The Interaction of Light and Matter: a and n

The interaction of light and matter is what makes life interesting.

Why is light absorbed or transmitted by a particular medium?
Light causes charged particles to vibrate. The particles then emit light,
which interferes with the incident light.
Destructive interference means absorption.
And ~ 90 out-of-phase interference
changes the phase velocity of light.
The Forced Oscillator: Resonance Absorption
Refractive coefficient
Complex Lorentzian: 1/(d - iG) index
a
where d w0 - w n1
Absorption coefficient, a, w0 w
Natural
Light
and Refractive index, n. frequency of
frequency
medium
Rayleigh Scattering and the blue sky.
Forward vs. Rayleigh Scattering
Forward scattering from molecules yields the absorption coefficient
and refractive index. Rayleigh scattering (in all other directions) from
molecules yields the blue sky.

Rayleigh-
Forward
scattered
beams
scattering is
important mainly
near resonance
Transmitted
Input beam w beam
(w = w0).
w0
Forward-
Rayleigh
scattered beam
scattering
Rayleigh- occurs far from
scattered resonance
beams (w << w0).
Adding Complex Amplitudes
When two waves add together with the same complex exponentials,
we add the complex amplitudes, E0 + E0'.

Constructive Destructive Quadrature phase, 90,

interference: interference: interference:

1.0 1.0 1.0

+ + +
0.2 -0.2 -0.2i
= = =
1.2 0.8 1-0.2i

time time time

Laser Absorption Slower phase velocity

(when accumulated over
distance)
Light excites atoms, which then emit light
that interferes with the input light.
When light of frequency w excites an atom with resonant frequency w0:

Electric field Emitted

at atom Electron field
Incident light
+
E (t ) xe (t ) E (t ) Emitted light
=
Transmitted light
On resonance (w = w0)

An excited atom vibrates at the frequency of the light that excited it

and emits energy as light of that frequency.

The crucial issue is the relative phase of the incident light and this
emitted light. For example, if these two waves are ~180 out of
phase, the beam will be attenuated. We call this absorption.
What do you think is happening here?

Resonance!
The Forced Oscillator and Resonance
When we apply a periodic force to a natural oscillator (such as a
pendulum, spring, swing, or atom), the result is a forced oscillator.

Examples:
Child on a swing being pushed
Periodically pushed pendulum
Bridge in wind or an earthquake
Electron in a light wave Tacoma Narrows Bridge oscil-
lating and collapsing because
Nucleus in a light wave oscillatory winds blew at its
resonance frequency.

The forced oscillator is one of the most important problems in

physics. It is the concept of resonance.
 Electric field
The Forced Oscillator: at nucleus Nucleus

The amplitude and Below Weak

relative phase of the resonance vibration.
In phase.
oscillator motion with w << w0
respect to the input
force depend on the
frequencies. On Strong
vibration.
resonance 90 out
Let the oscillators reso- w = w0 of phase.
nant frequency be w0, and
the forcing frequency be w.
Let the forcing function be
a light electric field and the Above Weak
oscillator a (positively vibration.
resonance 180 out
charged) nucleus in a
w >> w0 of phase.
molecule.
 Electric field
The amplitude and at electron Electron
relative phase of Below Weak
an electrons resonance vibration.
180 out
motion with w << w0 of phase.

respect to incident
light also depend
on the frequencies. On Strong
resonance vibration.
w = w0 -90 out
of phase.
The electron charge is
negative, so theres a
180 phase shift in all
cases (compared to the Above Weak
previous slides plots). resonance vibration.
In phase.
w >> w0
The amplitude Electric field Emitted
at atom Electron field
and relative
phase of Below Weak
resonance emission.
emitted light 90 out
w << w0 of phase.
with respect to
the incident
light depend on Strong
On
the frequencies. resonance emission.
180 out
w = w0 of phase.

Maxwells Equations
will yield emitted light
thats -90 phase- Weak
shifted with respect Above emission.
to the atoms motion. resonance -90 out
w >> w0 of phase.
The Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Consider an electron with position Re{xe(t)}. If its attracted to a
nucleus (assuming its like a spring), there will be a restoring force.

