergent properties, the overall vision and evaluation, these contributions have not
favoured with the chosen educational tools.
The case of educational tools that promote the more systemic approach, recalls once
again a usual paradox in teaching: a new educational choice still requires some time to
be implemented. Although the conceptual map is a teaching tool selected and tried,
the field trips that may help to conceptualize the ecosystem are a choice influenced by
socio-professional appearance.
A didactic strategy, as part of the systemic approach would encourage teachers to

make use of this tool and to integrate the complexity in the learning process. Didactic
aid may strengthen this strategy and enable teachers to learn about the systemic
approach. The evolution of the designs must be 'worked' and a pass-line must ensure a
certain 'transition', through socio-professional status and continuing education, to
build up new pedagogical approaches to develop a new educational culture.
11
Projected evolution
Analysis of pre-test Analysis of post-test
questionnaire questionnaire
The dynamics
space / time
Elements, subsystem
(interrelation)
Borders Permeable borders
(limits) (flow)
Reorganization
Interaction (complexity)
(exchanges)
Conceptions
Adaptation Complementarity
(behavior) Factors of choice: the (unit)
socioprofesional status
The in-service training,
Mode of thinking including
the complexity
Pedagogical choices Process (conceptual
approaches)
Exploring
New pedagogical The approaches
possible culture
Index cards The choices
pedagogical
Training Strategy
Global approach,
research links
Objectives (learn about
Pedagogic practices the systemic approach,
(cognitive, metacognitive: critical mind) confront the complexity)
leads to transition related to
Figure 4: summary of the analysis of questionnaires and educational sheets
Complexity and systemic approach

The McManus (1990) reported that the systemic used the theory of modelling to
represent the complexity and model it. The schematisations constitute a model for
complexity. Introduced in education by Novak (1990) and applied in the case of
education to the environment and sustainable development by Giordan and Souchon
(2008), the schematisations are tools to address the complexity of learning and
assessment.
Using computer tools, the use of the schematisations is commonplace in the field of
education; however there is a teaching tool of limited application and a pedagogical
choice unknown to teachers. The characterization of the systemic approach to the
classical approach reveals that the 'complexity' aspect is difficult to recognize in the
responses of Group 2.
Table 3: summary of responses to questions 9 and 10 of the post-test
Question 9 Question 10
Characterization of the systemic approach Characterization of the classical approach
Group Allows the vision overall 59% Analysis by dissociation 88 %
1 Establish a network of interactions 41% Ineffective facing complexity 12 %
Group Allows the vision overall 73 % Analysis by dissociation 90%
2
In the learning of the ecological concepts, 'a conceptogramme' can be a conceptual tool
for non-linear thinking and explaining the interactions and feedbacks, so as to develop
the 'circular causation' to clear the hidden face of the complexity of the systems,
emergent properties.
12
Conclusion
The vagueness and ambiguity appear when it is placed in the register of the common
knowledge of systems: borders, exchange, regulation and dynamics. These
knowledge-related designs are quite easy especially if the teacher is answering
questions such as nature, importance and density of exchanges or regulating the
system to disturbances which undergoes its environment. Obstacles arise to imagine
'leaky borders ' playing the role of limits, but at the same time allowing the exchanges
between the system and its environment. Training on systemic and its foundations,
offers teachers an opportunity to rethink the concept of system, broaden the scope of
this concept in various fields. A new way of thinking, based on research of links, is
now possible building on the interaction and the notion of 'all' characteristic of
systems. Despite the reported difficulties, a 'shy' change of conceptions appears when
issues of post-test, especially about the definition of the system, how it works, the
types of interaction between components and boundaries. The spatio-temporal
evolution, the reorganization of the system to the disturbances and Exchange fluxes
are notions which are difficult for teachers to imagine using in various fields. These
are factors described as "preventing" the apprehension of the complexity. This
difficulty is especially found in the descriptive notes where the teacher persists in
choices of classical approach methods, despite a request to apply the systemic
approach in the teaching of the concept of ecosystem. Extending this research to other
groups of teachers could reveal details of the ideas and modes of reasoning of each but
would also make known this process as much as possible. Ultimately, it would be
advisable that learning through systemic approach be reflected in educational
objectives and practical steps included in the official Programmes, offering in parallel
educational resources for teachers. Such a proposal should be supported by
appropriate training of teachers in the functional approach to systems.
References
Aracil, J. (1984). Introduction to the dynamics of systems. Lyon: University Press, 412 pages.
Bertalanffy, L. Von, (1973). General systems theory, physics, biology, psychology, sociology,
philosophy, translation Chabrol Jean-Benot, 257 pages. Paris: Dunod, p.53.
De Rosnay, J. (1975).The macroscope, towards a global vision, 345 pages. Paris: Seuil, p. 101.
Donnadieu, k. & Karsky, M. (2002). The systemic thinking and acting in the complexity.
Editions: Bindings, 269 pages.
Durand, D. (1979). The systemic. Series what do I know? 127 pages, 1re Edition, Paris: PUF, p.
8-9, p. 68.
Febvre, M. & Giordan, A. (1990). Mastering scientific and medical, information techniques and
teaching methods, 227 pages. Editions: Delachaux Niestl, p. 22-47.
Giordan, A. & Souchon. C, (2008). Education for the environment towards sustainability.
Editions: Delagrave, 271 pages.
Giordan, A. & Souchon. C, (1991). Education for the environment. Collection Andr Giordan &
Jean - Louis Martinand, 'Practical Guides', 232 pages. Nice: Z' ditions, p. 9-11.
Giordan, A. & Vecchi, G. (1987). The origins of knowledge, scientific concepts learners designs
pages. Editions: Delachaux et Nestl, p. 42-43, 111-121, 205-212.
Giordan, A. & Martinand, J. L. (1988). Annals of Didactics of sciences, n 2, 192 pages. Editions:
Universit de Rouen, p. 14-15 and 31-32.
Giordan, A. (1978). Teaching methods for experimental science, 280 pages. Paris: Centurion
Giordan, A. (1999). For experimental science didactics. 239 pages. Paris: Belin, p. 139-173.
13
Giordan, A. (2002). Another school for our children, 249 pages. Paris: Editions Delagrave, p.
137-153.
Le Moigne, J. L. (1983). The general system theory, theory of modeling, 258 pages. Paris:
col.decisions systems, PUF, second edition, p. 37.
Le Moigne, J.L. (1990). Modeling of complex systems. AFCET systems, headed by Bernard
Paulr Collection. Paris: Dunod, p. 24.
Morin, E. (1977). The method,T1, 399 pages. ditions du Seuil, p. 102.
Morin, E. (1990). Introduction to complex thought, 158 pages. Paris: ESF, p. 68-69.
Morin, E. (1999). The well head is made, rethink reform, reform thought, 155 pages. ditions du
Seuil, p. 11.
Novak, j. d. (1990). Concept maps and Vee diagrams: two metacognitive tools facilitate learning
meaningful to, In Instructional science 19, p. 29-52. SpringerLink.com accessed September 12,
2009).
Pascal, B. (1669). Thought I, XV. Transition of knowledge of man to God. Editions presented,
prepared and annotated by Michel Le Guern (1977). Editions: Gallimard, p.159.
Sanner, M. (1983). From concept to the fantasy, 253 pages. Editions: PUF, p. 76-88.
Walliser, B. (1977). Systems and models critical to the analysis of systems introduction, 248
pages. Paris: Seuil, p 9-10.
14

Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 14-20, March 2014
A Comparison of Experimental Designs for

Assessment and Research in Higher Education
Jack T. Tessier, Nana-Yaw Andoh, Kristin DeForest, Matthew W. Juba, Akira Odani,
John J. Padovani, Elizabeth F. Sova, and Lisa M. Tessier
SUNY Delhi
Delhi, New York, USA
Abstract. Assessment continues to rise in importance along with the scholarship of

teaching and learning. Educators must, therefore, choose among a range of
experimental designs to make these quantitative measurements of student
learning. We compared three different study designs for an assessment of
embedding sustainability across the campus: comparing results to a pre-
determined goal, pre-semester vs. post-semester survey scores without a control
group, and pre-semester vs. post-semester survey scores with a control group.
Patterns in student success varied among the study designs, with pre-post with a
control being the most reliable results, but comparing student knowledge and
appreciation of sustainability to the pre-set goals was also valuable. Ours are the
first results we are aware of to make such a direct comparison, and should be
valuable to teachers and researchers as they seek to design assessment as well as
teaching and learning research projects. We recommend that educators employ
both the pre-post with control design along with comparing learning to a goal
whenever possible when conducting assessment or education research.
Keywords: Education Research; Research Design; Scholarship of Teaching;

Sustainability; Undergraduate Education
Introduction
Assessment of educational practices is becoming more and more important to college
teachers.In one form, assessment is required for accreditation of the institution
(Lubinescu, Ratcliff, & Gaffney, 2001;Middle States Commission on Higher Education
[MSCHE], 2006;New England Association of Schools and Colleges [NEASC], 2012), and
leads to important school-wide improvements based on those results (Scrivens, 1997).In
another form, professors are increasingly encouraged to assess their own teaching and to
treat it as a form of scholarship (Boyer, 1990;Richlin& Cox, 2004).These efforts give further
credibility to the art of teaching and improve practices for the benefit of students,
teachers, and society (Trigwell, Martin, Benjamin, & Prosser, 2000). In order to conduct
assessment effectively, the teacher needs to consider the range of designs that are
available and appropriate based on the item being assessed (Wiersma, 1991).These
experimental designs range from those that include pre- and post-tests along with control
groups to ones with a post-test only (Wiersma, 1991).The myriad designs yield a range of
2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

15
data that allow the teacher to know different things about their students and their
learning.Comparing these approaches allows teachers to see the benefits and limitations
of the approaches.
The objective of this study was to compare three different experimental designs for a
scholarship of teaching and learning project to reveal the strengths and weaknesses of
each approach.We analyzed data from pre- and post-test with control, pre- and post-test
alone, and post-test designs within a single project to make this comparison (Tessier et
al.,2013).
Methods
Conduct of this study was approved by SUNY Delhis Institutional Review Board before
the onset of data collection.We engrained the concept of sustainability across four courses
(Architecture, Biology, Business, and Humanities disciplines), and three non-curricular
activities (community service, learning center, and residence life areas) on the SUNY
Delhi campus.With each course in which sustainability was embedded, we paired a
similar course in which sustainability was not embedded as a control.We delivered a pre-
semester and post-semester survey to all of these students assessing their understanding
of the concept of sustainability and if they felt the concept was important to the course
and their career.We used data from the control courses to compare the results for students
who did and did not engage in the non-curricular activities in the project.Details of the
approach can be seen in Tessier et al. (2013).
This approach allowed us to compare three designs for the experiment and data
analyses.All statistical tests were conducted using Minitab version 16 (Minitab, Inc., State
College, PA USA) at = 0.05.First, we compared the change in students knowledge of
sustainability and their views on its importance between treatment (those in the class or
activity that infused sustainability) and control groups (students who were not in a class
or activity that infused sustainability) using t-tests.Second, we used t-tests to compare the
pre-semester and post-semester scores for students understanding of and views on
sustainability within the group of students who took a course or participated in an
activity that infused sustainability.Third, we compared the average student score within
treatment groups for understanding of sustainability and views on sustainability to a pre-
set goal (knowing 2 or more tenets of sustainability and feeling that sustainability was
important to the course and the students career).
Results
Pre- and Post-Semester with Control:In the pre-post with control design, we found that the
treatment courses helped students understand the concept of sustainability more than the
control courses in every case (Table 1).In only one pairing did the treatment course
increase the students perception of the relatedness of sustainability to the course more
than the control (Table 1), and in none of the course pairings did the treatment course
increase the students perception of the relevance of sustainability to their careers more
than the control course (Table 1).In two of the three non-curricular areas, students who
participated in activities increased their understanding of the tenets of sustainability more
than those who did not participate (Table 2).In none of the non-curricular areas did
participation in the activities increase students perception of the importance of
sustainability to their careers more than non-participation (Table 2).

16
Pre- vs. Post-Semester:In comparing pre- and post-semester understanding of the tenets of
sustainability, every course led to a significant increase (Table 3). In half of the courses,
there was also a significant increase in the perception that sustainability was important to
the course (Table 3). In none of the courses was there a significant increase in students
perception of the relevance of sustainability to their careers (Table 3). In non-curricular
areas, participation in one area led to a significant within semester increase in students
knowledge of the tenets of sustainability, but participation in none of the areas led to a
significant increase in students perceptions of the relevance of sustainability to their
careers (Table 2).
Assessment Goals:In comparing the results with our goal, students in two courses knew
enough of the tenets of sustainability, students in two courses sufficiently saw the
relevance of sustainability to the course, and students in three courses sufficiently saw the
relevance of sustainability to their careers (Table 3). In non-curricular areas, student
participation in activities did not help them to reach the goal of knowing the tenets of
sustainability, but participants in one area sufficiently saw the relevance of sustainability
to their career (Table 2).
Table 1. Differences between (T) Treatment courses (those with sustainability embedded as a
concept) and (C) Control courses (those without sustainability embedded as a concept) on
students knowledge of sustainability and their view of its importance to the course and their
career at SUNY Delhi, Delhi, NY USA. Comparisons in bold are significantly different at =
0.05. Numbers in parentheses are standard errors.
Course Name Mean Change in # Mean Change in Mean Change in
Known Tenets of Students View of the Students View of the
Sustainability Relevance of Relevance of
(Post minus Pre) Sustainability to the Sustainability to Their
Course (Post minus Career (Post minus Pre)
Pre)
ARCH 135 T 0.524 (0.16) T 0.04 (0.31) T 0.38 (0.26)
Architectural Design
C -0.11 (0.20) C 0.11 (0.20) C 0.33 (0.24)
Fundamentals
P = 0.024 P = 0.850 P = 0.907
BIOL 110 T 2.04 (0.20) T -0.64 (1.00) T -0.04 (0.26)
Environmental Issues
C -0.13 (0.09) C 0.31 (1.04) C 0.11 (0.25)
and Sustainability
P < 0.0001 P = 0.001 P = 0.685
BUSI 100 Introduction T 0.65 (0.29) T 0.04 (1.15) T 0.13 (0.26)
to Business
C -0.32 (0.15) C 0.37 (0.76) C -0.40 (0.26)
P = 0.005 P = 0.279 P = 0.156
HUMN 242 History of T 1.78 (0.39) T -0.65 (0.22) T -0.35 (0.15)
World and Western
C -1.14 (0.39) C -0.17 (0.42) C 0.21 (0.26)
Architecture II
P < 0.0001 P = 0.325 P = 0.075

17
Discussion
The results from the courses show a similar trend in learning using the pre-post with
control or the pre-post without control designs (Tables 1 and 3). The courses were most
effective at helping students learn the tenets of sustainability. The pre-post without
control revealed more significant effects of the courses than did the pre-post with control,
however. Comparing the students scores to a goal revealed the most successful findings
including three out of four courses with students highly viewing the relevance of
sustainability to their careers, which did not show up as significant in the other two study
designs (Tables 1 and 3). The results from the non-curricular areas were more sporadic
among study designs, highlighting the lower efficacy of the non-curricular areas relative
to the courses (Table 2). In fact, there was no alignment of significant findings within
areas across study designs. For example, the Resnick Learning Center helped students
learn the tenets of sustainability based on the pre-post without control design but not in
any other design (Table 2). Also, the OConnor Center for Community Engagement
helped students reach the goal of viewing sustainability as relevant to their careers, but
there was not a significant change in that area when compared to control students (Table
2).
Table 2. Effect of non-curricular activities related to sustainability at SUNY Delhi, Delhi, NY

USA on students knowledge of the tenets of sustainability and their view of the importance of
sustainability to their careers.T refers to students who experienced the activities and C
refers to students who did not. Data in bold indicate that the result met the goal or the
comparison was significantly different at = 0.05. Numbers in parentheses are standard errors.
Activity Mean # Mean Mean # Mean Mean Mean Change
Known Relevance Known Relevance of Change in # in Students
Tenets of of Tenets of Sustainability Tenets View of the
Sustain- Sustain- Sustain- to Career (1 = Known Relevance of
ability ability to ability (Pre- High, 5 = (Post minus Sustainability
(Post- Career (1 Semester vs. Low; Pre- Pre for to Their Career
Semester) = High, 5 Post- Semester vs. Treatment (Post minus Pre
= Low; Semester) Post- and Control for Treatment
Goal of
Post- Semester) groups) and Control
2+
Semester) groups)
Goal of
2
Resnick 0.24 (0.07) 2.18 (0.18) Pre 0.60 Pre 1.91 (0.16) T -0.37 (0.14) T 0.18 (0.18)
Learning (0.15)
Post 2.18 (0.18) C -0.38 (0.17) C 0.39 (0.13)
Center
Post 0.24
P = 0.280 P = 0.961 P = 0.347
(0.07)
P = 0.035
OConnor 0.42 (0.15) 1.83 (0.37) Pre 0.33 Pre 1.82 (0.30) T 0.08 (0.15) T 0.09 (0.21)
Center for (0.19)
Post 1.83 (0.37) C -0.47 (0.13) C 0.33 (0.13)
Community
Post 0.42
Engagement P = 0.975 P = 0.008 P = 0.351
(0.15)
P = 0.732
Residence 0.30 (0.08) 2.03 (0.16) Pre 0.42 Pre 1.83 (0.16) T -0.13 (0.11) T 0.10 (0.14)

