Piping Overview

Introduction
Correct design of piping systems is essential for the safe and reliable operation of
processes in many industries. Figures 1 and 2 show examples of piping systems.

Figure 1 Teeside petrochemical plant. Figure 2 Brewery piping.

The design process includes:

Piping layout
Support design
Pipe stress/flexibility analysis

These aspects are highly inter-related. For example, the pipe layout should be
such as to allow sufficient flexibility for thermal expansion. Possible support
locations and types must be iterated until all stress requirements are satisfied
and other pipe allowables nozzle loads and pipe movements are complied
with1.

Key stages in the design process are1:

Identification of design criteria (set by code of practice)
Establishment of design loads
Selection of materials
Layout considerations
Methods of support
Stress/flexibility analysis
Checking compliance with design criteria

Stress/flexibility analysis methods are used to determine:

Displacements
Stresses
Internal forces and moments (including those imposed by the piping on
the connected machinery nozzles).

Design methods depend on the piping system application, operating conditions

and conditions to be met by the relevant code of practice.
The design methods used to assess a piping systems compliance with a
particular code of practice include:

Copying similar piping systems already in operation without the need for
any analysis.
Design by rule codes of practice normally provide a set of rules for the
designer to follow. Simple conservative techniques can be used to analyse
and size piping systems according to these rules. Flexibility analysis
techniques include the guided cantilever method and the ANSI criteria
used to establish the need for analysis. So long as the code requirements
are met using these simple rules, the design is considered satisfactory.
Design by analysis computerised applied mechanics methods, typically
based on finite element analysis techniques. Design by analysis techniques
produce a less conservative, but still safe design, than that obtained by a
design by rule procedure.

The choice of analysis method is generally dictated by:

Safety
Operability
Economics

Piping Engineers
It is useful to consider an overview of the roles and responsibilities of the piping
engineering team during the design and commissioning phases of process, power
and manufacturing plant.

Normally a project manager is assigned to coordinate the numerous engineering

functions. The project manager has a team of engineers who lead the main
engineering disciplines such as mechanical, civil and structural, electrical and
instrumentation and control (I&C), as shown in Figure 3.

Project Manager

Quality Assurance Project Control

Programme Development Project Control Engineering
Specification Review Cost Engineering
Procurement Document Review Planning and Scheduling
Manufacturing Surveillance Procurement
Construction Surveillance
Inspection Audits

Construction Project Administration

Management
Resident Engineer
Construction Supervision
Field Administration
Startup and Test
Engineering
Project Services
Technical Supports
Secretarial/Clerical
Records/Correspondence

System Civil Licensing

Engineering Engineering
Environmental Reports
Electrical Structural Permits
Mechanical Architectural Figure 3. Typical
Hydraulic Layout and Models
I&C Environmental project team
Chemical Applied Engineering Analysis organistation2.
Building Services
Startup and Test
The mechanical engineering department usually subdivides into four main areas
of responsibility, namely, systems; components; building services and heating,
ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and piping systems.

The piping team normally consists of pipe layout designers, piping materials
engineers and stress engineers as shown in Figure 4, though the number of
personnel involved will depend on the size and complexity of the project and the
budget.

Piping Piping
Engineering Lead Engineering Lead

Piping
Engineering Lead

Lead Piping Lead Piping Lead Piping Lead Piping

Material Engineer Design Supervisor Material Controller Stress Engineer

Piping Piping Area/Unit Piping Piping

Material Design Supervisors Material Stress
Engineers and Piping Designers Controllers Engineer

Piping CAD Coordinator

Figure 4 Typical piping project organisational chart3.

Piping engineers have the responsibility and authority to manage and coordinate
the piping programme in a manner that will result in meeting the overall project
objectives. These responsibilities include the following specific tasks2:
Piping engineering, design and layout
Pipe stress analysis
Pipe support design
Pipe rupture restraint
Coordination of piping fabrication.

The duties of the piping engineering team include interfacing with other project
disciplines to ensure that the piping and associated components are delivered to
the site and erected in accordance with the codes and standards, technical
specifications, construction schedule and specified budget.

