Chapter 2

STEADYSTATE
coilDucTroil

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Condtction is rhat modc of hear uansfer in .which hcat

travels from a
r-egion of high temperaturc ro a region of lower lempcrature because
of
direcr contact berwcen the morecures of the medium. n"
..r^,i*rirrp
belween thr heat-transfcr rare by conduction and the temperrrure
rion in the medium is the Fouricr law.
;#;;:
Conduction can occur in solids, tiquids. and gascs. However, in
liquids
and gases that arc arowcd ro circurate, ir ii usualry combined with
convcction- Thercfore, purc conduction occurs primariljin
opuqu. souas,
whcrc morion of thc me16ii1 is rcsrricrc4 In rhis chaprc.u.
*ili
rbe conduaing medium lo a rclid, bur rhc principics O"u"fop.a"o*ia.i
*i U.
\
oppli* ro liquids and gascs in which convcctivc rnotion is rcstrictcd.
A discussion of hear conducrion can bc broken dowa inro tiri.. ,";o,
subjcct arcas- The first invorvcs sready conductiou in which
turc is a funcrion of only onc coordinare dircction
*. ,r*;;:
through 2{). The second arca conccrns stcady conduction
G* a;;;;; iJ
in wirich ttre
tcmpcrarurc is a f'sctbn of two or thrcc coordinarc oiredio,ns
2-[ Thc rlird arca is transicnt or unsrcady conducrion- Thi, iscc s*d*
be dcalt wirh in Cbaprer 3.
,G;";ii
Digital computcrs and com?utcr prognmrning are imponant
aspccb of
hcat lransf6, as-wc frcquentry cncounier prob[rns rco
difficurt or time-
consuping to solve by han4 In such c-s6 we often tunr
lo computcrs,
42
 f..
f:;
.{
Coxoug.nox EQrrArroN 43

cirher digiral or prograrnmable hand calculators, to providc solutions. To

illustrate the t)pes of programs that can be uscd to solvc conduction
problems, four computer programs are included here- Thc progranE are
wrirren in a general form so thar they can be applied to a bioad'range of
problems.
The gcneral conduction equation is derivcd in the next scction- Much of
thc material that follows starts with a solurion of &is cquation- It provides
the tcmperature distribution in the material and oncc thc tempcraturc
distribution is known, the heat-transfer rate by thc conduction nrode can
be cvaluated by applying rhe Fourier law.

2.2 CONDUCTION EQUATION

The conducrion equarion is a mathematical expression of thc conservation

ofener,ey in a solid subsrance. It
is derived b1r performing an enerry
balance on an elemental volume of material in-which hJar is beii!
transferrcd by conduction. Heat transfer by convecrion and radiation ii
assumed to be negligible within rhe solid. Hear-rransfer rates by csnduc-
tion are related to the temperature disrribution in thc soiid by the Fourier
law (Eq. l-2).
The cnergy balance accounts for the fact rhat energlr can be generated
inside the material. Tlpical examples of inrernal .n.rgy generation in a
solid would be heat generared by chemical reacrions, hiaigenerared as a
result of clectric currents passing throu_eh a resisrance, and heat generated
bv nuclear reactions.
The leneral form of the conduction equa.rion accounts for storage of
energy in the material. we know from thermodynarnic considlradonithat,
thc intcrnal energy of a material will increase if the temperature of the'
matcrial increases. A solid material can therefore expericnci 3. net increase
in stored enerry when its temperature increases with time and a net
dccreasc in stored energy when its temperature decreascs wirh time If the
rnaterial tcmperature remains consrant, no cnerry can bc stored and steady
conCitions are said to exist.
Hcat-transfcr problems arc classilied in broad carcgories accordiag to
the variables that the temperarure depcnds orr. If...the temperaturc is
independcnt of time, the problem is callcd a steady ot stea4v-state problem.
,lf lrc tmpcntwc is a function <if tirnc, rhe problcm is dassificd as
unsteady v transient. Problems arc also classified by &e aumber of
coordinate dimensions thc tempcraturc dcpends on. lf thc tcmpcfiaturc is a
function of a single coordinatq thc problem is said to be on*dimensional.
If the tcmpcrature is a function of two or thrce coordinarc dirnensions, it is
said to bc a n@- or three-dimensional problem, respcaivcly. If rhc tcmpera-
turc is a function of time and the .r dircction in rccrangulhr coordinates, or