18
Life (0.11) Post 2.03 (0.16) C -0.60 (0.18) C 0.47 (0.17)

Post 0.30 P = 0.479 P = 0.029 P =0.090
(0.08)
P = 0.407
Without a control, it cannot always be determined if changes in students knowledge and

understanding came about because of the academic experience or because of something
else that happened during the semester. For example, there was a significant increase in
students view of the relevance of sustainability to the History of Architecture course
(Table 3), but that change was not significantly different from the change observed in the
control class (Table 1). The control, in this case, provided greater analysis capacity than
would a pre-post without control study design. Without having a pre-post comparison, it
is not always clear whether the experience of the course or non-curricular activity actually
brought about the change in student knowledge or appreciation. For example, students in
three of the four courses reached the goal of viewing sustainability as important to their
careers, but in none of the courses was there a significant increase in that perspective
during the semester (Tables 1 and 3). Therefore, simply comparing students knowledge
and appreciation to a goal will not reveal the influence of the academic experience on
those students.
Table 3.Effect of embedding sustainability into four courses at SUNY Delhi, Delhi, NY USA on
students knowledge of the tenets of sustainability and their view of the importance of
sustainability to the course and their career. Data in bold indicate that the score met a goal or
there is a significant difference in the comparison at = 0.05. Numbers in parentheses are
standard errors.
Course Name Mean # Mean Mean Mean # Mean Mean
Known Relevance Relevance Known Relevance of Relevance of
Tenets of of of Tenets of Sustainability Sustainability
Sustain- Sustain- Sustain- Sustainability to Course (1 = to Career (1 =
ability ability to ability to (Pre-Semester High, 5 = Low; High, 5 = Low;
(Post- Course (1 Career (1 vs. Post- Pre-Semester Pre-Semester
Semester) = High, 5 = High, 5 Semester) vs. Post- vs. Post-
Goal of = Low; = Low; Semester) Semester)
2+ Post- Post-
Semester) Semester)
Goal of Goal of
2 2
ARCH 135 0.60 (0.15) 2.00 (0.17) 1.92 (0.18) Pre 0.11 (0.08) Pre 2.29 (0.14) Pre 1.79 (0.14)
Architectural Post 0.60 Post 2.00 (0.17) Post 1.92 (0.18)
Design (0.15) P = 0.199 P = 0.568
Fundamentals P = 0.007
BIOL 110 2.28 (0.20) 1.32 (0.17) 1.96 (0.19) Pre 0.24 (0.09) Pre 1.96 (0.22) Pre 2.00 (0.16)
Environmental Post 2.28 Post 1.32 (0.17) Post 1.96 (0.19)
Issues and (0.20) P = 0.004 P = 0.880
Sustainability P < 0.0001
BUSI 100 1.17 (0.26) 2.22 (0.23) 2.30 (0.23) Pre 0.52 (0.15) Pre 2.17 (0.16) Pre 2.17 (0.20)
Introduction Post 1.17 Post 2.22 (0.23) Post 2.30 (0.23)
to Business (0.26) P = 0.857 P = 0.623

19
P = 0.032
HUMN 242 2.19 (0.24) 2.27 (0.12) 1.77 (0.13) Pre 0.42 (0.11) Pre 2.92 (0.19) Pre 2.18 (0.15)
History of Post 2.19 Post 2.27 (0.12) Post 1.77 (0.13)
World and (0.24) P = 0.006 P = 0.119
Western P < 0.0001
Architecture II
Ultimately, we want students to reach a sufficient level of understanding, appreciation,

and capacity to learn (Fink, 2003; MSCHE, 2006; NEASC, 2012). Therefore, comparing
students scores to a goal is a wise study design to employ. But if we want to know the
effect of our courses and non-curricular activities on helping students reach those goals, it
is imperative to include at least a pre-post without control design and to include a control
when possible.
Conclusion
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first direct comparison of experimental designs
for assessment and the scholarship of teaching and learning. We hope that these results
will be useful to those people who are designing assessment or education research
projects. These results have demonstrated the importance of including pre- and post-
semester data and using a control when conducting assessment or research on teaching
and learning. However, the classroom is not a laboratory where every factor can be
controlled. For example, control classes may not be available, a pre-test may bias a
students approach to a course, or there may be insufficient time for all data collection. We
encourage education scholars to employ the best designs possible given the constraints of
their situation, and to employ pre-post with control to go along with pre-set goals
whenever possible.
Acknowledgements
We thank Ben McGraw for encouraging us to make this comparison among study designs
at the outset of our research project and the students who agreed to let us use their data
for the study.
References
Boyer, E.L. (1990).Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate.Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching.http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED326149.pdf
Lubinesco, E.S., Ratcliff, J.L., & Gaffney, M.A.(2001). Two continuums collide: accreditation and
assessment. New Directions for Higher Education, 2001, 5-
21.http://cyceduaccred.pbworks.com/f/10210956.pdf
Middle States Commission on Higher Education.(2006). Characteristics of Excellence in Higher
Education:
Requirements of Affiliation and Standards for Accreditation.Philadelphia, PA:Middle States
Commission on Higher Education. https://www.msche.org/publications/CHX-2011-
WEB.pdf
New England Association of Schools and Colleges. (2012). New England Association of Schools and
Colleges

20
Standards for Accreditation.Bedford, MA: New England Association of Schools and Colleges.
Retrieved from
http://cihe.neasc.org/standards_policies/standards/standards_html_version
Richlin, L.,& Cox, M.D.(2004). Developing scholarly teaching and the scholarship of teaching and
learning through faculty learning communities. New Directions for Teaching and Learning,
2004, 127-
135.http://www.fresnostate.edu/academics/csalt/documents/RichlinCox2004.pdf
Scrivens, E. (1997). Putting continuous quality improvement into accreditation: improving
approaches to
quality assessment. Quality in Health Care, 6, 212-
218.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1055496/pdf/qualhc00026-0036.pdf
Tessier, J.T., Andoh, N.-Y., DeForest, K., Juba, M.W., Odani, A., Padovani, J.J., Sova, E.F., &Tessier,
L.M.
(2013). An assessment of sustainability across the campus.International Journal of Education,
5, 82-95. http://macrothink.org/journal/index.php/ije/article/viewFile/4318/3794
Trigwell, K., Martin, E., Benjamin, J., & Prosser, M.(2000). Scholarship of teaching: a model. Higher
Education Research and Development, 19, 155-
168.http://www.fmhs.uaeu.ac.ae/ResearchGroups/MERG/journal/scholarshiptrigmwell
.pdf

21

Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 21-31, March 2014
Designing Teaching Methods in Curriculum of

Irans Higher Education based on
Development of Social Capital
Forouzan Tonkaboni (Corresponding author)

PH.D. student, Department of Educational Science, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran, E-mail: ftonkaboni@gmail.com
Alireza Yousefy
Associate professor, Medical Education Research Center, Isfahan University of
Medical
Science, Isfahan, Iran
Narges Keshtiaray
Assistant professor, Department of Educational Science, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
Abstract: What today is called social capital implies other definition of capital
that is critical besides other types of human and material capital. Social
sciences scholars believe that one of effective institutions on formation of social
capital is educational institutions and curriculums. Through changing
curriculums social capital can improve. Accordingly the present research aims
to design some teaching method to develop social capital within the higher
education system. To do this, qualitative and field survey was used. Also, 12
scholars in the field of curriculum and social capital were interviewed with.
Then, the content of interviews was analyzed and in the process of coding, the
presented ideas were classified separately and the common ideas were placed
in the similar groups. In this part, teaching method was identified as a major
issue. Finally, the way this factor affects social capital was examined. So, for
the major factor of the current research, its casual conditions, strategies and
hypotheses were separated and provided within a paradigm model. The
ultimate model was designed thorough generalizing the paradigm segments to
social capital.
Key words: curriculum; social capital; teaching method; higher education
Introduction
Times prior to appearance of social capital, three types of capital were famous physical
capital (facilities and infrastructures, dams, high ways etc.), national capital (stocks,
bond, money etc.), and human capital (skills and personal abilities, specialists,
distinguished managers etc.). Though, in modern literature the notion of social capital
was added to the former types of capital (Mobasheri, 2008). According to Bourdieu,
social capital is sum of the potential and actual resources that is the result of an
ownership of a resistant network of institutionalized relations of familiarization and
22
mutual understanding (membership in the group).The network that benefits every

member from the support of social capital and validates them. Social capital yet
involves some conditions beyond existence of a mere network of connections. In fact,
network connections must be in special form. That is it is positive and based on trust
(Field, 2003).
According to Putnam(2005) social capital comprises of the constructive elements of

individuals social life through their connections, individuals can efficiently achieve
their goals. He believes that this form of capital has an identical significance with other
forms of capital.
Fukuyama (2006) describes social capital as a series of available norms in social

systems leads to improve of cooperation among society members and decreases
interactions costs. Considering different definitions of social capital, it sounds like they
are overlap and in most cases they concentrate on the role of group, individuals
relations and their mutual trust.
Actually, social capital as one type of capital has a great impact on the community
success. Experts define many functions for social capital. Generally speaking, the effect
of social capital on three domains of economy, politics and culture are more evident
than others areas. Using from individuals similarities in different aspects, social
capital causes a sense of trust , serves economic benefits and makes the ground in
which the cost of using human resources decreases, but their interaction increases.
With its moral values and principles in economy obliges peoples to communicate,
exchange and decide in different social groups (Woolcock, 2008).
Taking the above points together, it is concluded that social capital in the current
world is one of the most significant factor in development of countries and
identification of the effective factors in strengthening or weakening it are strongly
contributive to expansion of social capital and ends to increase of individuals social
and economic performance. In a natural process, as the scientific society grows, the
social capital also develops in parallel. In such conditions, the university task is not
education only. In fact, university is neither an economic enterprise nor emits
academic degrees. So, formal educations are only a part of the academic programs. On
the other hand, scientific, being critical and creative motives, ability to make scientific
communications, reproduction power as well as the ability to combine different ideas
among students and simultaneously a foresight, participatory and identity fixation in
interaction with others have to reinforce in the academic environment. Therefore,
university is not a mere educational center. Here since the higher education center and
social capital are in communication, the university must be able to develop the social
capital (ZakerSalehi, 2008).
Accordingly, the current research concentrates on the formal section of education in

general and on the teaching methods in specific. The previous studies have shown that
in spite of quantitative development of the higher education system within the recent
decades in Iran has been unable to expand social capital. This is true about teaching
methods that are a main part of the curriculum. The current study aims to determine
the teaching methods of curriculums in the higher education system in accordance
with development of social capital. The significance of this study is because it is for the
first time that the relationship between components of curriculum and social capital is
going to be scientifically tested. Then, the effective factors on expansion of social
23
capital among students have to be identified and the appropriate teaching method is
designed.
Therefore, the purpose of the present research is to design teaching methods of the
higher education with an emphasis on identification of effective obstacles, and
strategies on development of social capital among students. So, the following research
questions are addressed:
1. What are the obstacles before teaching methods of the higher education curriculum
for development of social capita?
2. What teaching methods strategies in higher education curriculum cause the
expansion of social capital?
3. What are the consequences of designing teaching methods based on social capital
development?
4. Is it possible to design a model for teaching methods to develop social capital in the
higher education system?
Theoretical framework
Theoretically social capital is one of the most prominent issues in social sciences and
may not correlate with teaching methods. Though, since the individuals spend a
considerable amount of their time in educational environments, the effects of
happenings in such places on the peoples behavior and life should not be ignored. So
far many several definitions have been proposed for social capital that makes it
difficult to achieve a consensus about the actual meaning of social capital. Though,
what is understood from all definitions of social capital is investment in social
relations with expected ties .
According to Coleman(1990) social capital consists of a social framework that

facilitates individuals interaction within this framework, in a way that its absence
may cause the individual more costs to reach his/her goal.
Putnam (2005) believed that social capital is those characteristics of social life,
networks, norms and trust that enable participants to follow their common goals more
effectively. As he said, social capital is a means to create social and political
development in different political systems as well as trust between people, governors
and political elites that bring political development.
Fukuyama (2006) considered social capital as one sociological phenomenon.

According to him, participation in values and norm does not naturally leads to
production of social capital as these values may be negative. In his definition, social
capital has a close tie with degree of trust. How much the domain of trust increases in
a social group, social capital will expand and consequently the mutual cooperation
and trust among group members will maximize.
Flora (1995) describes collective consciousness as social capital and introduces mutual
trust as an index of collective consciousness.
A series of available norms in the social systems end to increase of members
cooperation and contrarily leads to decrease of cost of interactions. In this definition,
some concepts like civil society and social institutions hold a close relationship with
social capital (Schiff, 2004).
24
Aisenschtat believed that the most important issue in formation of a community with
proper social capital is concerning to individuals trust, solidarity and social
participation. Without solidarity and social participation besides lack of trust, the new
social order would be impossible (Chalabi, 2007).
Curriculum
As Mevish in his book an introduction to sociology discusses, some of the most
fundamental functional needs of a society must be taken into consideration at time of
specification of educational objectives, content and method in the curriculums. He
stated that social institutions like higher education needs to prepare the required
backgrounds for its members in field of making a correct communication with
environment due to interacting with individuals (Yarmohammadian, 2012).
However, in spite of extension of the curriculum major at universities, the curriculum

scholars have not achieved to an agreement on its components. According to Klein
introduced the element of objectives, content, learning activities, teaching methods,
learning materials, assessment, time, space and classification as the core elements of
the curriculum. The most common attitude yet in this regard sees curriculum
document or a specific curriculum including some decision about four components of
objectives, content, method and assessment (Mehrmohammadi, 2010).
In its general form, the curriculum is described what is taught in educational

institutions and in it specific form, it is an educational activity for the learner on the
basis of a special attitude and in specific time. Curriculum can be known as a series of
events have been previously designed that end to certain educational results for one or
more learners (Eisner, 1979).
The learners of educational system as the members of a society have to now that the
community they are living in has what qualities, and how it would be possible to play
their social role as much efficient as possible. In case of the instructors and curriculum
designers of such problems, the curriculum objects and content probably contradict
with social needs and problems and consequently the programs fail to succeed
(Yarmohammadian, 2012).
The current research focused on teaching methods as one elements of curriculum in

the higher education system.
Jiroux know instructors as transformational thinkers. That is, educational activity
creates some form of thinking. Proper selection and implementation of teaching
methods as one of important components of curriculum play an outstanding role in
formation and strengthening of valuable concepts in the mind. In the process of
teaching, professors have to select methods and materials help students in learning the
content (Ornstein, 2005).
In fact teaching has different variables that is necessary through manipulation, control
or study of its variables, a better condition for students learning is created ( Khorshidi,
2002). Familiarization with teaching methods and principles and applying them help
educational objectives to be achieved more easily and in a shorter time. Generally,
teaching methods are categorized in two parts. Firstly, methods were used in long past
(historical methods) and secondly, methods are based on psychological and
educational findings (new methods). ( Safavi, 1998).
25
Authorities that are granted to professors in order to change teaching conditions and
make the effective factors on their teaching process applicable are teaching patterns.
They include problem solving, pre-organizers, individual teaching, social patterns etc.
Actually, these patterns work as a plan (Joyce, 2004).
Marjaei (2004) in a study naming social capital among university students examined
different rate of social capital among individuals with different educations. The results
indicate that in most of components a meaningful relationship exists between rate of
education and social capital. In other words, descending from PhD degree to associate
degree, a considerable decrease is evident in many components of social capital. In
addition, the students social capital showed a reverse relation with number their
study years.
Sharepour (2004) in a study empirical study of social capital in Mazandaran

province attempted to analyze the effect of educations on social capital. Using a
questionnaire with 599 families as sample size, the following results were achieved:
1. no meaningful relationship was identified between individuals education and
informal networks ( e.g. friends, relatives and family members).
2. The individuals education holds a negative correlation with social trust (trusting a
stranger). That is with increase of education, social trust decreases.
3. There is a meaningfully negative correlation between rate of education and trusting
social institutions (e.g. education, the judiciary, the legislature, etc). As rate of
education increases, trusting social institutions and organizations decreases.
Helliwell and Putnam (2007) worked on education and social capital in America. They
concluded that increase of average education has maximized trust and it has not
reduced level of participation as the second component of social capital. Park (2006)
investigated the role of trust in creation of knowledge inside a artificial university.
According to Park (2006), the main conditions for production of social capital are
opportunity, motivation, and ability. It was conclude that trust affects knowledge
creation through opportunity, motivation and ability of combining knowledge in an
artificial university and a few factors like informal network, norms, common values
and mutual trust are influential on creation of knowledge.
Totterman and Wulff (2007) in their research explored the effect of sharing information
at a university on social capital. They reasoned that sharing knowledge through three
variables (social identity, effective trust, participation and personal interaction) affects
social capital.
William (2012) investigated on the relationship between professors interaction with

students and social capital. According to the researchers, hidden resources and
expertise in social networks greatly affect social capital and it is via social interactions
that access and exploitation from social capital advantages become possible.
Method
As the present research purpose to design teaching methods on the basis of social
capital, the participants opinions were asked via interview. To analyze the data and
converting them to quantitative data, the Grounded Theory was used. The Grounded
Theory is a deductive-exploratory method enables the researcher in different fields
that instead of relying on the existing theories devises a theory personally. This
method is a general research method for generating a theory (Flick, 2011).
26
The population consisted of all professors of curriculum major and sociologists were
working at the higher education centers of Iran in 2013. Through purposeful sampling
method with desirable cases besides considering the articles published, the
participants were selected. They included 12 curriculum and social capital experts.
After interviewing and ensuring about the bulk of mentioned ideas, the interview was
stopped.
The data were collected via semi-structured interviews. Before the session begins,
complete explanations were given to the interviewee(s) about the research object,
method and the desired conclusion. In order to have perfect information the
interviews were recorded and the content written down. The procedure went in a way
that first 2 to 3 general questions were asked and according to the answers of previous
questions, the new questions were asked.
During the interview sessions any probable deviation from the main subject of
interviews were avoided and whole procedure was carefully guided. Moreover, the
basis for determination of reliability and validity of the asked questions was the
researcher. The obtained data from semi-structured interviews and theoretical
information were gathered together. The interviews were conducted individually and
lasted one and half to two hours.
For analyzing the data, the open, axial, and selective data coding was used.
In open data coding, the data related to the studied phenomenon were carefully
named and categorized. The unit if analysis was paragraph and the content of
interviews were first written down and after removing the irrelevant statements to the
research subject, the data were classified in form of paragraphs. The similar
paragraphs were written next to each other and the main points were extracted from.
In the process of coding, two comparing and asking techniques were applied.
In the axial coding, the data were previously analyzed to concepts and categories in
the open coding, were integrated with a new method. In this stage, a major category
and its sub-categories were connected to each other. This happened via a Paradigm
model including Causal Conditions, Phenomenon, Context, Strategies and
Hypotheses and juxtaposition of the similar concepts. This caused the concepts could
shape the more basic category are identified and each one places in one of these
categories.
In the selective coding, the core category and its relation to other categories besides
increasing validity of such relations would occur through searching for authenticated
and not authenticated cases. In the selective coding, the categories are consistent in
order to shape the theoretical framework. After specification of the central category,
according to the Paradigm model, the minor categories were linked to the major
categories. Then, the final model was drawn and the relation of core category with
other categories was illustrated.
Findings
In the open coding overall 104 conceptual codes from all interviewees opinions were
obtained. The concepts were compared with each other and similar concepts with the
same subject became a category and got labeled. For labeling the categories if the
category was a known and clear name in the theoretical resources it was used in order
27
to prevent the participants different perception when examining the results. Then,
concepts were related were placed next to each other and a new series was formed.
In the axial coding process, the second level concepts were achieved. Through this
number of concepts decreased significantly. In the last stage, the central category of
the research, teaching methods, were identified in selective coding.
To draw the Paradigm model, the obtained 104 codes were divided into three sections
causal conditions, strategies and hypotheses. The number of level one concepts
reduced for causal conditions from49 codes to 14 codes in the second level, for
strategies from 33 codes to 8 codes and for hypotheses from 22 codes to 5 codes. Fig.1
shows the Paradigm model.
Fig 1. Paradigm model of teaching method
Obstacles
Strategies
consequences Context
Valued students activities Unfamiliarity of professors to new
teaching media
Strengthening Higher education no desire to use training aids
group activities Group based teaching Unfamiliarity of professors to
Presenting class projects English language
and assignment related to Educational
Creation of a not interested in getting engaged
industry and society degree
environment for in group activities
discussion Professors disinterest in
Using new teaching development of their scientific
methods capabilities being dishonest about
Strengthening the doing projects and assignments
spirit of critical Major category
(phenomenon) Lack of an atmosphere for class
inquiry and Up-to date class materials discussion
criticism , adaptation of study Lack of actual participation of the
resources with schedules Teaching method student in the teaching process
based on social
Strengthening Being present in the class with a
Diversity of study resources capital
students forcing disciplinary
responsibility Utilizing new electronic not introducing various
media for teaching resources to students for
studying
Student
Interference no introduction of up to date
participation in resources to students
conditions
teaching process Students disinterest in
Type of university
Educational supplementary study
inflexibility of professors to
system
change their teaching methods
students desire to use old
method of lecture notes
5. Discussion and conclusion