Piping Documentation
Typical documentation referred to or produced by the piping engineers includes,
but is not restricted to:

process flow diagrams (PFD)

piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID)
system design description
piping layout drawings
pipe stress isometrics
stress analysis reports (showing conformance with codes)
support and restraint drawings
fabrication isometrics
Process Flow Diagrams
Process flow diagrams (PFDs) are a simple schematic illustration of system
descriptions. They use process symbols to describe the primary flow path. They
show the relationships between the major system components and tabulate the
process design values for different operating modes. Typically, they do not show
piping ratings or designations; minor piping systems, e.g. sample lines or valve
bypass lines; instrumentation or other minor equipment; isolation valves, vents
or drains. A PFD can be used for visitor information and new employee training.
Table 1 summarises typical items contained in a PFD.

Table 1. PFDs4
1 Major equipment symbols, names, identification
number
2 Process piping
3 Control valves and other valves that affect
operations
4 System interconnections
5 System ratings and operational variables
maximum, average, minimum flow
maximum, average, minimum pressure
maximum, average, minimum temperature
6 Fluid composition

Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams

The piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) or the process and
instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is a more complex schematic illustration of the
functional relationship between the piping, instrumentation and system
equipment components. It shows the process equipment in the system, the
instrumentation requirements of the process and the interconnecting piping and
connections between the major equipment. The P&ID also shows the required
supporting services which impose design requirements on the system. A process
operator can use a P&ID to see how the system is automated with pressure,
temperature, flow and level control loops. Table 2 lists the typical items found on
a P&ID.
Table 2. P&IDs4
1 Mechanical equipment, names and numbers
2 All valves and identification
3 Instrumentation and designations
4 All process piping, sizes and identification
5 Miscellaneous items including vents, drains, special
fittings, sampling lines, reducers, increasers
6 Direction of flow
7 Class change
8 Interconnections
9 Control inputs/outputs and interlocks

PFDs and P&IDs are usually representative and not drawn to scale, as shown in
Figures 5 and 6 for the same application. Emphasis is placed on the schematic
relationships between piping and equipment and the design process. There are
standardised symbols for each type of valve, pump, compressor, turbine, heat
exchanger, cooling tower, basic instrumentation, boiler etc.
 Figure 5 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)5

Figure 6 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)5.

Piping Design Drawings
The flow diagrams, line list and design specification are used by the piping
designer to lay out (route) the piping and to generate the design drawings.
Piping systems are usually routed in straight sections combined with 90 elbows,
rather than following the shortest route to the point of termination.

Routing will be affected by such factors as system operating temperature, pipe

weight, installation and material costs, code requirements, pressure drop and
equipment and building structure. Other considerations include expansion of the
pipe and attached equipment, nozzle reactions on pumps and turbines, use of
common supports, headroom in pedestrian areas, congestion in front of
equipment requiring frequent maintenance and in-service inspection
requirements. Unlike flow diagrams, design drawings will be drawn to scale and
they are often shown as plan and elevation views.

Composite Drawings
Composite layout drawings allow all disciplines in a project to coordinate their
activities. Space must be allocated for all major equipment and interferences
between different disciplines must be avoided. Composite drawings usually
include piping systems, cable trays, HVAC systems and structures.

Piping Isometric Drawings

Piping isometrics are 3D representations of the piping. They are used where
conceptual layout is more important than exact scaled dimensions. They are
commonly used for piping erection purposes and as stress analysis models. They
need not be drawn to scale, clarity is more important, and they give a clearer
presentation of configuration that plans and elevations.
The isometric may also contain information regarding pipe fabrication and
erection as well as support data. Pipe supports are required to protect the piping
system from the design loading conditions. The loading conditions can vary from
simple weight loads to more complex transient loads associated with
earthquakes and pipe rupture. Initial selections of support locations and types
are made based on design loadings, pipe size, system configuration and building
locations with the design goal being the minimisation of supports and restraints.
The initial support locations and types are marked on the isometric drawing for
use by the pipe stress analysts but the analysts are not bound to use them all.
These are suggested locations where supports can most easily be installed. A
minimum number of supports should be used as long as all the stress/flexibility
criteria are met.