Using Newtons Second Law (F = mea, where me is the electron mass):

Restoring
ma force, F

me d 2 xe / dt 2 - m w x 2
e 0 e xe (t )
0
The solution is: xe (t ) xe 0 exp(-iw0t )

So the electron oscillates at its natural

frequency (w0).

The complex amplitude xe0 will depend on other factors.

This is a model of any type of oscillator.
Simple Harmonic Oscillator xe (t ) xe 0 exp(-iw0t )

The motion is xe (t )
sinusoidal.
Simple
harmonic
motion time

But many forces act to slow down motion.

For example, atoms spontaneously decay to the ground state
after a random time (and so stop oscillating). So the average
motion of many electrons is a decaying exponential.
xe (t )
The Damped
exp(-Gt)
probability simple
of decay is harmonic time
exp(-Gt). motion
Dephasing and the Damping Factor G
Also, the vibration of a medium is the sum of the vibrations of all the
atoms in the medium, and collisions cause cancellations in the sum.

Collisions

(1)
Atom #1 xe (t ) Collisions dephase
(2)
the vibrations,
Atom #2 xe (t ) reducing the
(3) total medium
Atom #3 xe (t )
vibration, also
exponentially.
exp(-Gt)
Sum
G is often called the
dephasing rate.
time
The Damped Oscillator
The equation of motion must include a damping-force term,
proportional to the velocity:
Damping Restoring where well
ma force, Fd force, F assume that
me d 2 xe / dt 2 2me G dxe / dt mew02 xe 0 the damping
is very weak:
G << w0.

The solution is: xe (t ) xe 0 exp(-iw0t )exp(-2G t )

This solution is only xe (t )

approximate, especially exp(-2Gt)
in the limit of very strong Damped
damping. But, in optics, simple
the damping is usually harmonic
motion time
very weak, so it will
suffice for our purposes.
The Forced Oscillator
Consider an electron on a spring with position xe(t), now driven by
a light wave, E(t) = E0 exp(- iw t). The equation of motion becomes:

Damping Restoring Lorentz force from

ma force force the light wave

me d 2 xe / dt 2 2me G dxe / dt m w x eE0 exp(-iwt )

2
e 0 e
e is the electron charge
The solution is:
E (t )
e / me E (t ) xe (t )
xe (t ) 2 E0 exp(-iwt )
w0 - w - 2iw G
2

Now the electron oscillates at the incident light-wave frequency w,

not the electrons natural frequency w0.
It has a complex amplitude that depends on w, w0, and G.
Checking Our Solution E (t )

me d 2 xe / dt 2 2me G dxe / dt mew02 xe eE0 exp(-iwt )

Substitute the solution for e / me

xe (t ) 2 E (t )
w0 - w - 2iwG
xe(t) to see if it works: 2

where E (t ) E0 exp(-iwt )
Immediately cancel the
factor of E(t) in all terms.

2 e / me e / me
me -iw 2 2 me
G -iw 2 2
w0 - w - 2iw G w0 - w - 2iw G
2

e / me
mew 2
2
e
w0 - w - 2iw G
0
Multiply both sides 2

by w0 - w - 2iw G :
2 2

me -iw e / me 2me G -iw e / me mew02 e / me e w02 - w 2 - 2iw G

2
Checking Our Solution (contd)
me -iw e / me 2me G -iw e / me mew02 e / me e w02 - w 2 - 2iw G
2

Canceling the electron masses:

e -w 2 2eG -iw ew02 e w02 - w 2 - 2iw G

Multiplying everything out and canceling common terms:

-ew 2 - 2iewG ew02 ew02 - ew 2 - 2iew G

QED

So the solution for the electron motion is:

Notice that, if damping

e / me
xe (t ) 2 E (t ) werent present, the
w0 - w - 2iwG
2
amplitude would go to
when w w0.
Damped-Forced-Oscillator Solution for
Light-Driven Atoms
The forced-oscillator response is sinusoidal, with a relative phase
that depends on the frequencies involved:
Here, e < 0. Also, w, w0 >> G.

