Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in Psychiatric Treatment
(2002), vol. 8, p. 1 (2002), vol. 8, pp. 1–9
The management of individuals with personality The definition of a personality disorder in DSM–
disorder is one of the most challenging and some- IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994: p. 633).
times controversial areas of psychiatry. This paper includes the following characteristics:
describes the principles involved in identifying the
“an enduring pattern of inner experience and
clinical problems and formulating a management
behavior that deviates markedly from the expec-
plan for patients with personality disorder in tations of the individual’s culture. This pattern
everyday clinical practice. It demonstrates that the is manifested in two or more of the following
principles of assessing and managing personality areas:
disorders and the clinical skills required are no (1) cognition (i.e., ways of perceiving and inter-
different from those of treating any other chronic preting self, other people and events)
mental disorder. (2) affectivity (i.e., the range, intensity, lability, and
Patients with personality disorder have multiple appropriateness of emotional response)
and diverse needs. Some present repeatedly to (3) interpersonal functioning
services. Although there are a number of difficulties (4) impulse control”.
in managing patients with personality disorder, their The pattern must be inflexible and pervasive across
problems are easier to tackle if the patients are a broad range of personal and social situations. For
properly assessed, their individual needs identified a diagnosis to be made, the enduring pattern of inner
and an appropriate plan formulated. experience and behaviour (i.e. the symptoms) must
lead to clinically significant distress or impairment
in social, occupational or other important areas of
Personality disorder functioning.
Thus, the term mental disorder applies as much
is a mental disorder to personality disorder as it does to Axis I disorders
such as schizophrenia. Individuals may need help
as a result of their distress or because their symptoms
One reason that personality disorders may not be are interfering with their everyday functioning.
diagnosed is the misconception that they are not Personality disorders are associated with high levels
mental disorders (see Adshead, 2001 for a discus- of dysfunction, comparable to major Axis I disorders
sion of the concepts of disease, illness and disorder (Nakao et al, 1992).
as they relate to personality disorder). There are many disorders (e.g. anxiety and
The ICD–10 definition of a mental disorder refers depression) for which the border between normality
to: and abnormality is not always clear-cut. This does
“the existence of a recognisable set of symptoms not lead clinicians to argue that the diagnosis should
and behaviours in most cases associated with distress not be made. The cut-off is a pragmatic one.
and interference with social function” (World Health Individuals generally present to services when their
Organization, 1992: p. 5). symptoms cause distress or start to interfere with
Sophie Davison is a clinical lecturer in forensic psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry (Department of Forensic Psychiatry,
Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK; e-mail: s.davison@iop.kcl.ac.uk) and consultant forensic
psychiatrist at Broadmoor Hospital, Crowthorne, Berkshire. Her research interests are in the clinical presentation and management
of personality disorder in different settings.
APT (2002), vol. 8, p. 2 Davison
Individuals with personality disorders, partic- 1989). Menzies et al (1993) found that individuals
ularly of the antisocial, paranoid and borderline with personality disorders were frequent users of
types, frequently present within a criminal justice mental health and criminal justice services in the
context. They account for a large proportion of year prior to treatment in a therapeutic community.
assessments of patients detained by police under Personality disorders have public health impor-
Section 136 of the Mental Health Act 1983 in inner- tance by virtue of their association with mental
city areas (Spence & McPhillips, 1995). A survey of illness, eating and drinking habits, smoking,
psychiatric morbidity in prisons in England and accidents and sexual behaviour. Patients with
Wales estimated that 78% of male remand prisoners, personality disorder, especially of the antisocial and
64% of male sentenced prisoners and 50% of female borderline cluster, have higher rates of suicide and
prisoners had a personality disorder (Singleton et accidental deaths than the general population
al, 1998). Within high secure forensic psychiatric (Dowson & Grounds, 1995). Some of the traits
services there is much overlap in the clinical needs associated with the antisocial cluster (cluster B)
of those with a primary diagnosis of personality personality disorders such as impulsivity and
disorder and those admitted for treatment of a mental recklessness may contribute to high rates of physical
illness such as schizophrenia (Maden et al, 1995). morbidity owing to drug use, alcohol use, violence,
All have similar needs for social skills training, self-harm and risk-taking behaviours.