The interviewees statements indicated that among different educational institutions,
only the university institutions considerably affect low levels of social capital.
According to them, in spite of a great potential, the higher education system has failed
to leave an appropriate effect on the students social capital. Zaker Salehi (2008) in a
study naming examination of relationship between the higher education system and
social capital in Iran stated that the academic society has not established in Iran yet.
So, this problem has prohibited the elites social capital to develop.
The teaching method was one of the most important issues the interviewees
mentioned. The participants believed that quality of the teaching method affects social
capital. In designing the curriculum it should be considered that the teaching method
must be selected in line with its impact on social capital to increase components of
28
social capital. In fact, teaching method is a factor directly affects social capital.
Therefore, it should be more inclined to be active in learning and teaching.
Active learning is a type of learning occurs with the least possible external
interferences. In this method, the instructor acts as a facilitator of learning. Hence,
active learning is effective on social capital only when the student is actively involved
in the process of learning and manages it.
The results of first research question indicate that one of the most important obstacles
before achievement of such program is the students attitudes toward teaching method
and the higher education. Inappropriate attitude here consists of three parts as
improper attitude of students about teaching method, education and professors. This
attitude then has a mutual relationship with social capital. From one hand, this
indicates the students to distrust of efficiency of classes and trained materials as well
as not being ready to participate in the process of teaching. On the other hand, this
type of attitude would decrease the students participation in the class and so they
miss the opportunity for increase of their participation and formation of a collective
moral.
The contemporary teaching methods not only fail to motivate the students to active
participation and presence in classes, but also they greatly spoil the relation between
social institutions and university and their shared trust. Some of obstacles that
interviewees mentioned included unfamiliarity of professors to new teaching media,
no desire to use training aids, unfamiliarity of professors to English language, not
interested in getting engaged in group activities, professors disinterest in
development of their scientific capabilities, being dishonest about doing projects and
assignments, lack of an atmosphere for class discussion, lack of actual participation of
the student in the teaching process, being present in the class with a forcing
disciplinary, not introducing various resources to students for studying, no
introduction of up to date resources to students, students disinterest in
supplementary study, inflexibility of professors to change their teaching methods, and
students desire to use old method of lecture notes.
Zaker Salehi(2008) in a study titling examination of relationship between higher

education and social capital in Iran pointed out that the education system and level of
socialization of students are in a low level and universities only have taught academic
materials have not scientifically socialized students.
Considering the results of the second research questions, any change in teaching
methods can significantly affect students social capital. From among all elements of
curriculum, teaching method holds the highest correlation with students and closes to
social capital. According to the interviewees, to influence social capital some changes
in the teaching methods seem critical. Teaching methods are important from two
points of view. First, teaching method as a strategy for transferring the educational
content. And these strategies enable any increase of social capital through content of
the curriculum and type of teaching methods. Secondly, expansion of social capital
among students in much extent depends upon students communication methods
with other academics especially professors. Overall, teaching methods can greatly
facilitate this interaction or hinder it.
Valued student activities, teaching based on group work, presenting class projects and
assignment related to industry and society , using new teaching methods, up-to date
class materials, adaptation of study resources with schedules, diversity of study
29
resources, utilizing new electronic media for teaching are a few strategies were
mentioned by the interviewees.
Flick and Williamson (2005) concluded that diverse teaching methods cause increase
of students social capital like group learning and learning services.
With regard to the third research question, the first result after changing teaching
methods and involving students in these methods was internalization of collective
spirit among students. Assigning the responsibility of teaching or presenting
assignment related to the student labor market needs makes him/her in connection to
other social groups and institutions and consequently, consciously or unconsciously
the individual practices socialization. As a matter of fact, the predicted programs for
the curriculum enable planners that through other drivers affect the students
socialization process and facilitate it. Strengthening of group work, creation of an
environment for discussions, reinforcement of inquiry and being critical,
reinforcement of students responsibility and students participation in the process of
teaching are of consequences the interviewees referred to.
To answer the fourth question, the final research model, which is a combination of the
main category and its causal conditions, strategies and hypotheses, was designed as
follows. Fig 2. shows the final model.
Fig 2. Final model of teaching method
consequences Strategies Obstacles

Strengthening Valued students activities Unfamiliarity of
group activities professors to new
teaching media
and Group based teaching no desire to use training
creation of a aids
environment for Presenting class projects and assignment Unfamiliarity of
discussion related to industry and society professors to English
language
not interested in getting
Strengthening Using new teaching methods engaged in group
the spirit of activities
Up-to date class materials Professors disinterest
critical inquiry
in development of their
and criticism , adaptation of study resources with scientific capabilities
schedules being dishonest about
Strengthening doing projects and
assignments
students Diversity of study resources
lack of an atmosphere
responsibility Utilizing new electronic media for teaching for class discussion
lack of actual
Student participation of the
student in the teaching
participation in process
teaching being present in the class
process with a forcing
disciplinary
not introducing
various resources
to students for
studying
no introduction of
up to date
Social capital Social capital
resources to
component component students
Social capital
componentstudents
disinterest in
supplementary
study inflexibility of
professors to
change their
Increase of social capital teaching methods
students desire to
use old method of
lecture notes
30
The research findings indicate that decrease of social capital components like trust,
participation and integration among individuals after getting admitted at universities
is taking place. Actually, university can function as a proper context for most of
activities potentially increase social capital. Therefore, it is recommended that the
curriculum designers do not distinguish teaching methods from social capital and
integrate them together. It is much better than teaching methods that contribute to
maximization of social capital are overtly included in the curriculum in order to
prevent from any subjective judgment when teaching occurs.
Moreover, the current method in implementation of curriculum is facing with
recession. Here, a few modification need to be considered either for redesigning of the
curriculum or in appropriate implementation of it. To make some positive changes in
execution of the curriculum it is suggested that the active teaching method approach is
utilized. Also, the constructionist theories have to be used when planning for learning
to happen in the curriculums. According to the constructionist theory, curriculum
includes not only specification of objects but deep learning process is also as important
as the outcomes. Here, instead of presenting a series of sometimes unrelated concepts
and facts to students, it is attempted the learning activities go hand in hand with
engagement of students in problem solving situations.
Additionally, when designing curriculums professors have to be free to modify
partially or completely the curriculum on the basis of their students rate of
knowledge, interest and perseverance and besides helping students to learn give them
the opportunity to play their role in learning based on experience and learning they
have. In this approach, the learner authority should be greatly concentrated and the
learning process has to move from student to professor and vice versa.
In the active learning and learner-based method, if the goal is to increase social capital,
becoming a member of group highly matters. in this way, actual activity in form of a
group and responsibility each member toward the ultimate outcome , allows the
members to practice the key components of social capital such as trust, participation ,
and solidarity and get ready for the real life .
References
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32

Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 32-44, March 2014
Autocratic and Participative Coaching Styles and

Its Effects on Students Dance Performance
Desiree B. Castillo, Martina Alexandria V. Balibay, Jhuzel M. Alarcon,

Justine M. Picar, Raniel R. Lampitoc, Ma. Crizandra Baylon
Psychology Area
College of Liberal Arts and Sciences
Colegio de San Juan de Letran Intramuros
Manila, Philippines 1000
Allen A. Espinosa
Faculty of Science, Technology and Mathematics,
College of Teacher Development,
Philippine Normal University,
Manila, Philippines 1000
Abstract. Similar to sports, dancing is a skill that has to be mastered.

Coaching styles, or the manner in which instructions are delivered, plays a
factor in showcasing one's learning and mastery. Among the most
commonly applied coaching styles are autocratic and participative.
Autocratic style requires the coach to become directive and demanding.
While participative style calls for a compassionate and considerate coach.
The objective of this study was to determine which of the two coaching
styles, autocratic and participative, significantly influence dancers'
effectiveness in increasing dance performance. Samples of fourteen (14)
college students who are interested in learning dancing, with mean age of
17.4, participated in the experiment. Two groups were formed with equal
members obtained through random sampling. Then, they were exposed to
their respective condition, autocratic coaching, or participative coaching,
while learning dance performance. Effects of the condition to dance
performance were gathered using the self-constructed evaluation
instrument, which is made to measure the improvement of dance
performance. Between-posttest research design was used to address the
objectives. Effectiveness of the treatment to dance performance is thereby
determined. The results of the study showed that the autocratic coaching
style has a significant effect in influencing the performance of the
individuals, who are still beginning to master a skill. In conclusion,
autocratic coaching style affects the intrinsic motivation of an individual in
increasing the persons dance performance. Other coaching styles were not
significantly used in this study.
Keywords: coaching style; dance performance; autocratic; participative

33
Introduction
Dance is a form of art that is very popular nowadays. People dance for many
reasons. Through dancing, they can express their feelings and emotions, or
represent and convey their own culture. It is a prime means of expression as human
beings that may have originated in the form of rudimentary as early as 1.8 million
years ago, when the bipedal anatomy of Homo ergaster can move the body fully
which enhanced the communication and body language (Mithen, 2005 as cited in
Sevdalis&Keller, 2011). Dance is a universal behavior which has a unique style
(Niemitz, 2010 as cited in Fink et al, 2012). It is a complex sensor-action which
comprises a set of rhythm, intentional, non-verbal body movements but culturally
influenced (Fink, Weege, et. al., 2011).
There are different theories or perspective that support dance as a sport. According
to the normative-descriptive point of view by Nastase (2012, page 888), it is the
summing of the standardized structures, explained biomechanically by the skills
become execution patterns with technical efficiency (particular technical elements).
According to Piaget (1950; as cite in Nastase, 2012), result of the personal
experiences, an attitude transfers from the instructors to the performers, from the
dancers to the spectators, knowledge of self and of the environment through the
active intervention of the dance. Dance is an art-sport, which originates in the
social group or couple dance based on a time limited complex motion activity and
as execution rhythm, by a melody, and spatially by a dance floor (Nastase, 2012).
Coaching is a different occupation in the society because they are expected to give
gentle and good persons to the society; this occupation needs different style in
handling an individual or a team and a difficult job to master (Martens, 2004; as
cited in Khalaj et al, 2011). Coaching is an organized-provision of assistance to a
group or an individual to help them not only to develop but also to improve the
performance in their chosen sport (Kent, 2005). Coaching is one of the issues in
making a person perform better. There are two types of coaching types:
Participation Coaching and Performance Coaching. Participation coaching is taking
apart in the feelings of the team rather than preparing into the specific sport while
the other type is focuses on long term goals for preparation in different
competitions (Cross & Lyle, 2005). The success to achieve the goal and the preferred
coaching types are supported by different coaching style or philosophies.
Coaching style is defined where descriptive categorization of an individual

aggregates the behavior of a coach. This could be a useful mechanism in analyzing
coaching practice or it may be a superficial way of caricaturing the most obvious
elements of the behavior of a coach (Cross & Lyle, 2003). Coaching style also reflect
the value frameworks of coaches (Lyle, 2006). There are different coaching styles,
such as laissez-fair and humanistic approach. But the most common styles used in
sports are participative and autocratic coaching style.

34
Autocratic coaching style or intense style is applied when the coach assumes
authority and decision-making is centralized. An advantage of this coaching style
includes a directive and dominating coach who prepares the group or the
individual for any type of competition. However, the down side of this coaching
style is its one-way learning process. The coach tends to show lack of empathy and
he is the only one determining the rules, rewards, and the standards (Lyle, 2006).
While participative coaching style or nice-guy style, focuses more on allowing

high levels of participation with the members of the group. The advantageous
outcomes of this coaching style includes: a cohesive team and a relaxed atmosphere,
which makes members more involved in the teaching-learning process. Contrarily,
the coach may be seen as weak and there is a tendency for members to ignore his
directives (Lyle, 2006).
The effect of coaching style to dance performance is much related to, and may be
supported by Albert Banduras Social Learning Theory. Social learning theory
focuses on learning through observation and modeling. In his experiment of Bobo
Doll, Bandura concluded that children learn and imitate behaviors they have
observed in other people. Modeling can be classified into three, namely: a live
model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior;
the verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a
behavior; and lastly, the symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters
displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media. In this
experiment, observation and modeling through a live model is done. Participants
observed how their coach executes the dance routine and try to imitate it. There are
steps involved in observational learning and modeling process, these are: (1)
attention, (2) retention, wherein the participants retain the information that they are
seeing, and (3) reproduction, after the participants have seen and retained the steps
of the dance routine, it is now their time to execute the steps that their leader had
shown; and lastly, (4) motivation, in order to learn through observational learning,
the participants should be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled.
Thus, reinforcement and punishment is present (Bandura, 1971).
In the study, the four process of social learning as provided by the two coaching
styles involve participative coaching style and autocratic coaching style. For the
Autocratic Coaching style, the first process was undoubtedly seen during the
workshop. The participants were attentive and focused on the dance steps that their
coach was demonstrating. Worried that the coach might get angry if they will not
focus on each steps that was being demonstrated made them attentive. Thus the
second process was achieved. Retention was done when each members who were
attentively listening to their coachs instructions retains the information in their
memory. The third process, reproduction, was met when the members executed the
dance routine taught by their coach. For these three (3) processes to happen, the
participants must also undergo motivation. The motivation of the Autocratic Coach
is through punishment, the participants of the workshop were not allowed to have a

35
water break, to lean or to even sit unless routines are properly executed. Hence, the
participants were motivated to perform better for them to have a rest.
In the case of the participative coaching style, the four process of observational
learning was also present. Attention was visible in the participants although some
members may not be able to focus consistently because the coach was hardly strict.
The routine taught by the coach was retained in the memories of each participant
and was executed. For the Participative Group, it was the reinforcement that was
done in the experiment. The coach praised his member as they executed the routine
well and encourage them to perform better. This can be seen in the Participative
Coaching style. While in the Autocratic Coaching style, the coach will not give the
participants a time to rest until they memorized the routine and execute it well.
Context of Current Research

Research showed that one of the important foundations of influence in a group
setting is leadership (De Cremer & van Knippenberg, 2002; Dirks &Ferrin, 2002.
Indeed, Chemers (2001, p. 376) stated that leadership is a process of influence.
Autocratic coaching is a style of a leader that takes command without an asking

approach to his team. The autocratic coaching styles were used in a state where the
participant needs to learn a specific practice to further enhance their skills. This
coaching style is usually adopted in sports, military and etc autocratic style
leaders will do whatever they feel is necessary to provide the common good. They
decide which group members should contribute how much without asking anyone
for input. (Van Vugt, Sarah F, Jepson, M. Hart, & De Cremer, 2004). Autocratic
coaching encourages his team to have a good discipline, a task-oriented and a
respect for their leader. Thus, research also showed negative effects of being an
autocratic leader. The team being handled by autocratic leaders are grimly aroused,
thus the people do not favor autocratic leader because those types of leaders do not
motivate their followers to show loyalty and dedication towards the leader and the
team. Followers were only motivated to make the task accurate to impress their
leader. This conclusion is in line with a motivational account suggesting that
followers dedication and connectedness to the leader is only promoted if they are
positively aroused (Bass, 1998).
The other coaching style is the Participative style, a leadership style where the
leader takes asking approach to his team and adjust the routine if majority of the
team cant get the right thing to do the task. Participative leaders also base their
decisions on his teams opinions and approach. Research proven that being
intrinsically motivated to follow the welfare of the team is necessary to improve the
quality of performance and cooperation (De Cremer & Tyler, 2005). A team
performance depends to a large extent on how happy and motivated to follow the
collective welfare its members feel (Kelly &Barsade, 2001; Smith, Caroll, & Ashford,
1995). Research also shows that interactive result on motivation to work with the
leader was interceding by followers emotional reactions (De Cremer, 2006).

36
Followers were motivated because of the empathy being showed by participative

leaders, its ability to listen to the team, understand their feelings and thoughts on
things, and respond positively.
Research Objectives
The objective of this study is to determine which of the two coaching style,
specifically autocratic and participative, will best influence dancers in increasing
dance performance. The focus of the study is only geared to these two coaching
styles. Other styles of coaching are not included in this study (Bandura, 1971).
Hypothesis
Taken together, autocratic and participative coaching styles will determine the
outcome of the individuals performance after exposure to the conditioning done by
both coaching style how well ones exercised authority will determine its
influence in group performance. To test its main effect is valuable.
Null Hypothesis: Either of the two types of coaching style in this study will have no
significant difference on dance performance.
Hypothesis 1: Autocratic coaching style significantly increases dance performance.
Hypothesis 2: Participative coaching style significantly increases performance.
Research Simulacrum
Coaching Style:
Autocratic
Dance
Participative Performance
Figure 1. Conceptual framework
The paradigm illustrates the conceptual framework of the study and what coaching
style is more effective in a dance performance. The basis of conceptualizing the
effectiveness of coaching style in dance performance is to provide an opportunity of
understanding factors that may affect group performance. In this study, coaching
style is the umbrella of performance. The coaching styles used in this study focuses
on autocratic coaching and participative coaching. The two coaching style was
tested to see which will best influence dancers by significantly increasing their
performance.