e / me 1
xe (t ) 2 E (t ) - 2 E (t )
w0 - w - 2iw G w0 - w - 2iw G
2 2

The electron vibrates 180 out

1
When w << w0: xe (t ) - E (t ) - E (t ) of phase with the light wave.
w02 Vibration magnitude is small.

The electron vibrates -90 out

1
When w = w0: xe (t ) - E (t ) -iE (t ) of phase with the light wave.
-2iw G Vibration magnitude is large.

1 The electron vibrates in phase

When w >> w0: xe (t ) - E (t ) E (t ) with the light wave.
-w 2
Vibration magnitude is small.
 Electric field
The amplitude and at atom Electron
relative phase of Weak
Below
an electrons resonance
vibration.
180 out
motion with w << w0 of phase.
respect to incident
light depend on the
frequencies. On Strong
resonance vibration.
-90 out
w = w0 of phase.
Recall that the
atoms resonant
frequency is w0,
and the light
frequency is w. Above Weak
vibration.
resonance
In phase.
w >> w0
The atoms response is approximately
a Complex Lorentzian.
e / me e / me
Consider: xe (t )
w02 - w 2 - 2iw G (w0 w )(w0 - w ) - 2iw G

Assuming w w0, w0 + w 2w, e / me

so this becomes: 2w (w0 - w ) - 2iw G
e / me 1

2w (w0 - w ) - i G

In terms of the variable d w0 - w, the function 1/(d iG), is called a

Complex Lorentzian. Its real and imaginary parts are:

1 1 d iG d iG
2 2
d - iG d - iG d iG d G d G2
2
Complex Lorentzian
Real Imaginary
1 1 d iG d G
2 i 2
d - iG d - iG d iG d G 2
d G2

1/G

Imaginary G
(even) Real (odd)
component component

0 d
Okay, so weve determined what the
light wave does to the atom.

Now, what does the atom do to the

light wave?
 At every plane in the medium, light emitted
from excited atoms interferes with the
The resulting light then goes
incident light beam.
on to excite atoms in the next Medium
plane, where the same thing
happens, etc., etc. E (0,t) E (L,t)
What will be the lights field a z
distance z into the medium? 0 L

So consider the total electric field:

z
Incident light E (z,t) = E incident(z,t) + Eemitted(z,t)
+
Emitted light
Maxwell's Equations will allow us to
=
solve for the total field, E (z,t).
Transmitted light
The incident field E (z = 0, t) will be
the initial condition.
The Inhomogeneous Wave Equation
The induced polarization, P , is due to the medium:
x
2E
2
E 11 2E
2
E 2P
P where: P (t )
-- 22 22 0 22 PP((tt)) NNe
e xRe{
zz cc00 tt
22
tt e (t )xe (t )}

where N = the electron number density.

e 1 which defines c,
P e 0 Ne E e0 c E the susceptibility.
2wm e e 0 (w0 - w - iG)
2 P 2 E 1 2 E
0 2 e 0 0 c 2 2 c 2 where c0 = the speed of
t t c0 t light in vacuum

Substituting this into the inhomogeneous wave equation:

2 E 1 2 E 1 2 E 2 E 1 c 2 E
- 2 2 2c 2 - 2 0
z 2
c0 t c0 t z 2
c0 t 2
Solving the Inhomogen- 2 E 1 c 2 E
- 2 0
eous Wave Equation z 2
c0 t 2

This is just the homogeneous wave equation, but with a complex

velocity!
c c0 / 1 c c0 / 1 c / 2 using a Taylor series for the square root.
w
Solution: E ( z , t ) E0 exp
i kz - w t 0
E exp i z - w t
c
Substitute for c:

w

E0 exp i 1 c / 2 z - w t E0 exp i k0 1 c / 2 z - w t

c0
in free space
1 1
E0 exp i k0 1 Re c i Im c z - w t where k0 = w/c0
2 2
Separating the
1 1
real and E ( z, t ) E0 exp - k0 Im c z exp i k0 1 Re c z - w t
imaginary parts: 2 2
 1
The Absorption Define: a k0 Im c n 1 Re c
2
Coefficient and where a is the absorption coefficient
Refractive Index and n is the refractive index.