22
 4l Stlrur_c:ere Oor.rouqrox

r- n+} rhe probrem i,

T-T{t,c) in cylindrical "t"..in.o as onc4imensiorur od uansienr- lI
ttletrsiaul atd teady. "*rt;;;;"-;;;i". is ctaaiticd es ,,"*.d-

Fectangular Coordlnates
To sirnplify tre dcrivation of the
conductiou cquation, wc wiII considcr
oae-dimcnsional rcctangutar
assume rhat the rcmocraturc "."rai"r.
qyri;L *,o'.n in Fig 2-l aada
in ,n. rn"rcl"ii u tun"tioo of only
coordinarc and drnc..or r: (r,r). thc .r
tiriry'E densitv o. and specific il"t
w;;i;,r".*rumc lbar rhc conduc-
at constanl T'c
cffecr of variabre conduciviry
,.ilr u "ir**r.o
"io-.i,ia "r. 2_4.
r" section
A srakncnt of the cor scrvation
of energr applied to tt c
of Fig; 2-l is as follows: ot volumc
"oit
rarc of cpcrg
I I I rutc of cnerw
conducled inro + generated
]
I f | l#.a. I
l conrot volumc J Icontrol uolume J

f rarc oI enerw
*our
'l -
- | conducted I I rate of energy I
I of control 1+f stored inside I

lvolume l*n,tot volume

J J

(2_l)
Using thc Fourier law ro express
the rwo conduction tcrms and
thc symbol q'i as the,ur. oi dcfinins
.n..g, g.nlrir.Ji"rio. rbc conrrol ,rohmf

T - Tlt. ,t
GcDcntiotr
qc-AAx
Conrunt
propcrlks
k- e-c

__: 'tt -IlI={

Figure 2-t Conrrol votumc in.recangutar
coordiD.tca-
ffil-

CoxoucnoxEquenox 45.
per unit volumg Eq. 2-l may be expresse{ in thc
form

- u$ft)+ q,;,<dx:-arStr+a 4+pa a^,"{ e_2)

Dividing by the volume of rhc conrrol volumc,
produces
lAr, and rearranging

#f"*o'l-#t,t AT
Ax (2-3)
Whcn thc limit is taken. as Ar_+O, the first
term on thc lcft_hand sidc of
Eq.2-3 bccomcs the definition or tttc sccond
with respect to the x coordfnere:
daira,il;ii;;d;rr:J
,-iT
^];*en *FE
.

Q4l
Equadon 24 is not a gencral equarion
assumlrtion thar:bc*apcne#{nio,tl
because it was derived on the
w'as oncdi,a.r"ioael Jf rhir
rcrricriea io rwr rcfittvod, an! thc ,arnporrr..
to be a function
of all thrce coordinares as qrcll as ri..:;;t_frr,y,r,4,
"ssurnd lsnns
first tcrm io Eq. Aq representing the net lite &e
condirction in the 2 and z
direcrions.will appear. "ite threei;rne";i;J;;r*
equadon then becomer
of thc conducrion

-(#.#.#)+qt-p"# (2-5)
It is imporunrro undersknd rhe physical significance
Eq' 2-5' The first rhree rerms on the of cach term in
left-hind side of rhe equation
represent the net rale o[ heat conductea into trre contror
volume. The last rerm on the volume pcr unii r
per unit volume inside the
left-hand
".i;;; ;; rate of enerry generated
conrrot side of Eq. 2-5
represents .he rate of increasc ""1";;..il;'lghr-hand
in internal energy insioe the control vorume
per unit volume. Each term has
dimension, #.n"rry per unit time and
volume. Each term has &e ,1r,lt pw7.:f
i"G
-
ji ,yr,"* of units.
Equation 2-5 is often used in tn.
fo# --- -1
#.#.#.+::#
the thermal diffusivity, a, is a group
of material propertics defined
(2{)

;)rirc
k
a=- (2-7)
pc
Ihe thermal diffusivirv has units
of [rn2/sl. Numericat natues of thc
l..ar:.,- :onductivi.ty, Aensity, spccific iear, aia rhermal diffusivity for
lumerous cngincering materials ar.e grvcn in'tfrc-nppcnaixa. as
.{
;?.j+ q.:,;.*i
'ir: l,
t
-, li