37
Methods
A. Procedure
For the selection of participants, the sampling used was the Purposive Sampling,
wherein the researchers set criteria on how they picked their participants. The
criteria used were college students who were interested in dancing but have not
joined any dance groups or dance competitions yet. The implementation of the
experiment was done by conducting a free dance workshop to all college students
with the fixed criteria. Recruitment of participants was done through posting.
Twenty (25) students responded to the invitation. Number of members in each of
the two groups was dependent on the number of participants who joined the said
workshop, divided by two. It is to note that the number of participants must be
even to have an equal distribution of samples. On the first day of experimental
implementation, participants who have registered were assigned into two groups,
namely: Group A (autocratic), and Group P (participative), through fishbowl
method. Names of the participants were written on a piece of paper and hand-
picked for grouping. Those who fell under the first Group, Group A were handled
by an autocratic coach. On the other hand, those who fell under the second group,
Group P were handled by the participative coach.
Before the start of the workshop, the two leaders were oriented by the researchers
on how they will play the role of the autocratic and participative coaches. For the
coach of Group P, he was instructed to do the Participative coaching style. The
participative coach was more approachable than task-oriented. The coaches of this
type were more supportive to the members, they were instructive and ready to
reinforce, encourage and give positive feedback information to their members than
other coaches, thus increasing their members sense of competence, independence,
satisfaction and self-esteem (Chelladurai, 1993; Reimer &Toon, 2001; as cited in
Baric &Busick,2009). The coach in Group A was also instructed to do the Autocratic
coaching style. The coaches coaching style was more oriented towards task
accomplishment and outcome than towards people; they were highly oriented
towards results and winning. They were less supportive, less instructive and less
rewarding (Reimer &Toon, 2001; as cited in Baric &Burick,2009). The researchers
oriented them on the characteristics of the two coaching style that they will portray
in their respective groups during the dance workshop.
The dance workshop was held for two (2) days, each session has three(3) hours of
practice. In the workshop, the coaches taught their respective group a modern
dance, particularly a basic hip-hop dance, simultaneously. The dance routine was
taught by the coaches with the use of their designated coaching style within the
two-day period. On the last quarter of the second day, a mock dance competition
was held wherein the two dance groups competed with each other by performing
the dance routine taught by the two coaches. The dance performance of each group
was measured using dance criteria that were filled-up by 2 judges or dance experts.

38
Using the given criteria, the winner of the mock competition was determined and
announced.
B. Participants
The workshop had 14 participants with a mean age of 17.21 and a ratio of 9:5 male
and female who joined. All participants are college students who are interested in
dancing but have not joined any dancing competitions or dance groups yet.
C. Sampling Procedures
Purposive sampling was done in this study to set limitations on selecting
participants. To be consistent with the procedure, purposive sampling via fishbowl
method was done in dividing and distributing participants into groups for the
conditioning of the experiment. This was to avoid bias and randomizing
participants through subjective selection. This was also used to ensure that they
were distributed equally ---- without intentionally putting specific individuals
together by means of the researchers own judgment.
D. Research Design
The researchers conducted a posttest, between participants design. This design is
used to determine the effect of treatments to two different groups. It does not
employ pretest measures when participants are randomly assigned to conditions
considering some of the characteristics that they have. Since participants in the
study satisfied the research parameters, they were randomly assigned into two
groups and were exposed to different experimental treatment conditions: autocratic
coaching and participative coaching style dance groups, respectively. These
conditions were accounted for/by the definition of the independent variable which
was leadership style. Then the difference in their performance after the treatment is
determined.
E. Measures
In judging dance performance, researchers made a self-constructed evaluation
instrument. The following criteria were included in the instrument: overall
performance, moves execution, originality, and uniformity of the group. Its content
of this was validated by two (2) dance experts who have already judged in different
dance contests. After validating the content, it was decided that the criteria be
altered by focusing on the criteria for each individual. The criteria after validation
were changed into: foundation and self-confidence. Foundation is operationally
defined as the way in which the individual has established the execution of moves
in the routine. While self-confidence is also operationally defines as the process by
which the individual delivers his self during the dance.
Measures for coach selection for the experiment were not included. Instead,
confederates were oriented on how they will portray the character of the coaching
style assigned to them. The researchers explained the main purpose of the study to
the confederates and had them familiarized on the characteristics of the type of

39
leadership that they were to portray. To facilitate the display of participative

coaching, the confederate was told to exhibit a light atmosphere among the
participants and to build a relationship with them. This is to promote high level of
participation among the members of the group. It also allows them to voice out their
opinions and suggestions with regard to their coachs approach to instruction. For
the delivery of the autocratic coaching style, the confederate was encouraged to
exercise a directive and dominating interpersonal behavior, maintain discipline, and
employ task-oriented approach to the members of the group.
F. Data Analysis
The Researchers used the non-parametric test specifically, Mann-Whitney U-Test. It
is seen as more applicable than T-test of independent samples considering the small
number of samples used in the study, which ranges from 5 to 20. The test is
appropriate because of the two condition of the study in coaching style (Autocratic
and Participative). The criteria to rate each sample will be used to determine which
coaching style is more statistically effective. The mortality rate of the participants
caused the sample to decrease in size, with a total of fourteen (14) for the two
conditions.
Results
Table1. Hypothesis testing
Level of
Variable Mean p-value Decision rule
significance
Autocratic 9.79
0.040 = 0.05 Reject Ho
Participative 5.21
The results of the study shows that there is a significant difference between the two
coaching style that employs 0.040 at 0.05 level of significance, which meets
hypothesis 1: there is a significant increase on the performance of dancers in using
autocratic coaching style.
Discussion and Interpretation

The results obtained in the hypothesis testing showed that there is a significant
difference between the two (2) coaching style used in the dance performance of
Filipino adolescents. This shows that appropriate coaching style must be
implemented to improve dancers performance. Some of the related studies used in
the present research pertained to sports and since there is a dearth of literature on
dancing and coaching style. However, Nastase (2012) has indicated that dance is an
art-sport, which originates in the social group or couple dance based on a time

40
limited complex motion activity and as execution rhythm, by a melody, and

spatially by a dance floor. Hence, literature on coaching styles and its relevance to
sports have been used.
Results of the experiment performed in the present study show that autocratic
coaching style is better than participative coaching style in increasing dance
performance. In addition to the statistical evidence, participants reported that they
have perceived their coachs strict stance in implementing rules and greater demand
in compliance positively. Through that approach, they became motivated to learn
the routine well. Some of the dancers in the autocratic group were very intimidated
with their leader. But rather than be combative, they became cooperative so they
performed better. Additionally, the possibility of appraisal from their coach once
they perform better than the other group reinforced them to execute the dance
routines competitively. From this statement, it can be concluded that dancers in the
autocratic group depend on the rewards that may be given by their coach.
On the other hand, this result negated previous literatures. Amorose and Horn
(2000), in their research about athletes intrinsic motivation and its association with
coaches behavior strengthened the hypothesis that higher intrinsic motivation
stems from a leadership style that emphasized training and instruction with high
democratic coaching behavior. Similarly, Jayasingam (2009) has proven that a
participative and nurturant-task leader behavior is more effective than that of
autocratic. Group members prefer supportive and considerate leaders to become
more cooperative and functional in achieving group goals. Quality of performance
and cooperation will be at its greater peak when the coach is compassionate and
empathic (De Cremer, 2006; Kelly &Barsade, 2001; Smith, Caroll, & Ashford, 1995).
Participative style of leadership, as used in this study focused on allowing high

level of member participation, inspirational motivation, and very low intensity
during practice. Statistical proof from this study stressed its insignificant effect on
dance performance. The dancers attention was hardly focused on their coach.
Rather, they were more into each others concerns. Simultaneously, the coach was
lenient so dance routines were not accordingly executed as expected. Supported by
the interview and observation made, researchers had generalized that participative
coaches tend to give vague goals compared to autocratic leaders, who state more
defined goals for accomplishment. Thus, this coaching style has not significantly
improved dance performance. Although the autocratic coach was very strict, it
increased the group members focus of attention in learning the dance routines.
Moreover, they became more goal-oriented since goals were clearly set.
An autocratic leader is a leader who is very strict, directive, and makes use of his
power of influence from his position to control rewards and force the followers to
comply with his instructions (Blau& Scott, 1963; Daft, 2005; Jogulu& Wood, 2006).
This style of leadership is most appropriate for participants who are still in the
process of learning and developing their skills (Van Vugt, Sarah F, Jepson, M. Hart,

41
& De Cremer, 2004). Given the sample parameters in this study, autocratic coaching
style worked better in improving their dance performance. Since participants are
still on the first stages of developing their dance skills, with only their interest to
learn as their initial investment, task-oriented coaching style worked. Participants
valued discipline and obedience so they were geared towards enhancement of their
dance skills (Bass, 1998).
Researchers also found out that Zone of Proximal Development or the ZPD,
conceptualized by Lev Vygotsky, also has an association in the learning of the
dancers. The common conception of the zone of proximal development
presupposes an interaction between a more competent person and a less competent
person on a task, such that the less competent person becomes independently
proficient at what was initially a jointly-accomplished task (Chaeklin, page 2). The
interaction between a more competent person to a less competent one have a direct
impact on the latter on a specific field. Relating this aspect to the present study, it
was evident that the dance masters and all the dance learners achieved harmony in
order to finish a common task. In addition, people who have the willingness to learn
or have the properties of the learner can focus on the task at hand. The
participants interest to learn dancing has made a significant effect on dance
performance in the present study. Their interest in dancing facilitated easier
understanding of instructions and lessons given by the dance masters. They have
ruled out the way in which it was delivered; that is, despite the autocratic style of
coaching shown. Apparently, their readiness to learn inspired them to further their
knowledge and skills in dancing.
The limitations of this study provide some opportunities for future research. In this
study, there was limited number of participants with only fourteen (14) college
students. Age range was also limited to 16-19 years of age. Greater number of
participants and another set of age range must be considered to generate better data
and results. It will be of interest to employ a comparative study on the effect
coaching styles on dance performance with age ranges as its point of comparison.
Additional leadership styles in the future studies may provide more evidences to
prove the effect of leadership style in dance performance. Thus, to enhance
generalizability of findings, future research should examine how learning goal
orientation and different genre of dance relate to leadership styles.
Conclusions
Coaching style is an important factor for leaders of dance groups. This serves as
their guide in instructing dance routines and providing motivation to their group to
improve the performance. Based from the results, autocratic coaching style is an
effective way to enhance performance of individuals who are still on the initial
stages of skills development. Therefore, to facilitate beginners dance skills, a dance
master should display a directive approach in delivering instructions. Beginners
consider their master as a competent person who will most likely lead them to
betterment. And so, they show effortless obedience to instructions. Alternatively,

42
participative coaching is less effective to beginners despite presence of interest to

learn. When ones current level of knowledge and skills on a certain task,
particularly dancing, still falls short on the average, it results to mediocre input;
thereby generating poor performance. A coach who shows high leniency to
beginners may misdirect them towards goal accomplishment. Hence, aspects of the
Zone of Proximal Development and processes of social learning involved in the
facilitation of successful learning outcomes must be observed.
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45

Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 45-68, March 2014
Impact of Teacher-Gender on Primary Students

Achievement: A Case Study at Bangladesh
Standpoint
Dr. Kazi Enamul Hoque and Mosa Fatema Zohora

Faculty of Education
University of Malaya, Malaysia
Abstract: This study attempts to find the impact of gender in primary

teaching profession on student achievement. The quantitative method of
research was used for this study. This research uses test scores of
primary grades for five consecutive years which is obtained from a
school in Bangladesh. This study engages a total of 1 school, 20 classes,
20 teachers and 504 students. The overall finding in this study is that
men are slightly better to teach in primary when the test scores are
analyzed. Although there are some differences in the breakdown
analysis, the combined result analysis do not find strong evidence to
claim whether students have to be taught by teachers of same or
alternative gender. The findings of this study provide important
information for the policy makers and especially for the primary
teachers recruiters in primary schools of Bangladesh.
Keywords: teacher-gender; primary school; student achievement
1.1 Background of the study
The bulk of statistics around the world consistently confirms that teaching
profession is predominantly held by the feminine gender. Congruently, growing
concerns assert that boys have been continuously under performing in schools as
compared to girls. This pattern of results led to the assumption that boys
underperformance is due to the underrepresentation of men in the teaching
profession. As such, policies have being recommended to increase recruitment of
male teachers in countries like UK, Australia, USA, Finland and New Zealand
(Carrington, Francis, Hutchings, Skelton, Read, & Hall, 2007). As a result,
research in education and gender which were previously much focused on
gender differences in student achievement, has been diverted to the effect of
teacher gender on student achievement. The present study is a contribution to
the existing researches on the impact of teacher gender on student achievement
examining the fundamental question of whether men or women are more
suitable to teach in primary grades.

46
Despite the many challenges Bangladesh has made remarkable achievements in

meeting local and international standards in terms of education. Early childhood
care and education has been expanded, primary education has been
universalised, secondary education has seen marked growth, illiteracy has been
nearly eliminated, and higher secondary opportunities have been expanded by
establishing several schools in the city (MOE, 2011). Moreover, Bangladesh has
been successful in achieving the Millennium Development Goals far ahead of the
target year (Planning Commission, 2009). Like most of the south-Asian
countries, statistics for Bangladesh show that the number of males in the
teaching profession far outweighs the number females. Based on statistics
available (World Bank, 2010), there are a total of 365925 primary teachers in the
country out of which 152956 are females. This represents 41.80% of the total
teachers. Looking into the share of teacher gender in primary schools, it is found
that 59.20% of primary teachers are still males. The government has taken
initiative to give female more than equal opportunity having provision of 60%
quota reservation for female teachers. This is because women are considered
backward citizen and under the section 28(4) and 29(3) of the constitution, they
deserve the special privilege. Immediately after this initiative since 1990, the
number of female teachers has been increasing dramatically in primary schools.
Table 1.1 Numbers of Teachers and Percentage of Female Teachers in Government

Primary Schools:
Year Total Male Female Female (%)
1990 160,869 127,777 33,092 20.57
1991 160,098 126,341 33,757 21.1
1992 156,480 122,700 33,780 21.6
1993 157,633 120,104 37,529 23.8
1994 159,149 119,325 39,824 25.0
1995 158,658 115,950 42,708 26.9
1996 161,458 116,250 45,208 28.0
1997 158,057 113,655 44,402 28.1
1998 153,247 105,392 47,855 31.2
1999 158,317 105,072 53,245 33.6
2000 158,216 104,588 53,680 33.9
2001 162,090 101,082 61,008 37.6
2002 157,236 98239 58,997 37.5
2003 162,114 100,159 61,955 38.22
Source: Primary Education Statistics in Bangladesh, 2003
The increasing trend shows that the number of female teachers will soon
outweigh the number of male. The primary education is a sensitive issue for a
country. To ensure the quality of education should be the priority rather than
providing the platform for the backward section of people. That is because only
quality teachers can ensure the quality education (Hoque et al., 2010).
Recently, there have been several arguments that boys under achievement in
education is due to female dominance in the teaching profession (Driessen, 2007;

47
Carrington & McPhee, 2008; Skelton, 2002). The underlining argument for this is
that lack of male role models could have negative consequences for the
achievement and behaviour of boys (Driessen, 2007). If the argument is true, it
indicates that immediate steps are necessary in order to ensure gender equity in
education. As the statistics for gender representation in teaching profession and
also the gender gap in student achievement in Bangladesh is consistent with the
rest of the world, it became necessary that such a study be conducted in the
context of Bangladesh.
Owing to what has been explained in the preceding discussion, it is logical to

appeal for policy recommendations that were put forward in the western
countries. As such, a gender related study is significantly important before
implementing such policies. Hence, the purpose of this study is to examine if the
gender of the teacher has any impact on student performance in the primary.
Although inspired by a good intention, due to limitations in time and resources,
the study does not stand to generalize the results.
1.2 Objectives
The specific objectives intended to achieve by this research are:
To find out whether there is any difference in the performance of men and
woman in teaching to primary grades.
To examine if matching or differentiating the gender of the students from that
of the teachers would bring in any significant change in student performance.
1.3 Research Questions

In order to achieve the objectives of the research two fundamental research
questions (RQs) have been deployed. The first research question compares the
average marks of the classes against teachers gender. The second research
question compares the average of each group of students (i.e., boys and girls
separate) against teachers gender.
1. Is there any difference between male and female teachers based on

students test results?
2. Is there any difference between male and female teachers based on
students test as compared to their gender?
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Since mid 1990s the studies were found to be increasing focused on the concerns
of feminizing the education especially in the primary which led to such
arguments as under representation of male teachers lead to lack of male role
models in education and hence lower boys performance (Driessen, 2007). In this
section, the findings of these studies are presented under three subheadings (1)
those studies which focused on finding the effect of matching teacher and
student gender, (2) those which focused on teachers gender and its impact on
student achievement, and (3) those which focused on gender differences in the
types of relationships between teachers and students.