1 1
E ( z, t ) E0 exp - k0 Im c z exp i k0 1 Re c z - w t
2 2
Notice that this solution also
satisfies the initial condition: E(0, t ) E0 exp(-iw t )

Substi-
tuting: E( z, t ) E0 (0) exp[(-a / 2) z] exp[i(nk0 z - w t )]

Absorption Refractive index

attenuates the field changes the k-vector
So, in a medium: magnitude

E0 ( z ) E0 (0) exp[(-a / 2) z] k nk0 and 0 / n

A Light Wave in a Medium

Vacuum (or air) Medium

n=1 a=0 n=2 a>0
0/n
0
Absorption depth = 1/a

k0 nk0

Wavelength decreases

E( z, t ) E0 (0) exp[i(k0 z - w t )] E0 (0) exp[(-a / 2) z] exp[i(nk0 z - w t )]

The speed of light, the wavelength (and k), and the amplitude change,
but the frequency, w, doesnt change.
Absorption Coefficient and the Irradiance
The irradiance is proportional to the (average) square of the field.

We often separate
Since E(z) exp(-az/2), the irradiance is then: out the factor of N
from a : a Ns
where s is the
I(z) = I(0) exp(-az) = I(0) exp(-Ns z) absorption
cross-section.

where I(0) is the irradiance at z = 0, and I(z) is the irradiance at z.

And s is the same quantity we considered for lasers and Isat.

Thus, due to absorption, a beams irradiance exponentially

decreases as it propagates through a medium.

The 1/e distance, 1/a, is a rough measure of the distance light can
propagate into a medium (the penetration depth).
Refractive Index and Absorption Coefficient
n comes from the real part of c:
1 1 Ne 2 / mee 0
n 1 Rec 1 Re
2 2 2w (w0 - w - iG)

a comes from the imaginary part of c:

Ne 2 / mee 0
a k0 Imc k0 Im
2w (w0 - w - iG)
Simplifying:

Ne2 w0 - w
n -1 2
These
4e 0w me 0
(w - w ) 2
G
results are
valid for
small values
Ne2 G
a Ns
of these
2
2e 0 c0 me w w
quantities.
0
( - ) 2
G
Why Lasers Have Narrow Spectra
More generally, N = -N N G
in the expressions for a g N s G = exp(N s L)
and nand g: (w0 - w ) G
2 2

If the beam inside the laser (or an average photon in it) makes on
average Q round trips before exiting the laser, and no other effect
inside the laser depends on the laser frequency, then the lasers
output spectrum will be:
One pass (G)
I 2Q passes (G2Q)
I (w ) G 2Q
s

Exponentiating a peaked G
function reduces its wings and
hence narrows it. Raising the
exponential to a high power
does so even more! w0 w
Refractive Index and Absorption Coefficient
NG N (w0 - w )
a Ns n -1
(w0 - w )2 G 2 (w0 - w )2 G 2

Actual a (no Recall that we

approximation) approximated the
actual response,
Approximate G which was:
refractive Approximate
index n - 1 absorption 1
coefficient a c 2
w0 - w 2 - 2iw G
w0 w
Actual n -1 (no
But the Lorentzian
approximation) is good enough for
most purposes.

The difference effects are called precursors; theyre usually very small.
Rayleigh Scattering Example: Visible light in air.

Consider the case: w << w0. And the emitted-light propagation angle
is different from the incident-beam propagation angle.
y
x
The inhomogeneous 2
E 1 2
E 2
P
x
- x
z
y 2 c2 t 2 t 2
wave equation: 0
0

1 1
where: P (t ) N e xe (t ) 2 exp -iw t 2 exp -iw t
w0 - w - 2iw G
2
w0
2 P 2
exp - iw t - w 2
exp -iw t Constant
t 2
t 2

Now the scattered light doesnt add to the incident light, and the initial
condition is Ex = 0, so the solution is also different. But we can see:
The emitted E-field amplitude will be w .
2

Violet (390nm) is
So the emitted irradiance will be w .
4 scattered ~16 more
than deep red (780nm).
Scattered Intensity vs. Wavelength
Wavelength-Dependent
Molecular Scattering:
Why the Sky is Blue

Light from Air

the sun molecules
Rayleigh-
Air scatter light,
and the
scattering
intensity is
proportional
to w4.

Shorter-wavelength light is scattered out of the beam, leaving longer-

wavelength light behind, so the sun appears yellow.
In space, theres no scattering, so the sun is white, and the sky is black.