anger management and drug and alcohol treatment.
follow-up. A recent follow-up of offender patients separating out different problems, which can each
from high-security hospitals in England and Wales be considered in their own right (Gunn, 1993).
found that those with personality disorder did better Gunn suggests listing the abnormal traits under
in terms of psychosocial outcomes than did those the headings: thinking; feelings and emotions;
with other mental disorders, usually schizophrenia behaviour; social functions; and insight. The
(Steels et al, 1998). ’thinking’ heading would include the patients’
beliefs about themselves (e.g. low self-esteem, a sense
of entitlement out of proportion to the situation) and
their beliefs about others (e.g. everyone is hostile and
Developing a framework untrustworthy). ‘Feelings and emotions’ would
for assessment in routine include any abnormalities in the quality or intensity
of emotions, such as outbursts of inappropriate
clinical practice anger, rapidly fluctuating mood, persistent low
mood, anxiety, low tolerance of frustration. Social
functioning relates to interpersonal problems such
There is increasing emphasis, particularly in as the inability to trust others and the tendency to
relation to research, on using standardised assess- invite rejection, to become dependent or to form
ments. These can be useful in ensuring consistency unstable intense relationships.
and in ensuring that all the different areas of Once the problem traits have been identified one
abnormal personality functioning have been asked can assess the associated distress. This may amount
about. However, many instruments produce a to a comorbid psychiatric disorder, such as depres-
categorical ICD–10 or DSM–IV diagnosis. In clinical sion, substance misuse, psychosis or anxiety, or to
terms, simply knowing that an individual fulfils more non-specific physical or psychological
criteria for a particular DSM–IV or ICD–10 person- symptoms.
ality disorder does not provide the accurate Next, the interference with functioning (or
information needed about the individual’s actual disability, to use World Health Organization (2001)
difficulties and circumstances that is required to terminology) can be described. A useful framework
plan and prioritise interventions. The principle is would be to look at occupational functioning, family
the same as in other areas of psychiatry. Giving a functioning (including functioning in relation to
patient a label of schizophrenia gives the clinician partner and to children) and social functioning
only a very limited amount of information about his (housing, finance, social relationships, crime). Each
or her individual treatment needs. patient’s social context is unique and must be
Most experienced clinicians make the diagnosis assessed and understood.
of personality disorder by taking a systematic In completing the functional analysis it is therefore
history and listening to patients’ narratives of their helpful to try to gain an understanding of the
lives. Patients tell the story of their relationships circumstances in which individual difficulties
with family, loved ones, friends, authorities and occur. In particular, it is useful to clarify what
colleagues at home, at work, at leisure and at school. predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating or
Clinicians look for recurring patterns of behaviour
and interpersonal interactions, from which they
draw inferences about characteristic patterns of
relating to others, behaviour patterns, coping Box 3 Key tasks of functional analysis
mechanisms, belief patterns, hopes, fears and (Gunn, 1993)
emotional responses.
List abnormal personality features:
Thoughts
Functional assessment Feelings and emotions
Behaviour
For practical clinical purposes, it has been suggested Social (interpersonal) functioning
that the most useful approach is to undertake a Insight
functional assessment of personality (Box 3). This
Describe associated distress, including comorbid
is essentially a case formulation that lists the
Axis I disorders
relevant areas of abnormal personality (Gunn, 1993;
Westen & Arkowitz-Westen, 1998) and then exam- Describe interference with functioning:
ines the distress and functional disability caused Occupational
by these abnormalities. This process makes the task Family
of drawing up a management plan less daunting. It Social
provides a clearer picture of the therapeutic task, by
Managing personality disorder APT (2002), vol. 8, p. 5
complex difficulties and no single treatment inter- better than treatment as usual in reducing para-
vention is likely to meet the diverse needs of patients suicidal behaviours, enabling patients to stay in
with personality disorders. They may need several treatment, reducing time spent in hospital, and
types of help, delivered by a team of professionals. improving social and global functioning (Linehan
Treatment and intervention will not be purely et al, 1991, 1994).