48
2.1 The gender match
The vast majority of studies in this line of research are concentrated in Britain
due to the recommendation of the policy makers to increase recruitment of male
teachers owing to the assumption that boys under achievement in education is
caused by underrepresentation of men in teaching. Almost all studies, however,
find contrary evidence to the policy recommendation that matching students
with the gender of the teachers does not necessarily bring in any positive
outcomes in student performance.
The study by Carrington et al., (2007) reported results which are contrary to the
famous policy recommendation. In this qualitative study, the researchers
interviewed 300 elementary school students in England in order to understand
their perception of better teachers whether males or females. The study
revealed that the gender of teachers had little apparent effect on the academic
motivation and engagement of either boys or girls. Instead, students value
teachers who were consistent and supportive regardless of their gender.
Research with similar types of designs in Holland confirmed that teacher sex has
no affect whatsoever on the achievement, attitudes or behaviour of pupils
(Driessen, 2007). The policy of recruiting more men into primary education to
ensure demonstration of male role models has also been criticized by Jones
(2003). By exploring the views of female teachers in the primary, the study
concluded that recruiting more males should not necessarily improve boys
performance.
The researchers postulated that the recruitment process should rather be focused
on selecting the right kind of men. Similarly, the study by Skelton, (2002) also
reported that both students and teachers reject the notion that students perform
better when matched by the teachers gender. Moreover, it was reported that the
abilities of the individual teacher is more important than gender and sort of
student teacher relationships (Francis, Skelton, Carrington, Hutchings, Read, &
Hall, 2008). Although the majority of the researches report that gender matching
does not necessary improve student performance, there are yet some studies
which indicate positive impacts of gender matching. The study by Carrington &
McPhee (2008) examined the commonly held belief that the gender gap in
achievement stems from the shortage of male role models in teaching, especially
at primary level. The researchers were much attracted by the existing literature
on the influence of teacher gender on classroom interaction and educational
outcomes which argue that students perform better when taught by teachers of
the same gender. The(Carrington & McPhee, 2008) study found that the majority
of those interviewed believe that increasing the number of male teachers would
ultimately serve to reduce the gender gap in achievement by increasing boys
academic engagement.
Other studies also found results supporting positive effects of gender matching.
It has been reported that assignments of a same gender teacher significantly
improves the performance of both boys and girls (Lam et al., 2010). The study by
Dee (2007) investigated the prevailing beliefs that gender gap in student

49
outcomes is a result of interactions between teachers and students. The study

reported that matching gender of the teacher with that of the students is
associated with better student performance.
2.2 Teacher gender and student achievement
Quite a number of studies have been conducted in this line of research. In this
regard, after a collaborative study of 180 struggling boy readers in Grades 3 and
4 over a 10-week period, four professors from the University of Alberta and the
University of Winnipeg (Canada) concluded that these students performed
better when taught by a female teacher (ORegan, 2007). Although it is concluded
as such the authors also highlighted some of the other factors such as the
teaching materials used, the interest level of the students towards the subject, the
family background and socio-economic status of the students and so on which
could have some impact on student performance.
Interestingly, all the 180 students who were chosen to participate in this
programme were from low socio-economic status backgrounds, improved their
performance regardless of teachers gender although students from the female
teachers were found to be more confident in reading. Karieg (2005) explored the
impact of student and teacher gender differences on standardized tests using a
large set of data on a longitudinal basis. This study reported three interesting
findings: (1) boys perform worse and obtained less scores on maths, reading and
writing as they move from third grade to fourth grade, (2) students of male
teachers perform worse as compared to those of female teachers regardless of
students gender, (3) there is no significant difference between the performance
of boys and girls of male teachers. Out of these findings, the final one is in strong
support of what has been largely found by the researches on the impact of
gender matching.
After interviewing with a number of students (Myhill & Jones, 2006) found out
that on one hand teachers of either gender tend to treat boys negatively as
compared to girls while one the other and they also expect girls to perform
better both in terms behaviour as well as academics. Based on this, it is more
logical to appeal that boys underperformance is due to differential treatments
between boys and girls rather than being taught by a female teacher. The study
also found out that male teachers tend to be biased by gender whereas female
teachers are perceived to be less influenced by gender expectations. A large scale
study done in Hong Kong with 148 primary teachers and 4867 grade 4 pupils
found that students of both gender perform better when taught by woman
(Lamet al, 2010). This study found contrary evidence to those studies which
report that boys perform better when taught by men. The findings of a
longitudinal study in Mexico showed results consistent with many other
researches that there is evidence that students of female teachers perform
comparatively better than those of males (Luschei, 2011). The researcher,
however, argue that this does imply that male teachers are less effective rather
it could be due to some other related factors.

50
After examining data from longitudinal studies (Ehrenberg, Goldhaber, &

Brewer, 1995) reported that test scores of white female students in mathematics
and science did not increase more rapidly when the teacher was a white woman
than when the teacher was a white man. The study, however acknowledged that
white female teachers evaluated their female students more highly than did
male teachers.
The studies reviewed so far depict that females are somewhat better than males
in teaching to primary students. Nevertheless, a fair number of studies have in
fact found contrary evidence to this. A study conducted for year 3 elementary
school pupils and their teachers revealed that both students and teachers
perceive that the gender of the teachers does not matter as such with regard to
student motivation and interactions, and consequently the performance of the
students as well (Skelton, Carrington, Francis, Hutchings, Read, & Hall, 2009).
The majority of the respondents believe that it is the traits and qualities of the
teacher that play a more significant role than gender stereo-types.
2.3 Teacher gender and student-teacher interactions
The gender differences in the interactions between students and teachers have
been an interesting line of research on the topic. The vast majority of existing
literature suggests that male and female teachers demonstrate different
behaviour in their classroom interactions with the students. In this regard,
females are found to be more approachable, easy to communicate and
supportive whereas male teachers are found to be more strict and authoritative
(Meece, 1987). A study by (Rodriguez, 2002) which involved a survey of teachers
indicates that male teachers are likely to select a more aggressive disciplinary
approach toward boys. The study also reported that teachers of both gender
tend to consider minor disruptive behaviour of girls than that of boys.
Hopf and Hatzichristou (1999) conducted a study to examine gender-related

differences in student-teacher interactions in Greek classrooms focusing on
teacher gender. Although the study was not an attempt to compare student
results, it was found that teacher gender stereotyping has a greater impact on
several factors such as perceptions, interactions, and expectations, as well as
children's functioning and development. Carrington, Tymms, & Merrell (2008)
studied empirical data from British primary education to test the hypothesis that
male teachers produce more positive attitudes amongst boys and female
teachers amongst girls. The results gave little support for those who advocate
boys perform better when taught by male teachers and girls performs better
when taught by female teachers. There have been a number of attempts to study
the climate of the classroom as a means of student-teacher relationships. These
studies depict mixed evidences. While many of these studies suggest that there
is a gender biasness in such relationships male teachers providing a more
positive atmosphere for boys some others report that female teachers provide a
more positive climate overall. However, there are still some researches which
found exactly the opposite that male teachers tend to treat more equably
whereas female teachers are biased in favour of girls.

51
An experimentally designed study of a group of boys and girls revealed that

female teachers tend to give most of their sex-role connected rewards for
feminine behaviour to both boys and girls while on the other hand male teachers
rewarded more equably, masculine behaviours for boys, feminine behaviours
for girls (McCandless, Bush, & Carden, 1976). On the other hand, after observing
11 female and 10 male elementary school teachers Stake & Katz (1982) concluded
that female teachers were more positive than male teachers in their attitudes and
behaviour towards their students providing a more positive classroom
atmosphere overall.
Responses from teachers who took part in the Hong Kong study suggest that
male teachers are more authoritarian, prefer to control pupils learning, engage
pupils in whole-class reading and like to read passages aloud while pupils
follow the text (Lam et al, 2010). The same study found contrasting styles of
interactions from female teachers where they prefer to teach reading in groups,
to group pupils according to reading ability, set tasks that suit pupils stage of
learning, allocate more time for pupils to read books and use the school library
and encourage pupils to discover for themselves the meaning of new vocabulary
encountered in text. This gives strong support to the argument that differences
in student achievement is more due to differences in teacher abilities rather than
the gender of the teacher as such.
The type of interaction between teachers and students is believed to have some
impact on student motivation. This presumption is derived from the theories of
social learning and gender stereotypic model according to which boys do better
academically in classes taught by males and girls do better in classes taught by
females. However, academic motivation and engagement does not significantly
vary as a function of their teacher's gender, and boys do not fare any better with
male teachers than female teachers (Martin & Marsh, 2005).
2.4 Hypotheses
Based on literature review the following null and alternative hypotheses

are developed accordingly.
For Research Question 1

Ho : There is no significant difference between male and female teachers
based on students results.
Ha : There is a significant difference between male and female teachers
based on students results.
For Research Question 2

Ho: There is no significant difference between male and female teachers
based on students results, with regard to students gender.
Ha : There is a significant difference between male and female teachers
based on students results, with regard to students gender.

52
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The quantitative method of research was used for this study. According to
Creswell (2009) the quantitative methods determine whether the predictive
generalization of a theory or hypothesis is accurate. With this regard,
quantitative approach is any kind of research that is mainly used to test or verify
theories or explanations. Thus, it identifies variables to study and relate those
variables in questions or hypotheses by using statistical standards of validity
and reliability, and employ statistical procedures for analysis (Creswell, 2009). A
researcher who uses quantitative approach generally has a very clear idea about
what is being measured before they start measuring it, and their study is set up
with controls and a very clear outline (Keith, 1998). Since the aim of this research
is to find out whether man or women are more suitable for teaching in primary
schools, which is a gender comparison, T test was believed to be the most
appropriate.
T test is used when you have one nominal variable and one measurement
variable, and you want to compare the mean values of the measurement
variable. The nominal variable must have only two values, such as "male" and
"female" (McDonald, 2009).
3.2 Population and Sampling
This research uses secondary data (test scores) of primary grades for five
consecutive years which is obtained from a school in Bangladesh. Two classes
from grade four and two classes from grade five for a period of five years were
then selected by considering the gender of teachers who taught those classes.
Thus, this study engages a total of 1 school, 20 classes, 20 teachers and 504
students. Several criteria were considered in selecting the sample. The very
initial idea is to obtain data for minimum of five years to make the findings
accurate. Then the gender was considered in a way that tests the hypothesis as
accurately as possible where both male and female teachers contributed teaching
in these twenty classes during the sampled period. Grades 4 and 5 were chosen
particularly due to this reason as there were all female or male teachers for some
of the grades during the sampled period. Out of the seven subjects taught in the
primary, only mathematics marks is used in the research. This is so because on
one hand teacher gender has to be made as proportional as possible and on the
other hand because of the nature of this study.
3.3 Data Collection

The research is primarily based on quantitative method where secondary data or
otherwise documented data is used to test the hypothesis. Merriam (1988)
defines documents as any form of data not gathered through interviews or
observations. As proposed by Neuman (2006) availability of document based
data or the existing statistics are first analysed to creatively fit into the research
context and is collected by considering the research questions and variables (set
out for this particular research) in mind. Documented data inform research by

53
enhancing the credibility of the research findings and interpretations. Such data
can be used to describe, understand and explain how things function at the
sample sites (Merriam, 1998). The quantitative data collected for this research
was obtained from a rural school located in the north province of People
Republic of Bangladesh. The school principal was first approached through
mobile phone to see the possibilities of obtaining the final mark sheets of their
primary grades (levels 1 -5) for five years period along with the gender of the
teachers who taught the specific subjects. Then, a phone call requesting for the
data from the specified grades were made to make the inquiry more formal. The
data was first provided for 2008, 2009 and 2010 due to unavailability of data in
spread sheet format.
However, upon a further request for the scanned copies of the data for 2006 and
2007, was later forwarded through email after compiling them in the spread
sheet format. A further request was sent to one of the leading teacher through
another phone call and a reminder was sent through a mobile text message as
the data lacks the gender of the teachers who taught the various subjects for the
primary grades classes during the sampled time period, i.e. from 2006 to 2010.
There are many advantages and disadvantages in using secondary data. The
obvious advantages in this case were the cost and time. This study used the final
mark sheets of the above school for a period of five years. Although the initial
design was to include all primary scores, due to limitations in obtaining data the
study was narrowed down to grades 4 and 5 and also to one subject, that is
Mathematics. The school mark sheets were the 5 years records of their students
marks obtained in all the subjects of which Mathematics marks were chosen
and there is no manipulation of the research setting necessary with this.
3.4 Data Analysis

Since the objective of the study is to see if there is any difference between male
and female teachers in the mean scores of their respective classes, the statistical
analysis employed in this study is the T test. T test is calculated using a formula
that has the difference between the means (of the males and females) in the
numerator denoted by means. This makes the value of t get larger as the
means get further apart. The denominator is the standard error of the difference
in the means, denoted by S2, which gets smaller as the sample variances decrease
or the sample sizes increase (McDonald, 2009). Thus, the t value gets larger as
the means get farther apart, the variances get smaller, or the sample sizes
increase. Consequently, a small t value indicates the difference is statistically not
significant. In order to reject the null hypothesis the probability of significance is
set to 5% (p = .05) which is the standard used in most of the researches in social
science.
3.5 Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are two main characteristics of any set of data a
researcher has to consider (Keith, 1998). The concept of validity is used to judge
whether the research accurately describes the phenomenon that it is intended to
describe. Since the primary aim of this research is to find out whether man or
women are more suitable for teaching in primary schools, by considering the

54
academic achievement of the students and the gender of the teachers, the
validity of the data is pursued as the data is documented for their own purpose.
As suggested by Cohen, Manion, & Morrison (2007), the standards and criteria
of validity and reliability is considered as authenticity and credibility of the data.
The data (students test mark) obtained was produced from the students test
scores of various years which was printed in the students progress report. In
Bangladesh, primary schools provide students marked answer scripts back to
the students which they can take home where parents can go through and reflect
and compare with the students progress report. This pursues the issue of
authenticity and credibility. In this context the data is very dependable as there
is no manipulation and control of any variable as the data were produced and
obtained for internal and official purpose of the school.
3.6 Limitations
As the research is basically conducted by analysing students, academic
achievement and gender of the teachers who taught them, a very fore fronted
limitation is that the research does not address the other factors that might
influence students, academic achievement. This includes the ability levels of the
selected students sample, socio economic background of the students,
competency level and pedagogical knowledge of the teachers, and instructional
support by the grade supervisors. Another limitation of the research is that it
does not consider the lower grades (grades 1 to 3). Moreover, there is no attempt
made to relate it to the other subjects since it is only the marks of Mathematics
which is taken into account. As such, the researchers do not claim to generalise
the findings to other subjects and even to the primary schools.
3.7 Ethical consideration

The major ethical consideration with this research design was in the use of
students marks. The school principal was first contacted in inquiring for the data
and the purpose and how it would be used was explained during the first phone
conversation. Later same information along with the people who would have
access to the data was stated in the text-message inquiry. The confidentiality of
the school was also ensured by not disclosing the name and their personal
information in the research. Only relevant details that helped in answering the
research questions were included.
4.0 FINDINGS
Two research questions have been set out to achieve the objectives of this study.
The first question was targeted to examining class averages (boys and girls
mixed) based on teachers gender. The second question was aimed at refining the
finding by examining the impact of teacher gender on student performance
(gender wise). This chapter reports the findings for each of these questions.
4.1 Impact of gender on students test results

In order to find the impact on students test result, data was analyzed at two
levels first a grade wise comparison (grades 4 and 5 separately) and then
comparing the aggregate results of the two grades.

55
4.1.1 Finding from grade 4 data

Table 1 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male teachers
and female and also the mean for the whole group of students.
Table 4.1 Group Statistics (Grade 4)
Table 4.1.1. Mean marks and standard deviaiton

Teacher (Gender) Mean N Std. deviation
Male 57.0000 6 8.64870
Female 50.2500 4 2.75379
Total 54.3000 10 7.49889
Based on table 4.1, the performance of male teachers is found to be better as

compared to female teachers in which the mean for students taught by male
teachers is 57.00 whereas for the female teachers it is 50.25. Moreover, the
performance of female teachers is also found to be even less than the average for
the whole sample (54.30) while on the other hand the average for the male
teachers is higher.
Even though men are known to perform better when referring to the arithmetic
means, it is also necessary to find that the difference is statistically significant.
Independent sample t test was performed for this purpose and the result is
shown in table 4.2. Since that significance value is .176 (p > .05) the null
hypothesis has to be accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference
between male and female teachers based on the average of the class. Even
though men are known to perform better when referring to the arithmetic
means, it is also necessary to find that the difference is statistically significant.
Independent sample t test was performed for this purpose and the result is
shown in table 4.2. Since that significance value is .176 (p > .05) the null
hypothesis has to be accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference
between male and female teachers based on the average of the class.
Table 4.2 Independent Sample T Test (Grade 4)

Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean Std. error
tailed) Dif f Difference
erence
AVGMARKS .176 6.7500 4.54577
Equal 0.051 1.485 8
variances 5.251 1.781 1.781 6.390 .122 6.7500 3.78979
Assumed.
Equal
variances
not assumed

56
b) Findings from Grade 5 Data

Table 4.3 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male teachers
and female and also the mean for the whole group of students of grade 5.
Table 4.3 Group Statistics (Grade 5) - AVGMARKS

Male 48.3333 6 5.50151
Female 34.7500 4 8.99537
Total 42.9000 10 9.64307
Based on table 4.3, the performance of male teachers is found to be better as

compared to female teachers in which the mean for male teachers is 48.33
whereas the mean for female teachers is 34.75. As compared to the group
average (42.90) male teachers are found to be doing better than that of female
teachers.
Table 4.4 Independent Sample T Test (Grade 5)

Test for
Equality of
Variances
erence
AVGMARKS .843. .385 2.998 8 .017 13.5833 4.53047
Equal
variances 4.514 .047 13.5833 5.02729
Assumed. 2.702
Equal
variances
not assumed
The independent sample t test confirms that the observed difference in mean is
statically significant as shown in table 4.4. Since the significance value is .017 (p
< .05) the null hypothesis can be rejected. Thus, in case of grade 5, there is a
significant difference between male and female teachers based on the average of
the class. The independent sample t test confirms that the observed difference in
mean is statically significant as shown in table 4.4.
Since the significance value is .017 (p < .05) the null hypothesis can be rejected.
Thus, in case of grade 5, there is a significant difference between male and
female teachers based on the average of the class. The independent sample t test
confirms that the observed difference in mean is statically significant as shown
in table 4.4. Since the significance value is .017 (p < .05) the null hypothesis can
be rejected. Thus, in case of grade 5, there is a significant difference between
male and female teachers based on the average of the class.