46 Srrroy-St-^rz Aor-.rcTrT

Wc.rrc rcldorn rcquircd ro dctcrminc lhc tcarpcraturc distribution in a

solid matcrial by rclving thc conduaion cquation in the form of Eq- 2-6.
A solution to Eq- 2-6 would involve solving a partial diffcre.ntial cquation-
Ia most problems wc can make simplilying assumptions that will climinatc
tcrms from thc conducti<in cquatiorL and wc can often rcducc thc complcx'
ity of thc problcrn and resulting solution. A fcw spccial cases of thc
conduction cquation ryill now be discussed and cxamplcs of thesc special
cases will bc considcrcd in larcr sectioas of this chapter.
tfttrc tnrpcranre of a sraretial is:rot a ftmaion of time, the problem is
rcferrcd to as steadl and the marcrial is unablc to storc cncr$/. Thc stcady
form of a thrccdimcnsional conduction cquation in rcctangular coordi'
nates lhen becomes

1T*4*4*#-o
at AJ' al *
(2-8)

If io addirion to bcing a stcady problcnL thcrc is no intcrnal energt

plificd to

tr *Y+ o'i
?xt dy' d:'
=o (2-e)

F4uation 2-9 is thc Laplace equotio4 which occurs in scvcral scientific

disciplines.
For steady conduction with no gcneration and a purcly one-dimensional
problem such that tbe temperature is only a function of thc x coordinate,
the conduction equation may be reduccd further to
d2T :o (2- r 0)
dx2

Dlmenslonless Form
Thc coaduction cguation written in the form of Eq- 2-6 is a dimensional
cquation. It is oftcn convcnicnt to rcwrite this equation so lbat cach tcrm is
dimcnsionless. In doing so we will idcntify thc dimcnsionlcss groupc that
govcrn thc hcat-conduction procas. We will nondimcnsionalizc the one-.
dimensional form of the conduction cquation (Eg. 24) by dcfining a
dirncnsionlcss tempcftrtur as

o=+ (2-r r)

a dimcnsionless coordinate as
-r
,In (2-t2)
 i:*,i. :*:

CoNDUcnoN Eormor {7

and a dimensionless time as

I
(2-r3)
t,

Thc symbols T,, L;, aad I, rcprescn! a reference. temperaturg lengtla and
,i*"; rn" choice of refercnce quanriries is arbitraqr, altbough
r*tii"f values should bc selected once the problcm b complctcly
".rp"",i".ry. prefcr-
;.d. A dirnensionless ratio of temperature differences is oftea
of dimensionlcss groups
.Lt. ,o ratio of temperaturc; and the choice
"
*"y *ty from problem to problen- The f9-rm of.thc dimcnsionlcss grouP6

oft.n sclected so that thqy- linit the dimensionless variables bctwcen

"i"
.onu"ni.n, extremes such as zero and l' The value for t is usually
iclected as rhe maximum x dimension of thc system for which the
tmperature distribution is being detcrmined'
and
When the definirions of the dimensionless temperature, coordinate'
time are substiruted into Eq- 24' the conduction cqua{on wrinen in a
nondimensional form becomes

azo L,2: L,2 ao

qT
(2-r4)
dt'* kr; "', a'
number'
The quantity ot,/ C is a dimensionless group called the Fourier
which is designated by the svmbol Fo:
at-
Fo: --- (2-15)
L,'

The choice of reference time and length used in the Fourier numbcr may
varv from problem to problenq butthe basic form remair$ unchanged.
The Fourier number will always bi: a thermal diffusivity multiplied by
time
divided by the square of a charactcristic lcngth.
Thc Fouricr number is the rate of heat transfer by conduction divided
by the ratc of cnergv stored in a rnaterial- The Fourier number is an
importanr dimension'iiss group used in transient conduction problems and
it will appcar frequently in thc work that follows. -
The other dimensionless group appearing in Eq' 2-14 is a tcrm involving
heat gencration. Wc will ut" tt i ty-Uot {o to represent the dimc'nsioalcss
generation:

_ c:i,L:
4a=a7 (2-16)