CAD
All of the above drawings are produced using CAD but these programs are not a
substitute for the designers understanding of the design process. CAD is
particularly useful when it comes to avoiding interferences with other piping and
services.
Codes and Standards - Introduction
In practice, the assurance that the design and construction of a piping system
will meet prescribed pressure integrity requirements is accomplished through the
use of published codes and standards. Numerous codes and standards have been
formulated by major interest groups in the piping and pressure vessel industry.
Some of the most widely used codes and standards for piping systems design are
those published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and
accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)1.

Other countries also issue standards and codes, e.g. the Deutsches Institut Fur
Normung (DIN) in Germany and the British Standards Institute (BSI) in the UK.

Internationally, the International Standards Organisation (ISO) is a non-

governmental group which coordinates and approves voluntary international
standards. Also internationally, the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC) was
formed by ANSI in cooperation with the national standards associations of
Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand.

Codes, Standards, Recommended Practice and Guides

The intent and applicability of various documents are often misinterpreted as the
definitions of a code, standard, recommended practice or guide are not always
fully understood. The following are generally accepted definitions2:

Code
A group of general rules or systematic standards for design, materials,
fabrication, installation and inspection prepared in such a manner that it can be
adopted by a legal jurisdiction and made into law.

Standards
Documents prepared by a professional group having requirements believed to be
good and proper engineering practice and which are written with mandatory
requirements. Standards, though not normally mandated by statute or regulation,
are usually invoked by a construction code or purchasers specification. They
specify rules for manufacturers of specific components, one advantage of which
is to permit component interchangeability. Standards apply to dimensions and
performance.

Recommended Practices
Documents prepared by a professional group indicating good engineering
practices but which are optional.

Guides and Guidelines

Documents by agencies, organisations and committees enumerating various
engineering methods which are considered good practice, without any specific
recommendation or requirement. These may be used at the engineers discretion.

Companies develop engineering and design guides in order to have consistent in-
house design procedures and avoid having one project differ substantially from
another. Most are developed from existing standards and modified to agree with
the companys specific design philosophy.
Piping Codes
Piping codes provide specific design criteria which are rules and regulations to
follow when designing a piping system. The following are some of the parameters
addressed by design criteria found in piping codes4:
allowable stresses and stress limits;
allowable dead loads and load limits;
allowable live loads and load limits;
permissible materials;
minimum wall thickness;
maximum deflection;
seismic loads;
thermal expansion.

Codes do not usually include components such as fittings, valves, flanges and
meters. Design of these components follows industry standards which relate to
piping and provide specific design criteria and rules for these individual
components or classes of components. There are generally two types:
dimensional and pressure integrity.

Some commonly used codes and standards which relate to piping are given
below. Details of their applicability are found in Appendix 16,7.

ANSI/ASME B31.1 Power Piping

ANSI/ASME B31.3 Process Piping
ANSI/ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid
Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
ANSI/ASME B31.5 Refrigeration Piping
ANSI/ASME B31.8S Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
ANSI/ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping
BS EN ISO 13703:2001 Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries. Design and
installation of piping systems on offshore production
platforms
BS EN 14161:2003 Petroleum and natural gas industries. Pipeline
transportation systems
PD 8010-1:2004 Code of practice for pipelines. Steel pipelines on land
PD 8010-2:2004 Code of practice for pipelines. Subsea pipelines

Pipe Sizes
Many different standards exist for pipe sizes, and which one is used depends on
industry and geographical area.

Pipe size is specified with two numbers: a Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) and a
schedule (SCH). The relationship between these numbers and the actual pipe
dimensions is not straightforward and partly historical. Pipes are designed to
carry fluid, therefore their internal diameter is their critical dimension. In the
early twentieth century, pipe was sized by inside diameter. This practice was
abandoned to improve compatibility with pipe fittings that must usually fit the
OD of the pipe, but it has had a lasting impact on modern standards. For pipes
containing pressurised fluids the wall thickness, and by implication the pipe's
strength, is important. Wall thickness is expressed in "schedules" but the wall
thickness associated with a particular schedule depends on the pipe size.