57
c) Finding from Combined data

Table 4.5 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male and
female teachers and also the mean for the whole group of students (grades 4 and
5 combined).
Table 4.5 Group Statistics (Grade 4 and 5 combined) - AVGMARKS

Male 52.6667 12 8.26090
Female 42.5000 8 10.32334
Total 48.6000 20 10.24130
According to table 4.5 the performance of male teachers is found to be better as

compared to female teachers in which the mean for male teachers is 52.67
whereas for the female teachers the mean is 42.50. The mean for females is also
found to be lower than the mean for the whole group (48.60). When independent
sample T test was performed, as shown in table 4.6, it is understood that the
reported difference in mean is also statistically significant (level of significance is
.025, p < .05). Thus, the alternative hypothesis can be accepted meaning that
there is a significant difference between male and female teachers based on the
average of the whole group of sample.
Table 4.6 Independent Sample T Test (Grade 4 and 5 combined)

Test for
Equality of
Variances
erence
AVGMARKS .559 .464 . 18 .025 10.1667 4.16203
Equal 2.443
variances 12.771 .037 10.1667 4.35958
Assumed.
Equal 2.332
variances
not assumed
4.2 Male or female teachers performance based on students gender

Results for this questions were also analyzed at two levels a grade wise
comparison (grades 4 and 5 separately) and then comparing the aggregate
results of the two grades.
a) Finding from Grade 4 Data

Table 4.7 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male teachers
and female and also the mean for the whole group of grade four students.

58
Table 4.7 Group Statistics cross gender (Grade 4) - AVGMARKS

Teacher N Mean Std. deviation Std error
(Gender) Mean
Boysavg: 6 54.1667 11.51376 4.69042 4.70047
Male/Female 4 51.0000 2.34521
Girlsavg: 6 58.6667 7.11805 7.72442 2.90593 3.86221
Male/Female 4 49.5000
From the above table it shows that when compared against the average of boys,
male teachers performance was better than female teachers where the
performance of males is 54.16 and that of females is 51.00. Similarly, when the
averages for girls are compared it is also found that male teachers perform better
with an average of 58.67 whereas the mean for female teachers is 49.50. Hence,
when the teachers performance is measured against the difference in
achievement of boys and girls, in both the cases male teachers do better than
female teachers. There is no indication that the average performances of the
students when taught by teachers of alternative gender are better than the
average performances of the students when taught by the teachers of
corresponding gender.
Although differences were observed in the arithmetic means, the t test results for
the data show that the existing differences are not statistically significant (Table
4.8). Since the significant value for boys is .621 (p > .05), the null hypothesis has
to be accepted. Thus, there is no significant difference between male and female
teachers when the boys performance is considered. Similarly, since the
significant value for girls is .089, p > .05, the null hypothesis has to be accepted.
Therefore, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers
when the girls performance is considered
Table 4.8 Independent Sample T Test cross gender (Grade 4)

Lev ene's Test t-test f or Equality of Means
for Equality of
Variances
erence
BOYSAVG 4.997 .056 .514 8 .621 3.1667 6.16117
Equal .603 7.069 .565 3.1667 5.25304
variances
Assumed.
Equal
variances
not assumed
GIRLSAVG .004 .951 1.932 8 .089 9.1667 4.74525
Equal
variances 1.897 6.171 .105 9.1667 4.83333
Assumed.
Equal
variances
not assumed

59
The t test was also performed to see if matching teachers gender with students
results in any significant difference. In order to do this, the results of boys and
girls are compared against the teachers gender. Table 4.9 shows the results of
this comparison.
Table 4.9 Independent Sample T Test - same gender (Grade 4)

Test for
Equality
of
Variances
Teacher F Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean Std. error
gender tailed) Diff Difference
erence
Female Equal 0.952941 0.366672 0.33197 6 0.751202 1.5 4.518481
variances
male assumed 2.348266 0.156426 -0.8143 10 0.434434 -4.5 5.5262
As seen from table 4.9, there is no significant difference between boys and girls
irrespective of teachers gender. When taught by female teachers the significance
value is .75, p > .05 and for male teacher it is .43, p > .05. Hence, there is no
significant difference between male and female teachers whether teach to
students of same gender or otherwise.
b) Findings from Grade 5 Data

female teachers and also the mean for the whole group of students.
Table 4.10 Group Statistics cross gender (Grade 5)

(Gender) Mean
Boysavg: 6 45.1667 6.70572 2.73760
Male/Female 4 35.5000 6.13732 3.06866
Girlsavg: 6 51.8333 7.90991 3.22921

Male/Female 4 41.2500 1.25831 .62915
Table 4.10 shows that when compared against the average of boys, male
teachers performance is better with an average of 45.17 whereas female teachers
produced an average of 35.50. Similarly, when the averages for girls are
compared it is also found that male teachers perform better with an average of
51.83while the mean for female teachers is 41.25. Hence, when the teachers
performance is measured against the difference in achievement of boys and
girls, in both the cases male teachers perform better than female teachers.

60
Table 11 Independent Sample T Test cross gender (Grade 5)

Test for
Equality of
Variances
erence
BOYSAVG .026 .877 2.304 8 .050 9.6667 4.19470
Equal 2.351 7.011 .051 9.6667 4.11231
variances
Assumed.
Equal
variances
not assumed
GIRLSAVG 4.534 .066 2.602 8 .032 10.5833 4.06704
Equal
variances 3.217 5.374 .021 10.5833 3.28993
Assumed.
Equal
variances
not assumed
The results of t test when the indicated mean differences are analysed are shown
in table 4.11which shows that the significant for boys is .05, p = .05 and that for
girls is .032, p < .05. Therefore, there is a significant difference in average
performance of boys and girls when taught by teachers of alternative gender. As
seen from table 4.12, there is no significant difference between boys and girls
Table 4.12 Independent Sample T Test same gender (Grade 5)

Test for
Equality of
Variances
erence
Female Equal 0.376045 0.562237 -0.13775 6 0.894947 -0.75 5.44799
male variances 0.16113 0.696562 -1.57475 10 0.14639 -6.66667 2.76608
assumed
c) Finding from Combined data

female teachers and also the mean for the whole group of students (grades 4 and
5 combined).

61
Table 4.13 Group Statistics (Grade 4 and 5 combined)

(Gender) Mean
Boysavg: 12 49.6667 10.13844 2.92671
Male/Female 8 43.2500 9.70640 3.43173
Girlsavg: 12 55.2500 8.01277 2.31309

Male/Female 8 45.3750 6.75991 2.38999
According to the table, the average performance of boys when taught by male
teachers is 49.67 and the mean is 43.25 when taught by females. This indicates
that by arithmetic mean male teachers are better in teaching to boys. When
comparing the averages for girls it is again found that male teachers are doing
better with an average of 55.25 whereas the mean for female teachers is
45.38.Hence, in the case of both boys and girls, male teachers perform better than
female teachers. Another indication is that girls have performed better than boys
when thought either by teachers of corresponding or alternate gender.
Table 4.14 Independent Sample T Test cross gender (Grade 4 and 5 combined)
Test for
Equality of
Variances
erence
BOYSAVG .000 .998 1.410 18 .176 6.4167 4.55187
Equal 1.423 15.626 .174 6.4167 4.51026
variances
Assumed.
Equal
variances
not assumed
GIRLSAVG .050 .825 2.865 18 .010 9.8750 3.44622
Equal 2.969 16.848 .009 9.8750 3.32602
variances
Assumed.
Equal
variances
not assumed
The table 4.14 shows the significant for boys is .176, p > .05 and the significant
for girls is .010, P <.05. Therefore, there is a no significant difference between
males and females when the average performance of boys is considered, but
there is a significant difference between the genders when the girls average is
taken into account.

62
Table 4.15 Independent Sample T Test same gender (Grade 4 and 5 combined)
Test for
Equality of
Variances
erence
Female Equal 1.140377 0.303641 -0.50813 14 0.619271 -2.125 4.181966
male variances 1.100753 0.30549 -1.4967 22 014868 - 3.73042
assumed 5.58333
As seen from table 4.15, there is no significant difference between boys and girls
4.3 Total Findings

Table 4.16 displays the summary of all the levels of analysis that were carried
out in the study with an indication whether there was any difference that is
statistically significant. As per the table, the impact of gender on student
performance depicts some mixed evidences. For RQ1, the combined results
show that the finding - that males are better - is statistically significant. However
for RQ2, there is no strong evidence to claim for gender differences.
Table 4.16 Summary of the results

Grade level Research Questions Level of analysis significance
4 RQ 1 Class average No
RQ 2 Cross gender No
Same gender No
5 RQ 1 Class average Yes
RQ 2 Cross gender Yes
Same gender No
COMBINED RQ 1 Class average Yes
RQ 2 Cross gender For boys No,
For girls Yes
Same gender No
5 .0 DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Gender issue in primary teaching profession
5.1.1 Impact of gender on the test result of grade 4 students
For the research question one which was aimed at studying if there is any
difference between male and female teachers when their performance is
measured in terms of the class averages, the results show that although men
seem to be performing better as compared to women, this difference is not

63
statistically significant. Our results for this part are in contrary with many other
studies around the world. Many of the previous researches found that females
are better in teaching to primary for both boys and girls (Karieg, 2005; Lam et al,
2010; Luschei, 2011). It is anticipated that this difference in finding is due to
other factors which might affect student achievement rather than the teachers
gender itself. In fact a number of researches which found that females do better
also admitted the fact that it may not be the gender which is the key factor
having the most impact on student performance, rather other factors such as
teaching materials used, interest level of the students towards the subject, family
background and socio-economic status (ORegan, 2007).
One of the most important factors which could override the gender differences
that is reported by the referred studies is the teacher qualification. Since in the
data collection there was no attempt made to collect information on teacher
qualification and experience, it is not possible to relate this to our findings.
However, it is quite clear that in this study despite the female dominance in
the teaching field elsewhere the number of male teachers is more than the
females. As such, the performance of female teachers is less significant due to
their underrepresentation in number.
As for the second research question, when the student results were analyzed
gender wise it is found that both boys and girls perform better when taught by
the male teachers. However, the statistical analysis proved that the difference is
not significant. This is to say that there is no difference in the performance
between male and female teachers with regards to the students genders.
Although the difference is not statistically significant, our findings stand against
the advocates that male primary school teacher has been variously regarded as
morally suspect (Tubbs, 1946), out of place (Kaplan, 1947), or someone who
should be actively dissuaded from making such a career choice (Levine, 1977).
When tested for the effect of same gender treatment, the study did not show any
significance between males and females meaning that the gender of the teacher
has no significant effect whether teaching to the students of the teachers gender
or otherwise.
Therefore, as far as the analysis from the fourth grade is concerned the gender of
the teacher seems to be having no significant effect in student performance. This
is supported by some studies that there is no need to struggle to improve male
recruitment since solid evidence is not established on this ground (Carrington et
al, 2008). In the past two decades many researchers have advocated that men
should play a role in primary teaching in order to counter the feminized
environment (Brophy & Good, 1973) or to help break down traditional gender
stereotypes by acting as role models (Greenburg, 1977). According to Connell
(1996) this provides a conceptual framework derived from research into the
education of boys which clearly points to the need for such male role models in
primary schools. However, our study did not support such arguments.

64
5.1.2 Impact of gender on the test result of grade 5 students
Unlike the widely held beliefs and most of the research findings in this area, the
results of the grade 5 data in this research show a significant difference between
the performances of the students in relation to teachers gender. This research
shows that performances of male teachers are better than females for both boys
and girls. One such contrary findings to this research as highlighted in the
literature reveals that female teachers performance is better than male teachers
in standardized tests (Karieg, 2005). Another study done in Honhg Kong by Lam
et al. (2010) also shows that students performances are better with female
teachers.
However, a study conducted by Skelton et al (2009) proves that the teachers

gender does not make any difference to the students performances as there is no
gender influence on student motivation and interactions inside the classroom.
They further said that teachers personality and quality are largely considerable
than gender stereo-type in the achievement of the students (Skelton et al, 2009).
The results show that average performances of boys are better with the teachers
of corresponding gender. This finding is quite similar to the findings of
Carrington & McPhee (2008) who found that boys interact better with male
teachers leading to reduce the gender gap in academic achievement.
The results of t-test which show a significance value of .050 for boys and .032 for
girls can be interpreted as there is a significant difference between the average
performance of boys and girls when taught either by male or female teachers. A
corresponding result was produced from the views of primary teachers by Jones
(2003) is concluded as improvement in boys performance is not with man but
may be with the right kind of men. This could be due to the way boys and
girls interact with teachers are different where teachers are more tally with their
students of corresponding gender (Carrington et al, 2007).
In association with students gender and teachers gender, results of t-test show
that there is no significant difference between the gender match among teachers
and students with the students achievements. Similarly, Skelton (2002) has
found that gender match does not make any difference in student performance.
The study by Dee (2007) investigated the prevailing beliefs that gender gaps in
student outcomes are a result of interactions between teachers and students.
Alternatively, the study by Carrington et al (2007) revealed that the gender of
teachers slightly impact the students of sexes in terms of their academic,
motivation and engagement in studies.
5.1.3 Better classroom performer

As for the first research question, when analysed for the gender differences
while combing the results of both the grades, it is found that male teachers
actually perform better than female teachers with a statistical significance of
.025, p < .05. This is completely opposite to all the studies which have been
revised for the purpose of this study. This finding is inconsistent with most of
the previous findings. Although some studies reported that men are better in
such matters as disciplining students (Rodriguez, 2002) most of the other studies

65
found that in general females are better in teaching to primary(ORegan, 2007;

Karieg, 2005; Luschei, 2011).
According to the findings of the present study, it could be said that although
women might be better in certain kind of relationships and being with children
due to their mother nature, they might not do so in terms of academic
achievement of students. However, it is also acknowledge the fact that although
in this study men are found to do better, it cannot be argued that it is the gender
which had the greatest impact but rather other factors of teaching and learning
could have had a greater impact (ORegan, 2007). The finding from grade four
results stand in strong support of this argument where it is shown that there is
no significant difference between male and female teachers. The combined
analysis shows that in case of boys there is no significant difference between
male and female teachers. However, in case of the performance of girls, it is
found that they perform better when taught by male teachers.
When analyzed for the effect of same gender on student achievement, the results
show that matching teachers gender with that of the students does not results in
a significant change in student achievement. This means that it does matter
whether boys are taught by women or girls are taught by men. The finding is
consistent with the finding of many other previous studies, all of which reported
that there is no need to struggle hiring male teachers just to compensate for boys
under achievement (Carrington et al, 2007; Driessen, 2007; Jones, 2003; Francis et
al, 2008; Skelton, 2002). Therefore, it would be better to focus on teacher qualities
and school facilities which enhance students understanding rather than merely
debating about teachers gender. Both genders are motivated equally in liking
children, being willing to serve the school system (Seifert, 1985), but in this
situation male teachers produced more productive result in the students
performance rather than female teachers.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Since the statistics for teacher gender in Bangladesh is similar to the pattern
around the world it was anticipated that the findings of the study will also be
similar to other findings where the majority of literature on gender differences in
teaching to primary grades show that females are better as compared to males.
However, comparing the test scores this study found that men are better in
teaching to primary. Despite this contrary evidence, when the data was analysed
for the impact of same or opposite gender the study revealed mixed evidences.
So it does not support any of the prevailing arguments whether students have to
be taught by teachers of same gender or opposite gender. Base on the various
analyses, it is concluded that teacher gender is of less importance than other
factors as far as student achievement in test scores are considered. This is
supported by a number of similar studies. In this regard, Jones (2003) concluded
that instead of debating on teachers gender as such, it is more logical to focus on
choosing the right kind of candidates. Moreover teacher personality and
quality are largely considerable than gender stereo-type in the achievement of
the students (Skelton et al., 2009).

66
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Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 69-82, March 2014
Problem-Based Learning in Construction

Engineering within a South African context
Pauline Machika (Dr)

Vaal University of Technology
South Africa
Chris Abrahams
University of Johannesburg
South Africa
Abstract. The aim of the article is to illustrate how using Problem Based
Learning, together with the way in which the content is facilitated,
prepares educationally under prepared students in an extended
National Diploma over a four year period. A descriptive, exploratory
study was undertaken using quantitative data derived from two cohorts
of first-year students who enrolled in 2008 for the National Diploma in
Construction Engineering and Extended National Diploma in
Construction Engineering at a comprehensive university. The results of
the extended national diploma shows that with adequate exposure to
PBL success can be obtained for students who have not been previously
exposed to science and the field of construction engineering. Through
this process students are taught to discard old habits and to work
accurately. By doing so, they realise the importance of quality work on a
construction site. PBL ensures a closer relationship with the lecturer is
developed and as a result students in the course feel free to ask
questions and clarify understanding in order to make meaning of the
problem. This article adds to the existing strategies to support
educationally under-prepared students who are enrolled for extended
programmes.
Keywords: Problem-based learning; construction; engineering.
Introduction
Students from under-prepared backgrounds often do not see a future for

themselves in the fields of science and engineering when they are at high school.
This is because the poor standard of mathematics and science teaching at school
level produces students with gaps in knowledge and limited science-related
experience (Scott et al 2007). Due to their poor schooling these students do not

70
have the required skills to work in a laboratory or engage effectively with tasks
in the fields of mathematics and science. Mathematics and science teachers of
schools in disadvantaged communities, as a result of their own level of
knowledge and skills (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42), are often not able to
produce learners who perform well in these subjects. Consequently these
students either do not meet the minimum standard required for access to
selection programmes like engineering, or if they register for such a programme,
they struggle to persist and attain an engineering qualification. This has placed
the responsibility on higher education institutions to develop a learning
environment that will maximise the potential of under-prepared students.
Although some students may enter higher education with a history of low
achievement, this is not necessarily related to their capacity to benefit from
higher education in the future (Haggis, 2006, p. 527). Haggis further agrees that
the relationship between the lecturer and the student within the learning
environment is central to the development of under-prepared students. Recent
studies from several different countries have shown that teacher conceptions of
and approaches to teaching correlate strongly with both students deeper
approaches to learning and their learning outcomes (Biggs, 2007; Entwistle &
Smith, 2002; Prosser &Trigwell, 2002; Trigwell, Prosser and Waterhouse, 1999 in
British Journal of Educational Research 2011). In response to the low graduation
rates of students entering university in South Africa (Scott, Yeld& Hendry 2008,
p. 9), higher education institutions have introduced new teaching and learning
methodologies to foster the relationship between lecturers and students.
Traditional lecturing methods of teaching content and facts no longer support

the teaching and learning needs of students. It is argued that problem-based
learning can be used to facilitate effective learning for under-prepared students.
Extended Curriculum Programmes are first undergraduate degree or diploma
programmes that incorporate substantial foundational provision that is
additional to the coursework prescribed for the regular programme. The
foundational provision that is incorporated must be equivalent to one or two
semesters of full time study, it must be designed to articulate effectively with the
regular elements of the programme and it must be formally planned, scheduled
and integrated as a fundamental part of the programme (Department of
Education, 2006:2). It is for this reason that extended curricula are offered over
four years instead of three.
Research results show that the understanding of teaching in higher education

can be placed into two broad categories (Prosser, Trigwell & Waterhouse 1999 in
British Journal of Educational Research 2011). The first category describes
faculty who are concerned with teaching as essentially an organisation of the
content of the teachers knowledge for transmission to the students. The second
category describes those who regard teaching as facilitating the students
understanding of knowledge and how it can be applied in real-life
circumstances. Problem Based Learning provides opportunities to introduce
students to new knowledge in the context in which they will encounter it in the
world of work. To enable all students with the potential to be able to study
engineering, South African universities need to adopt a fresh approach in