psychological but will also need to include help with Social skills training and behavioural techniques
the disabling effects on social functioning. Social have been found to be useful in treating the social
problems such as housing, finances, employment skills deficits and avoidant behaviours seen in
and family relationships will need to be tackled. avoidant personality disorder.
Mental health professionals may need to work Cognitive–behavioural therapy may be of use in
closely with primary care, social workers and targeting the same symptoms and behaviours as is
probation officers, many of whom feel poorly aimed at in wider psychiatric practice, e.g. anxiety
supported and isolated in their involvement with and anger. Few studies have looked specifically at
patients with personality disorder. Such patients its use in personality disorder but it has been
can be very draining to deal with and it helps to suggested that it could be useful in targeting the
spread the burden, leaving no single individual dysfunctional beliefs that lead to maladaptive
feeling responsible for everything. behaviours in many individuals with personality
disorder (Enright, 1997).
Cognitive-analytic therapy shows some promise
in patients with borderline personality disorder but
Specific interventions needs further evaluation (Ryle & Golynkina, 2000;
Denman, 2001). Dynamic insight-oriented psycho-
therapy, with both groups and individuals, has long
Although more rigorous research is needed, there is been used for some patients. Interventions vary in
reasonable evidence to suggest that specific inter- their frequency, length and approach. Finally, so-
ventions may be of benefit in treating certain symp- called ‘good clinical care’ or supportive psycho-
toms and behaviours associated with personality therapy (Dowson & Grounds, 1995) should not be
disorders. forgotten, even though it has not been rigorously
Pharmacological treatments show some promise evaluated.
in the treatment of individual symptoms rather than For a small proportion of highly motivated
discrete personality disorder categories (for a review patients, treatment in a therapeutic community can
see: Sanislow & McGlashan, 1998; Tyrer, 1998). In be very effective in reducing both psychopathology
particular, lithium may be helpful in the treatment and service consumption (Dolan et al, 1996, 1997).
of aggressive and assaultive behaviour. Anticonvul-
sants are useful in treating mood instability,
irritability and impulsivity. Antipsychotics show
moderate efficacy in treating the psychotic symp- Service models
toms sometimes experienced by patients with
borderline and schizotypal personality disorder.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) The principles outlined above are consistent with
antidepressants can be useful in the treatment of the case management approach: namely, a compre-
patients with borderline personality disorder and hensive assessment of individual need, the develop-
those with mood symptoms associated with ment of an individualised package of care to meet
personality disorders of the anxious, fearful cluster. the need and the offer of long-term support adjusted
A number of different psychological interventions according to fluctuating levels of individual need.
have been reported on (for a review see: Dowson & This sort of assessment and management plan falls
Grounds, 1995; Sanislow & McGlashan, 1998). within the everyday work that all mental health
Those targeted at specific behaviours have produced services are involved in using the Care Programme
the best evidence of effectiveness (Sanislow & Approach (CPA). The CPA recommends its use in
McGlashan, 1998). The symptoms and behaviours the care of certain patients with personality disorder.
associated with borderline personality disorders Supervision registers for patients at significant risk
have received the most attention. of suicide, self-neglect or causing violence were
One of the most promising psychosocial interven- specifically set up to include patients with person-
tions for patients with borderline personality ality disorders receiving treatment from specialist
disorder is dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) psychiatric services.