The NPS is very loosely related to the inside diameter in inches, but only for NPS
1/8 to NPS 12. For NPS 14 and larger, the NPS is equal to the outside diameter
(OD) in inches.

For a given NPS, the OD stays constant and the wall thickness increases with
larger SCH. For a given SCH, the OD increases with increasing NPS while the wall
thickness increases or stays constant.

The most commonly used schedules are 40, 80, and 160.

Pipe sizes are documented by a number of standards, including API 5L,

ANSI/ASME B36.10M in the US, and BS 1600 and BS 1387 in the UK.
In Europe, pressure piping uses the same pipe IDs and wall thicknesses as
Nominal Pipe Size, but labels them with a metric Diametre Nominal (DN) instead
of the imperial NPS. For NPS larger than 14, the DN is equal to the NPS
multiplied by 25 (not 25.4). This is documented by EN 10255 (formerly DIN 2448
and BS 1387) and ISO 65, and it is often called DIN or ISO pipe. Japan has its
own set of standard pipe sizes, often called JIS pipe.

References

1 Nayyar M.L. Piping Handbook 6th edition. McGraw-Hill, 1992.

2 Smith P.R. and Van Laan T.J. Piping and Pipe Support Systems. McGraw-Hill,
1987.

3 Pennock J.O. Thoughts on Job Descriptions.

http://pipingdesigners.com/Tips/Job%20Descriptions.htm [accessed 13
January 2007]

4 United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). Engineering and Design

Liquid Process Piping. www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng-
manuals/em1110-1-4008/entire.pdf [accessed 13 January 2007]

5 Process Diagrams.
http://webtools.delmarlearning.com/sample_chapters/1418030678_ch12.pdf
[accessed 13 January 2007]

6 American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

www.asme.org/Codes/Publications [accessed 18 December 2006]

7 British Standards Institute. www.bsi-global.com [accessed 18 December

2006]
Appendix 1 Piping Codes

ASME B31.1 2004 Power Piping

This code prescribes minimum requirements for the design, materials, fabrication,
erection, test, and inspection of power and auxiliary service piping systems
typically found in electric power generating stations, in industrial and institutional
plants, geothermal heating systems, and central and district heating and cooling
systems. Piping as used in this Code includes pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets,
valves, relief devices, fittings, and the pressure containing portions of other
piping components. It also includes hangers and supports and other equipment
items necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing components.
Rules governing piping for miscellaneous appurtenances, such as water columns,
remote water level indicators, pressure gages, gage glasses etc., are included
within the scope of this code, but not the requirements for boiler appurtenances.

ASME B31.3 2004 Process Piping

This code provides rules for piping typically found in petroleum refineries;
chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants;
and related processing plants and terminals. This code prescribes requirements
for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection,
examination, inspection, and testing of piping. This code applies to piping for all
fluids including: (1) raw, intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2) petroleum
products; (3) gas, steam, air and water; (4) fluidized solids; (5) refrigerants;
and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or
stages within a packaged equipment assembly.