71
understanding which teaching and learning methodology best suits students in

order to succeed in maximising their learning potential in the fields of Science
and Engineering.
The aim of the article is to illustrate how using Problem Based Learning,
together with the way in which the content is facilitated, prepares educationally
under-prepared students in an extended National Diploma over a four year
period to complete successfully on par with students who were admitted to the
National Diploma which is constituted over a three year period in the field of
construction engineering.
In the following sections an understanding is developed with regard tounder-

prepared students studying construction engineering at a South African
university. A discussion follows concerning underlying principles of Problem
Based Learning and how problems of under-prepared students could be
addressed. The article concludes with a summary of why higher education
institutions could use Problem Based Learning in a successful way for students
who have been disadvantaged by poor schooling.
Theoretical Framework
With very little exposure to construction work and sites, many under-prepared
students have minimal understanding of what construction engineering is about
and what it can offer them in terms of career opportunities. Without the correct
introduction to the discipline as well as continuous relevant academic support
these students may never experience success in higher education. Although the
focus has shifted away from the deficient student in higher education
institutions (Jacobs & Miller, 2002, p. 85) to how the practices, staff and
curriculum of institutions should change in order to meet the distinct needs of
non-traditional students, these needs still must be identified. Without full
awareness of the problems students experience with regard to the study of
construction engineering, a relevant and effective approach to teaching and
learning is not possible. The development needs of under-prepared students are
multifaceted and complex. They include factors such as difficulty to understand
abstract concepts, insufficient academic language proficiency, a lack of effective
study and learning approaches together with misconceptions in subject
knowledge (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42). It is necessary to ensure that
innovative pedagogical strategies and teaching methodologies that encourage a
deep approach to learning (Biggs2007) are employed to develop skills and
competencies required for meaningful learning in higher education (HE).
Problem-based learning is a teaching methodology that encourages a deep

approach to learning (Yeo 2005). Further Yeo defines Problem Based Learning as
a student-centred instructional strategy in which students collaboratively solve
problems and reflect on their experiences. The Problem Based Learning
strategy encourages students to become active and independent and to take
responsibility for their own learning process. Central to the implementation of

72
problem based learning is the provision of learning opportunities that will

address the diverse and individual needs of students while at the same time
ensuring the development of lifelong learning skills. Problem based learning is
aimed at helping students develop problem-solving, critical thinking, and self-
directed learning skills while gaining knowledge in a variety of subject matter
areas (Barrows2009). Problem Based Learning is congruent with adult learning
theory in that it is based on the use of a real-world problem to facilitate the
learning process, encourages students to use their past experiences whenever
applicable to solve the problem at hand, requires students to be self-directed
learners, and focuses on presenting information in a way that knowledge gained
is immediately applicable (Barrows 2009).
Students entering into higher education experience several problems. They

might find the Higher Education environment overwhelming and often have a
limited understanding of what is required of them in their construction
engineering studies. They lack appropriate study and time management skills
and many students continue with the rote learning method with which they
might have succeeded at school, but which is not sufficient for success in HE.
Students enter Higher Education with misconceptions about science concepts
(Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42), which hampers their learning in any science-
related subject, also in construction engineering. Apart from understanding
basic concepts, students also need to learn to talk science, which means that
they must learn to communicate in the language of science and act as a member
of the community of people who do so (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42). This
principle is emphasised by Inglis, Kirkwood, Downs and Parkinson (2007, p. 95)
who state that it is important that students learn to write their way into
science by bridging the gap between the identity they bring from their own
backgrounds and experiences and that of the new scientist identity that they
need to develop.
A number of studies (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42; Pretorius2005) have
shown that the level of many South African students basic reading and writing
skills and their ability to write in the style of the discipline do not meet the
requirements of HE. This contributes to their learning problems, because they
are not always able to understand the language and subject-specific language of
the learning material, this also applies to understanding construction
engineering text books. Students are often second-, third- or fourth-language
English speakers. If no support is provided it could be difficult for students to
master the contents of these text books.
Krause (2006, p. 8) emphasises meeting students where they are and the need for
scaffolding content in order to close the articulation gap that students come
with from high school when entering higher education. Learning is meaningful
only if the integration of previous and new knowledge is part of the learning
process(Clayton 2006, p. 197). If students are studying in the construction
engineering field implies that they will gain an understanding of construction
terminology.

73
Students experience difficulty in applying the theory that they have learnt in
class to real-life and business situations. In a Problem Based Learning setting,
the boundaries between the facilitator and the participant are noticeably
reduced. This provides opportunities for the participant to feel free to raise
pertinent questions to challenge existing issues in relation to a Problem Based
Learning problem (Lahteenmaki 2001).The method of teaching used in Problem
Based Learning allows hands-on application of theory and exposure to the field.
Applying Problem-Based Learning in Construction Engineering

Central to the field of construction is the ability to measure accurately and to be
able to draw building elements as well as to construct three-dimensional models.
Without the necessary mathematical ability students will find these kinds of
tasks in the construction industry very difficult. At the basis of all skills or
competencies that are required is the essential requirement of ensuring that
students understand how important it is to produce accurate and quality work.
Without this underlying skill construction students will not be able to be
effective construction managers. Poor production in the construction field leads
to poor productivity within the South African economy.
Problem-based learning is a teaching method where students are constantly

challenged to unlearn old learning habits to make way for new ways of learning
(Yeo 2005, p. 5).In Problem Based Learning the lecturer provides students with a
project in the form of an exercise. The aim of the exercise is to simulate what
happens on a construction site by building models. This exercise provides the
opportunity for students to learn to be accurate, which is important when
ensuring quality on a building site after completion of their studies.
Furthermore, it allows a student to develop his or her skills as a team player,
which is essential when working as a construction manager. The exercise given
to a group of students necessitates the understanding of each group members
role and responsibilities and thus promotes teamwork. It also develops the
relationship amongst students as well as between the lecturer and the students.
Within a Problem Based Learning setting students are able to ask the lecturer
questions directly as they make meaning of construction engineering
knowledge. The distance between the lecturer and students is closer as a result
of the way teaching is structured within a Problem Based Learning setting
(Enger et al., 2002). Through the teaching and learning methodology of Problem
Based Learning students are given a task that challenges them to brainstorm and
generate practical solutions. They are also given the responsibility of taking
charge of their own learning, using the chosen problem in the exercise as a
guide to decide how to approach the problem in the best possible way (Enger et
al., 2002).
Example of the procedure for teaching and learning through problem-based

learning in construction engineering
As the Problem Based Learning class commences the lecturer will explain to the
class in construction engineering an exercise they would have to do as part of

74
the objectives or learning outcomes in assessing their mastery of the construction

engineering theory. Problem-based learning is learning with a particular
relevance to prior objectives set as opposed to conventional spoon-feeding rote
learning, evident in trainer-designed didactic settings (Walker, Bridges & Chan,
1996 in Diagnostic Research, 2013) This teaching and learning style will give
students an overview of the learning objectives and help them to understand
what is expected of them in the teaching and learning process. Once the exercise
is explained to students, the lecturer commences to teach as set out in the
following steps:
Step 1:
It is essential for construction engineering students to be introduced to

construction terminology at the commencement of the course during the first
term. In the first term time should be given to helping students understand
construction terminology. Apart from understanding basic concepts, students
must learn to use the terminology and they must know the rules and values of
the discipline so as to act as a member of the disciplines community. If students
are poor English-language speakers who have no prior knowledge of
construction engineering terminology, they require development that will allow
them to engage with the subject field, hence the need to be taught in
construction engineering terminology before they are introduced to construction
theory.
Step 2:
To facilitate Problem Based Learning the lecturer provides students with the
theory of a building site and how the underlying principles must be used to set
out different constructions on a real building site. During this time students are
afforded the opportunity to ask questions as well as to clarify their
understanding of important terminology. Throughout the teaching of
construction theory the lecturer is required to support the construction students
so as to ensure that they increase their understanding of fundamental principles
of the construction field. It is also an opportunity for students to address
misconceptions that they might have developed in school or as a result of a lack
of understanding. The role of the lecturer within the teaching and learning
environment is to create a learning environment that supports the learning
activities that are appropriate to achieving the desired learning outcomes (Biggs,
2007).
It is important to introduce theory in small parts since students are still

acquiring construction terminology; therefore they might become confused and
will not yet be able to use high-order thinking to engage with technical
knowledge of the subject field in a complex way. The scaffolding of theory helps
students to make meaning of the content provided at each stage. This means that
teaching needs to proceed from relatively simple to more complicated
competencies. The existing knowledge of the students provides the base
platform from which the information is scaffolded in order to provide the
support that facilitates understanding (Biggs2007). Keebaugh, Darrow, Tan and

75
Jamerson (2009, p. 118) report on the effectiveness of Problem Based Learning

through sequential and cumulative tasks when students have the necessary
support.
Once the theory is taught, the lecturer applies what the students have learnt in
theory to practice by developing and building an application model.
Lahteenmaki (2001) emphasises that that this process is essential since it
provides opportunities for the participant to feel free to raise pertinent questions
related to the problem at hand. The lecturer brings all the necessary resources to
class and proceeds to build the model. The lecturer uses questioning techniques
to clarify understanding, to establish what the students know and to find out
whether they are able to build the model on their own. Furthermore, the
construction terminology associated with building the model is clarified. In this
way the lecturer can ascertain if through their teaching and learning practice,
students are able to make meaning of the field of construction. Problem Based
Learning is a form of group mentoring and is defined by Barkham (2005) as a
process through which a career may be guided, beginning with induction into a
profession or institution through to progress and promotion with positive
outcomes not only for individuals involved, but also for their universities or
organisations. Through Problem Based Learning, lecturers are the most
important change agents in their own setting and it is vital that they should feel
that they have control over their situation (Knight & Trowler, 2009).
Step 3:
After the teaching of construction theory, the lecturer must identify the students
learning outcomes by assessing how they have applied and adapted the course
content to reach a viable solution to the problem in the exercise given. An
example of an exercise given to construction engineering students is seen in
Exhibit 1.
Exhibit1: The instructions to students are in the text box below:
In the sketch provided to you as a group, the building lines of a gazebo are
shown which has three walls. The one-brick wall is built on a 680 wide strip
foundation. Draw the given top view of the building lines to a scale 1: 20, as
well as the profile boards in position to mark off only the walls marked A
and B. Indicate the trench markings for the foundation trenches as dashed
lines.
In the example in Exhibit1, the students must accurately draw everything on

scale 20 times smaller than reality. The problem, albeit a simple structure having
only three walls, is designed to test if students are able to perform the essential
steps in setting out a building on site. By the time the students do this exercise
they will have learnt how to calculate the width of a trench when given only the
wall thickness (220mm) as well as the strip foundation thickness (230mm). They
will also have drawn to scale the profile boards which are used to mark off the
excavation trenches and also to guide the bricklayer when he builds the first

76
course of the foundation wall. The use of a practical problem through Problem
Based Learning develops learning from a concrete experience where students
are able to reflect on existing facts to discover the different areas of the practical
problem (Yeo 2005).
Students are allowed to choose members of the class they wish to work with in a
group. The lecturer then provides them with the learning outcomes for the
exercise which the students are required to build while applying theory. Enger et
al.(2002) state as an example that students are given a task through Problem
Based Learning which challenges them to brainstorm and generate practical
solutions. They are also given the responsibility of taking charge of their own
learning, using the chosen problem in the exercise as a guide to decide, based
on the scope, how to approach the problem in the best possible way.
Step 4:
Students need to realise that they are required to be innovative and creative
when constructing assignments within the group they have chosen. This
prepares them for teamwork in the construction industry. Problem Based
Learning is prominent in human resource development, particularly in
leadership training, with curricula directed at independent and team learning
(Bridges and Hallinger, 2007). Since students are trained to be construction
managers, Problem Based Learning is a relevant method in construction
engineering. Rather than receiving a body of factual knowledge about the world,
students are understood as agents, actively negotiating their way in the world
(Yeo 2005).
According to Kirkwood, Downs and Parkinson (2007, p. 83) group presentations

at the end of the semester provide students with an opportunity to personalise
their knowledge acquired during the course. These authors further state (2007, p.
89) that it is important to assess the students ability to perform an authentic
task. The exercise in Exhibit 1is given to construction students working in a
group rather than assessing discrete skills in separate tasks. Knight and Trowler
(2009) maintain that it is important for skills and academic components of each
part of the course to be carefully integrated into practical simulations to ensure
that students have the necessary academic knowledge and problem-solving
skills to adequately address the particular exercise in construction engineering.
Step 5:
Problem-based learning after grading focuses on giving students feedback to

improve their learning (Biggs 2002). Feedback is an indispensable element of all
assessment opportunities and the monitoring of students enables staff to
implement timely support interventions. After the Problem Based Learning
construction exercise is assessed it is important to provide feedback to each of
the groups timeously. The feedback given provides students with an

77
opportunity to critically assess what they as students know and the manner in
which they have translated theory into practice. Feedback from the lecturer is
critical for the students and helps them to understand the construction context
and what is expected of them within the field of construction engineering.
Biggs (2007) states that students should be encouraged to develop increasingly

difficult critical analytical abilities as they progress. However, under-prepared
students must first master the basic learning objectives, namely knowledge,
comprehension and application of the learning matter before higher-order
thinking skills can be developed. By using Problem Based Learning and prompt
feedback on students performance, lecturers can help these students to achieve
academic success (Yeo 2006).
Methodology
This descriptive study used quantitative data derived from two cohorts of first-
year students enrolled for the National Diploma in Construction Engineering
and Extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering at a
comprehensive university. The data was extracted from the University's
Management Information System and student record systems. The groups were
the 2008 cohort of students who were admitted to the extended National
Diploma in Construction Engineering and the 2008 cohort of students who were
admitted to the extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering. Each
student's record was analysed individually to see if they had already graduated
within the minimum required time or had lengthened their period of study
beyond the minimum duration of the programmes respectively or whether they
were still in the process of completing.
Results and Discussion
Figure 1: Construction 2008 (Extended)

78
In 2008, 40 students were registered for the extended National Diploma in

Construction Engineering (see Figure 1). Only 1(2,5%) of these students dropped
out and 27(67,5%) were able to complete the National Diploma in a four period.
The normal completion period for the Extended National Diploma is four
years and includes foundational provisioning in the first year, followed by two
years of theory and one year of work integrated learning. A further 12 (30%)
students were able to complete the national diploma in construction engineering
in five years rather than the required four years.
Figure 2: Construction 2008 (Mainstream)
In 2008, 40 students were admitted to the National Diploma in Construction

Engineering. The normal completion period for the National Diploma is three
years and includes by two years of theory and one year of work integrated
learning (see Figure 2). Of the 40 students who were registered for the
programme only 22(55% ) were able to complete the National Diploma in a three
period. While a further 8(20%) were able complete the national diploma in
construction engineering with an additional year. It was interesting to note that
only 10 (25%) were not successful and were unable to complete their studies.
Figure 3: Construction 2009 (Extended)

79
In 2009, 49 students were admitted to the Extended National Diploma in

Construction Engineering The normal completion period for the Extended
National Diploma is four years and includes by three years of theory and one
year of work integrated learning. (see Figure 3).
It was of interest to see that only 20(41%) students were able to complete the
extended national diploma in the allotted time. While a further 15(30%) added
an extra year onto the allotted time provided for the qualification. From the total
number of 49 students registered 15(30%) were unsuccessful and did not
complete their studies.
Figure 4: Construction 2009 (Mainstream)
In 2009, a total number of 52 students were successfully admitted to the National

Diploma in Construction Engineering. The normal completion period for the
National Diploma is three years and includes two years of theory and one year
of work integrated learning (see Figure 4). Of the registered number of students
only 25(48%) were able to successfully complete in the stipulated time of the
qualification. A further number of 21(40%) students completed with an
additional year. While a number of 6(12%) students were unable to complete the
qualification successfully.
Discussion of Results
A comparison of Figures 1 and 2, as well as Figures 3and 4 shows that students

completed the extended diploma in Construction Engineering with the PBL
methodology on par with the mainstream students. With very little exposure to
construction work and sites, many disadvantaged students possess minimal
understanding of construction engineering. As a result of this, students may not
experience academic success.
There are several benefits in applying Problem Based Learning in construction

engineering with students who have been under-prepared due to inadequate or

80
poor schooling. Students develop an understanding of what is expected of them

in the course they are studying through PBL, and are engaged in the learning
process as team members. Through this process students are taught to discard
old habits and to work accurately. By doing so, they realise the importance of
quality work on a construction site. This is supported by Biggs (2005) who
explains that innovative pedagogical strategies and teaching methodologies
encourage a deep approach to learning and are employed to develop skills and
competencies required for meaningful learning in higher education. Barrows
(2009) states that PBL is based on a real-world problem presented in class to
ensure the facilitation of the learning process. Construction engineering
students are taught terminology and how to apply it in the field. PBL ensures
that a closer relationship with the lecturer is developed and as a result students
in the course feel free to ask questions and clarify understanding in order to
make meaning of the problem.
Enger et al. (2002) supports the closer relationship between the lecturer and
student as PBL provides opportunities for the participant to feel free to raise
pertinent questions to challenge existing issues. Enger et al. further mentions
that PBL gives students agency because they have the responsibility to take
charge of their own learning by deciding how to approach the chosen problem
in the exercise. By scaffolding theory through PBL, lecturers are able to assess
students gradual mastery of construction theory. Through working as a group
while solving the problem in the exercise, students consider various options and
understand how best to address the problem and find a solution to it. The PBL
methodology furthermore ensures that, students are given feedback which helps
them understand where they went wrong, how they can improve their
performance and how to master the problems in construction engineering.
Through the Problem Based Learning teaching methodology approach, students
are able to be reflective of their own practice and are taught to work accurately,
which is essential when working in a construction field.
Conclusion
The focus of this article is to show how innovative strategies can provide under-
prepared students with the required knowledge and skills to be as successfully
as mainstream students. To achieve this problem based learning was used in the
extended national diploma in construction engineering. The study shows several
benefits when applying Problem Based Learning in a construction engineering
programme. Further research should be conducted concerning the impact PBL
can have on the academic success of students who have registered in the
mainstream. Consideration could be given to gathering data from both extended
and mainstream student groups who had experienced PBL and compare the
benefits of this method in different contexts. To ensure academic success for
students from under-prepared backgrounds, teaching and learning should not
focus on the organisation of the content of the teachers knowledge for
transmission but rather on innovative teaching methodologies like Problem
Based Learning which can enable students to be successful in fields like
construction engineering.