(Linehan et al, 1991; Palmer, 2001, this issue). The Most research into treatment of personality
treatment targets problems of affect regulation and disorders has looked at specific treatments for
deficits in interpersonal skills. DBT was found to be specific symptoms. It has not examined the
Managing personality disorder APT (2002), vol. 8, p. 7
effectiveness of different service delivery models, maintain an ordinary clinical focus that could
despite the fact that most patients are likely to need identify relevant and achievable goals. Norton (1996)
multi-disciplinary input (Links, 1998). It has been has described some of the principles of overcoming
argued, on the basis of high drop-out rates, that these.
community services do not currently provide a There are a number of reasons why clinicians may
structure that meets the needs of patients with avoid making a diagnosis of personality disorder,
personality disorder (Joseph, 1992). may inadequately assess individuals with person-
However, a review of the literature on service ality disorder and/or reject them from services.
delivery models for patients with personality Clinicians may fear that they will be held responsible
disorders concluded that assertive community for their patients’ behaviour; may be concerned that
treatment (ACT) programmes seem to offer potential their resources are too scarce or unsuited to manage
(Links, 1998). The effectiveness of ACT with this a group of patients who are unlikely to engage and
group parallels that with patients with chronic have the capacity to disrupt others; may feel
psychotic disorders. There are declines in hospitalis- overwhelmed by the diagnosis; may lack confidence
ation, increased reports of satisfaction with the in their ability to manage such patients; may con-
programme and better overall compliance. A major sider patients untreatable; or may dislike the patient.
focus of service delivery for such patients has to be Patients with personality disorder can engender
tackling the issue of non-compliance. Attention also feelings of frustration, helplessness, anger, rejection
has to be given to the specific rehabilitation needs and nihilism in those caring for them. Lack of com-
of this group of patients and developing effective munication between agencies may hamper effective
ways of helping patients to engage in therapy. Work management. Antisocial behaviour may be used as
has shown that treatment, in this case DBT, can a bar from services. There may be a lack of training.
increase engagement in therapy in populations with Most important, there may be a failure to take a
severe disorders (Linehan et al, 1991). longitudinal perspective, leading to misdiagnosis.
Although it is often suggested that hospital admis- There are instances, however, when, owing to
sion should be avoided and carries risks to staff and inadequate assessment, difficult behaviour is
patients, there is evidence that in some circum- inappropriately labelled as personality disorder.
stances it may still need to be part of an integrated Some have gone so far as to argue that the
programme of services (Links, 1998). A randomised diagnosis of personality disorder should be
trial comparing an early-intervention community abandoned because it is an ill-defined concept used
service with standard hospital treatment for patients to stigmatise people whose behaviour deviates from
presenting to a psychiatric emergency clinic found social norms and to exclude them from services
that patients with personality disorder showed (Lewis & Appleby, 1988). However, the fact that a
greater improvement in depressive symptoms and diagnosis may be misused is not a reason to
social functioning when referred to hospital rather abandon it. It is much easier to address the problems
than to the community service (Tyrer et al, 1994). mentioned above if a patient has been thoroughly
It is helpful to outline in advance what part assessed and the problems broken down into
admission will play in any management plan. The manageable pieces.
aim may be to have short admissions under specified
circumstances agreed in advance; these might
include brief psychotic episodes, crises with
potentially damaging long-term consequences and
Conclusions
facilitation of diagnosis or treatment planning.
2. The following statements about the prevalence 5. The following have been identified as important
of personality disorder are true: features of management plans for personality
a about half of psychiatric in-patients have a disorders:
personality disorder a explicit goals
b about half of psychiatric in-patients have a b realistic goals
primary diagnosis of personality disorder c prioritised goals
c about a third of GP attendees have a d must always aim for major personality change
personality disorder e consistency.
d no patients assessed under Section 136 have a
personality disorder
e 20–40% of psychiatric out-patients have a
personality disorder.
Book Sales, The Royal College of Psychiatrists, 17 Belgrave Square, London, SW1X 8PG, UK
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