ASME B31.4 2006 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid

Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
This code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction,
assembly, inspection, and testing of piping transporting liquids such as crude oil,
condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied petroleum gas, carbon
dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia and liquid petroleum products
between producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants,
refineries, stations, ammonia plants, terminals (marine, rail and truck) and other
delivery and receiving points. Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets,
valves, relief devices, fittings and the pressure containing parts of other piping
components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other equipment items
necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing parts. It does not
include support structures such as frames of buildings, buildings stanchions or
foundations. Requirements for offshore pipelines are found in Chapter IX. Also
included within the scope of this Code are: (A) Primary and associated auxiliary
liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping at pipeline terminals
(marine, rail and truck), tank farms, pump stations, pressure reducing stations
and metering stations, including scraper traps, strainers, and prover loop; (B)
Storage and working tanks including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and
fittings, and piping interconnecting these facilities; (C) Liquid petroleum and
liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property which has been set aside
for such piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing,
ammonia, and bulk plants; (D) Those aspects of operation and maintenance of
liquid pipeline systems relating to the safety and protection of the general public,
operating company personnel, environment, property and the piping systems.
ASME B31.5 2001 Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components
This Code prescribes requirements for the materials, design, fabrication,
assembly, erection, test, and inspection of refrigerant, heat transfer components,
and secondary coolant piping for temperatures as low as -320F (-196C),
whether erected on the premises or factory assembled, except as specifically
excluded in the following paragraphs. Users are advised that other piping Code
Sections may provide requirements for refrigeration piping in their respective
jurisdictions. This Code shall not apply to: (a) any self- contained or unit systems
subject to the requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or other nationally
recognized testing laboratory: (b) water piping; (c) piping designed for external
or internal gage pressure not exceeding 15 psi (105 kPa) regardless of size; or (d)
pressure vessels, compressors, or pumps, but does include all connecting
refrigerant and secondary coolant piping starting at the first joint adjacent to
such apparatus.

ASME B31.8 2003 Gas Transmission and Distribution Systems

This code covers the design, fabrication, installation, inspection, and testing of
pipeline facilities used for the transportation of gas. This Code also covers safety
aspects of the operation and maintenance of those facilities.

ASME B31.8S 2004 Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines

This standard applies to onshore pipeline systems constructed with ferrous
materials and that transport gas. Pipeline system means all parts of physical
facilities through which gas is transported, including pipe, valves, appurtenances
attached to pipe, compressor units, metering stations, regulator stations,
delivery stations, holders, and fabricated assemblies. The principles and
processes embodied in integrity management are applicable to all pipeline
systems. This Standard is specifically designed to provide the operator (as
defined in para. 13) with the information necessary to develop and implement an
effective integrity management program utilizing proven industry practices and
processes. The processes and approaches within this Standard are applicable to
the entire pipeline system.

ASME B31.9 2004 Building Services Piping

This code has rules for the piping in industrial, institutional, commercial, and
public buildings, and multi-unit residences, which does not require the range of
sizes, pressures, and temperatures covered in B31.1. This Code prescribes
requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, installation, inspection,
examination, and testing of piping systems for building services. It includes
piping systems in the building or within the property limits.

BS EN ISO 13703:2001 Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries. Design

and installation of piping systems on offshore production platforms.
Petroleum technology, Petroleum refining, Petroleum extraction, Drilling (mineral
extraction), Natural gas extraction, Gas technology, Natural gas, Pipework
systems, Industrial pipework systems, Design, Installation, Offshore construction
works, Maritime structures, Drilling rigs, Refineries
BS EN 14161:2003 Petroleum and natural gas industries. Pipeline
transportation systems
Petroleum technology, Pipelines, Pipes, Steels, Gas pipelines, Natural gas,
Petroleum products, Oil pipelines, Chemical engineering, Fuel storage,
Transportation, Pipe laying, Installation, Physical planning, Siting, Maintenance,
Corrosion protection, Safety measures, Environmental engineering, Inspection,
Testing

PD 8010-1:2004 Code of practice for pipelines. Steel pipelines on land

Recommendations for, and guidance on, the design, selection, specification and
use of materials, routing, land acquisition, construction, installation, testing,
operation, maintenance and abandonment of land pipeline systems constructed
from steel. This part of PD 8010 applies to pipelines that may be used to carry oil,
gas and other substances that are hazardous by nature of being explosive,
flammable, toxic, reactive or liable to cause harm to persons or to the
environment.

PD 8010-2:2004 Code of practice for pipelines. Subsea pipelines

Recommendations for, and guidance on, the design, use of materials,
construction, installation, testing, commissioning and abandonment of carbon
steel subsea pipelines in offshore, nearshore and landfall environments. This part
of PD 8010 applies to subsea pipelines intended for the conveyance of
hydrocarbon liquids, hydrocarbon gases and other gases, liquids and gases in
two-phase flow, fluid-based slurries and water.