81
Acknowledgements:
In memory of Mr Chris Abrahams who passed away tragically in 2013. Gone but
not forgotten.
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speaks,Mentoring and Tutoring, (2), 49-52.
Barrows, H. (2009). A taxonomy of problem based learning methods
Medical Education, 20(1), 119-122.
Biggs, J.B. (2007). Teaching for Quality: McGraw-Hill, International.
Biggs, M.A.R. ed, (2002). Research into Practice.
Bridges, E.M. & Hallinger, P. (2007). Implementing problem-based learning in
leadership development. Eugene: University of Oregon, Educational
Resources Information Center, Clearinghouse on Educational
Management.
Clayton, H.L. (2006). Concept mapping: An effective, active teaching-learning method",
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Department of Education, (2006). Funding for Foundational Provision in Formally
Approved Programmes: 2007/8 to 2009/10.
Enger, K.B., Brenenson. S., Lenn, K., Macmillan, M., Meisart, MF, Meserve, H., & Vella,
S.A. (2002), Problem-based learning: evolving strategies and conversations
for library instruction, Reference Services Review, (30)4, 355-358.
Entwistle, N.J., & Smith, C.A. (2002). Personal understanding and target understanding:
mapping influences on the outcomes of learning, British Journal of
EducationalPsychology, (72), 321-342.
Haggis, T. (2006). Pedagogies for diversity: retaining critical challenge amidst fears of
dumbing down. Studies in Higher Education, (31)5, 521-535.
Inglis, M., Kirkwood, T., Downs, C.T., & Parkinson, J. (2007). Writing their way into
Science: gaining access to the discourse of Biology. SAALT Journal for
Language Teaching. (41)1, 82-99.
Jacobs, C., & Miller, S. (2002). An integrated approach to Project Work An Exploration
of Assessment Practices from a Lecturer Perspective. Conference proceedings of
the 3rd South African Conference on Engineering Education held in
Durban, South Africa.
Keebaugh, A., Darrow, L., Tan, D., & Jamerson, H. (2009). Scaffolding the science:
Problem based strategies for teaching interdisciplinary undergraduate
research methods. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education, 21(1), 118-126.
Knight, P, & Trowler, P. (2009). Department-level cultures and the improvement of
learning and teaching. Studies in Higher Education, (25)1, 69-83.
Krause, K. (2006). Transition to and through the first year: Strategies to enhance the
student experience. Keynote paper at The University of the Sunshine Coast
Inaugural Vice-Chancellors Learning and Teaching Colloquium, May.
Lahteenmaki, M.L. (2001). Problem-based learning during the first academic year, in
Little, P. and Kandlbinder, P. (eds), The Power of Problem-Based Learning, The
University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 73-84.
Pretorius, E.J. (2005). What do students do when they read to learn? Lessons from five
case studies. South African Journal of Higher Education, (19)4, 790-812.
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Trigwell, K, Prosser, M, & Waterhouse, F. (1999). Relations between teachers

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83

Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 83-90, March 2014
Teaching Competency of Secondary School

Teachers In Relation To Emotional Intelligence
Dr. Mandeep Kaur
Assistant Professor
Khalsa College of Education, Ranjit Avenue, Amritsar
Mrs. Arti Talwar

M.Ed. Student
Khalsa College of Education, Ranjit Avenue, Amritsar
Abstract. The study was designed to examine the relationship between

teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school
teachers. Participants were 100 secondary school teachers who
completed the General Teaching Competency Scale (GTCS), and
Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS). The findings of the study reveal a
significant positive relationship between teachers' teaching competency
and their emotional intelligence. But insignificant difference is found
between teaching competency as well as between emotional intelligence
of secondary school teachers teaching in government and private
schools. The study also indicated that teaching competency and
emotional intelligence are not influenced by gender.
Keywords: teaching competency; emotional intelligence
Introduction
No doubt intellectual ability is an important factor in predicting teachers
success. But recent studies, however, have shown that a intelligence and
teaching experience is not entirely indicative of the teachers success in teaching
profession. Rather skills and teaching competency are essential ingredients to be
professional teacher. In todays world, teacher must develop the essential 21st
Century competencies. A teachers competency in 21st century according to
UNESCO (2008) is that a competent teacher should have firm knowledge of the
curriculum of his/her subject and to use technology into the curriculum. Formal
system of education depends on three components that are curriculum, student
and teacher. Teaching competency refers to the knowledge, attitude, skills and
self perception or the products that comes from by mixing these behaviors and
resulting in consistent pattern of behavior leading to the attainment of expected
outcomes. Teaching competency is the ability of a teacher manifested through a
set of overt teacher classroom behaviours which is resultant of the interaction
between the presage and the product variables of teaching within a social setting
(Rama, 1979).

84
Teaching competency has different dimensions such as mastery of subject

matter, enhancement of motivation of students, planning, presentation and
evaluation skills and classroom managerial skills. Teacher possessing all these
skills to reasonable extent can be a competent teacher. Teachers competency
appears to be a significant contributor to school effectiveness. As suggested
by Ornstein (1991), effective teachers are those with high competency in
knowledge and skills. Wilson, Shulman and Richet (1987) note that teachers
profound knowledge in curriculum content and pedagogy enhance students
performance. Medley (1982) states that teachers competency such as behavior,
skills and knowledge related to school performance.
Each teacher has different levels of skills, abilities and competencies due to their
different levels of teaching experiences and different educational background.
Based on these differences, they will display different sets of motivation,
commitment and engagement. Burgoyue (1993) employed a functional
perspective to define a competency as how the goals of organizations were best
achieved by improving members performance. Internationally and nationally,
different organizations require different types of competencies. According to the
New Mexico (USA) (2012) Public Education Department there are nine
indicators/competencies of teachers. National Council of Teacher Education
(1998) has identified ten competencies for making the teachers professionally
competent.
Quinn, Faerman, Thompson and McGrath (1996) indicated that competencies

were associated with knowledge and skills for implementing certain
assignments or projects effectively. To be effective in a particular competency,
one must be able to accomplish the desired results of a job with specific
qualifications and personal attributes. So besides teaching competency,
temperament, leadership and attitude are the important attributes which are
indicative of the capabilities generally known as emotional intelligenceare
equally essential in teaching-learning process. The single most important factor
for successful leader in the workplace is emotional intelligence. As suggested by
Wright (2008), the skills, abilities and competencies coupled with the level of
motivation, commitment and engagement act as drivers in terms of the
employees actions. Emotions are expected to be assimilated into a thought
which are influenced by cultural and environmental factors. These factors would
include the place where the individual lives and work in. Emotional intelligence
is the ability to sense, understand and effectively apply the power and acumen
of emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection and influence
(Cooper and Sawaf, 1998).
According to the Genos EI (Emotional Intelligence questionnaire developed by

Palmer and Stough, 2001), there are five key emotional competencies which are
applicable to the workplace situation- Emotional Recognition and Expression,
Understanding Others Emotions, Emotions Direct Cognition, Emotional
Management and Emotional Control. Emotional intelligence helps a person in all
spheres of his life through its various Components- Self Awareness, Managing

85
Emotions, Motivating Oneself, Empathy and Handling Relationships (Goleman,

1995).
When applied to the workplace, emotional intelligence involves the capacity to

effectively perceive, express, understand and manage emotions in a professional
and effective manner at work (Palmer and Stough 2001). EI has been recognized
as important for success in the workplace (Goleman, 1998b; Kirch, Tucker and
Kirch, 2001; Rozell, Pettijohn and Parker, 2002) which has resulted in calls for the
incorporation of EI skills in university curricula (Chia 2005; Holt and Jones 2005;
Low and Nelson 2005). Pradhan, Mathur and Mishra (2001) reported that
emotional literacy is positively related to general health and quality of life.
People high on emotional literacy skills maintain better health and have a
positive quality of life. Though the development of emotional intelligence is a
natural process, yet it can be enhanced as it has been concluded that emotional
intelligence can be learned and it should be a component of leadership training
(Weisinger 1998). Further, new researches by Goad (2005) and Justice (2005)
have indicated the importance and value of emotional intelligence in teacher
preparation programs. According to them pre-service teacher education,
induction experiences with mentoring, and alternative certification programs
could be strengthened by providing emotional intelligence training in preparing
new teachers. Dhull, Mangal, Goad and Justice (2005) who opined that success
of educational program depends a lot on the level of emotional intelligence and
teaching competency of teachers.
Based on the literature review, teaching competency and emotional intelligence

are found to be essential for a teacher to be competent. So, a need was felt to
study teaching competency in relation to emotional intelligence of secondary
school teachers.
From the above literature review, following hypotheses are formulated
1. There exists no significant difference between secondary school teachers

teaching in different type of schools (government and private) in relation
to their (a) teaching competency and (b) emotional intelligence.
2. There exists no significant difference between male and female secondary
school teachers in relation to their (a) teaching competency and (b)
emotional intelligence.
3. There exists no significant correlation between teaching competency and
emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers.
Methodology
Research Design
Quantitative approach is applied in this study. This study used a descriptive

correlational design to examine the relationship between teaching competency
and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers.

86
Sample
Adopting the non probability sampling technique, a sample of 100 teachers
(Male and Female) from government and private secondary schools (100 from
government schools and 50 from private schools) of Amritsar district was
selected for the purpose of the present investigation.
Tools Used
In the present study the following tools were used:
1. General Teaching Competency Scale (Passi and Lalita, 2011)
2. Emotional Intelligence Scale (Ayde, Pethe and Dhar, 2002)
Procedure
After finalizing the tools and receiving the consent of the principals, the teachers
of the government and private secondary schools were requested to fill the GTC
scale and EI scale without omitting any item. All the completed tests were used
for data analysis using statistical measures such as mean, standard-deviation, t-
test and Pearson's product moment correlation.
Analysis and Interpretation
Comparison of Means
Hypothesis I
In order to test Hypothesis I, difference in the mean scores on the teaching
competency and emotional intelligence of teachers teaching in government and
private schools were calculated. The results are presented in table 1.
Table1: Difference in mean scores of different variables of teachers teaching in

government and private schools
Variables Type of N Mean S.D. t-value

School
Teaching Government 50 1.124
72.22 11.46
Competency
Private 50
75.48 17.01
Emotional Government 50 1.664

132.20 10.595
Intelligence
Private 50
127.80 15.413
Table 1 depicts that the values of Mean and SD of teaching competency of

secondary school teachers teaching in government schools were 72.22 and 11.46
respectively and those of teachers teaching in private schools were 75.48 and
17.01 respectively. The t-value came out to be 1.124, which is insignificant. It
means that there exists no significant difference in the teaching competency of

87
teachers teaching in government and private schools. This means that the
teachers of both government and private schools are equally competent. Both
use new methods and techniques in the classrooms to enhance the teaching and
learning process. Thus the Hypothesis I (a) which states, There exists no
significant difference between teaching competency of secondary school teachers
teaching in different type of schools (government and private) is accepted.
Table 1 reveals the values of Mean and SD of emotional intelligence of teachers
teaching in government schools 132.20 and 10.60 respectively and those of
teachers teaching in private schools 127.80 and 15.41 respectively. The t-value
came out to be 1.664, which is insignificant, indicating that the type of school
does not play a defining role in the emotional intelligence of secondary school
teachers towards their job. The reason may be that the quality of any educational
institution depends mainly on the professional competence and emotional
stability of teachers. Unhappy, frustrated, dissatisfied teachers cannot help their
pupils to become happy and well adjusted young people. Emotionally stable
teachers are able to find out their own short comings and try to remove them so
that the students may be saved from the adverse influence of their unbalanced
personality.
Thus the null hypothesis, I (b) which states There exists no significant
difference between emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers teaching
in different type of schools (government and private) is accepted.
Hypothesis 2
Difference in the mean scores on the teaching competency and emotional
intelligence of male and female secondary school teachers was calculated. The
results are presented in table 2.
Table 2: Difference in mean scores of male and female secondary school teachers on
different variables
Variables Gender N Mean S.D. t-value
Teaching Male 50 1.80

76.60 16.57
Competency
Female 50
82.46 15.99
Emotional Male 50 1.66

127.48 11.89
Intelligence
Female 50
131.54 12.52
Table 2 depicts that the values of Mean and SD of the scores of teaching
competency of male secondary school teachers were 76.60 and 16.57
respectively and those of female teachers were 82.46 and 15.99

88
respectively. The t-value came out to be 1.799, which is insignificant. It

means that there exists no difference in teaching competency of male and
female secondary school teachers. This means that secondary school male
and female teachers do not differ significantly in terms of their teaching
competency.
Table 2 depicts that the values of Mean and SD of the scores of emotional
intelligence of male secondary school teachers were 127.48 and 11.89
respectively and those of female teachers were 131.54 and 12.52
respectively. The t-value came out to be 1.663, which is insignificant. It
means that there exists no significant difference in emotional intelligence
of male and female secondary school teachers.
The above findings suggest that there is no gender influence on the
teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school
teachers. Thus Hypothesis 2 which states that There exists no significant
difference between male and female secondary school teachers in relation
to their (a) teaching competency and (b) emotional intelligence is
accepted.
Correlational Analysis
Hypothesis 3
To find out correlation between teaching competency and emotional
intelligence of secondary school teachers, correlational analysis was
employed. The results are presented in table 3.
Table 3: Relationship between Teaching Competency and Emotional Intelligence of

Secondary School Teachers
Variables Correlation value of r Df Inference
Teaching
Competency
0.885 98 Significant
Emotional
Intelligence
* Significant at 0.01 level.
From table 3, the value of coefficient of correlation (r) came out to be 0.885 which
is significant at 0.01 level of confidence, indicating that there is a positive
correlation between teaching competency and emotional intelligence of
secondary school teachers, Thus the null hypothesis III which states There
exists no significant correlation between teaching competency and emotional
intelligence of secondary school teachers is rejected. This is due to the reason
that the success of teachers depends both on their emotional intelligence and
teaching competency. Emotional intelligence has been an important factor in

89
teaching learning process which demand teaching competency on the part of the
teacher. Teachers who are emotionally balanced and intelligent have the
capacity to generate new ideas and adopt new methods of teaching.
Conclusions
The major findings of the present study are:

i. There is insignificant difference in the teaching competency and
emotional intelligence of government and private secondary school
teachers.
ii. There is insignificant difference in the teaching competency and
emotional intelligence of government and private secondary school
teachers with respect to their gender.
iii. There is significant relationship between teaching competency and
emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers
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Problem-Based Learning in Construction Engineering within a South African context ............................................. 69

Teaching Competency of Secondary School Teachers In Relation To Emotional Intelligence ................................... 83

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Study of the Conceptions Related to Learning of

Mohamed Hdi El Aouni

Abstract. To what extend does the apprehension of a so-called "systemic"

Keywords: system, conceptions; complexity; ecosystem; systemic approach

ecosystems cannot be understood without a comprehensive approach, taking into

The concept of a system: A complex concept

Le Moigne (1983) considers a system as an object in an environment with goals, which

(elt: element ;) Env: environment)

a process of conceptualization and description of links. That is the subject of the

The systemic: science or art?

Modeling is used in the systems approach as a means of conceptualization. One of the

Conceptual analysis of this approach, Giordan & Souchon (2008) describe it as a

Network of reservoirs of feedback

: trained of, : to show, : related to

Figure 1: representation concepts defining the notion of system networked

Issues and research methodology

The questionnaires were made up by the following questions:

Our approaches to analysis are supplemented by a grid that allows you to

Analysis of the conceptions

Figure 2: analysis approaches and methodologies being used

Conceptions and modes of reasoning systems: previous barriers highlighted

Excerpt from the AO teacher responses

Excerpt from the CR teacher responses

Table 1: comparison of trends between the answers to the pre-test and

The configuration of the replies to the questionnaires of the post-test expresses a

Comment and discussion: Obstacles facing the generalization of the concept of

Limits Interaction, Tools, relay

: Consist of, leads to : Related to

Figure 3: the complexity of the concept of system-related concepts

Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4

A didactic strategy, as part of the systemic approach would encourage teachers to

leads to transition related to

Figure 4: summary of the analysis of questionnaires and educational sheets

Complexity and systemic approach

Table 3: summary of responses to questions 9 and 10 of the post-test

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

A Comparison of Experimental Designs for

Abstract. Assessment continues to rise in importance along with the scholarship of

Keywords: Education Research; Research Design; Scholarship of Teaching;

2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Table 2. Effect of non-curricular activities related to sustainability at SUNY Delhi, Delhi, NY

2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Life (0.11) Post 2.03 (0.16) C -0.60 (0.18) C 0.47 (0.17)

Without a control, it cannot always be determined if changes in students knowledge and

2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Ultimately, we want students to reach a sufficient level of understanding, appreciation,

2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Designing Teaching Methods in Curriculum of

Forouzan Tonkaboni (Corresponding author)

Key words: curriculum; social capital; teaching method; higher education

mutual understanding (membership in the group).The network that benefits every

According to Putnam(2005) social capital comprises of the constructive elements of

Fukuyama (2006) describes social capital as a series of available norms in social

Accordingly, the current research concentrates on the formal section of education in

According to Coleman(1990) social capital consists of a social framework that

Fukuyama (2006) considered social capital as one sociological phenomenon.