This term is a ratio of internal heat generated pcr unit time to heat
conducred through the volumc pcr unit timc-
'

2ll
43 STaTDYSI TE C-otcDuc'nox

cquation cxPrcsscd in
Thc oncdimcnsional form of thc conducdoa
dimensionlcss form now bccomcs
a20
- la, (2-17)
p+1e-fr6
thc gcncral colduction
Exemple ?1. Dqcrminc thc simplificd fgrm.of in a rcctangu-
.q;;;b.t applics to stcady' oncldiy*i""tt-T,lduction
gcncration' Solvc thc rcsulting
lar solid with consrant p'op"ruo and no
conduction cquadon
and hcat-transfer
f"t d;';;;"rato" ?ito;ludm
ratc in thc sotid in terms of conslanls of
inteEntiott'

cquarion is
Sotution: Thc general form of the conducdon

-(#.#-#) +qz-r*
srcady and one-dimcnsioral thc
rcmpcraturc is
Since thc problem is
#;;;';tirrc antl it titnvir'-ctq" dontfr*efftntffi
we assumc t}iai fit only a funnioa of thc
x coordnatc'
dircctions. If
or-o 4:o - {-o
0t 01" d:'
Also, since no generation is prcscnt'
s';:0
equation bccomes
The simplified form of the conduction
lir:o
dxl
equarign twicc yiclds the tcmpcr-
Inrcgrating this sccond-ordcr diffcrendal
i*o oi of inrcgrarioa' C' and C':
aturc distriburion in -ntono
""t T:Cf+Cz
would bc dctsoincd in a
valucs for ihe rwo oonstants of integrarion
uy tp"liyitg and-a:nd1ng rwo tbun&rlr conditions'
pardcllar problcm
beat-transr", ra," thru"S rt'c otid in ttrc r dircction is
Thc
"otia"iJ
givcn bY thc Fouricr law:

s*-U*-'ktC1
ia egr*rncnt with -Examplcs
Noticc rlrat lhc bcat-transfcr ratc is uniform
l-l and l-2 and i,r"'"Jnito"i tot"tio* ia tbc solid under stcady
"fr
condidons-
 CoxouqnoxEeurrror 49,

Cyllndrlcal Coordlnales
The conduction equation s.ritten in thc iorn of Eq. 2.6 applics only to a
rcctangular coordinate system. Thc generation and ericrgr stoage tcrrrxl
arc indepcndcnt of coordinatc system, but the net conduction terms
depend on geometry and therefore on the coordinate q6rem. The dcpen-
dcnce on lhc coordinate system uscd to formulate thc problem can bc
removed from the analysis by replacing the net conduction terms with the
Laplacian operator. The form of the Laplacian is differcnt for erch
coordinatc system. Thc Laplacian operation in rcctangular, c,vlindrical
and cphcrical coordinate qrs(ems is gi'rcn in Appedix A. Tlrc esnduction
cquation written in terms of the Laplaciar is

u:r+$:*# (2-r8)

For a gcacral lransient three-dimensional problem in cylindrical coordi.

nates, I:
T(r,$,:,tl,. Thc coordinale symbols are shbwn in Fig- 2-2(a). If
the Laplacian is substituted into Eq.2-18, the general form of the conduc-
,tica+$a*ies js@drC+orair* ttms
la/a71 .taT.d2r.q7 tdr
;?ul'a,)-7 a6r* ur* e -;a (2-le)

If the transient temperature in a cylindrical shape is one-dimensional so

that I- I(r,r), the special case of the conduction equation bccomcs

Furthermorq il
+ *tE).+:*# eza)
the temperature is steady and a function of only the radial

7*
50 Srrrsr-srrrrObnoucrrox
666rlinale' the conduaion can bc rducc'l to
"q*ri-
L d (.{\*&-o (2-21)
rdr\'?rl k '
now a hmction of only a singlc
Noticc ia Eq. 2-21 that thc tcmPeraturc is
variablc r end &c Ut writtco as aa ordinary diffcrential
"q*ioo "i"
-'Wh"o
equation.
prcscnt and thc tcmPeraturc rs a
no internal cncrSi gencration is
of thc conduction equation for
function of thc radius ottfi' 6t iroay forur
cylindrical coordinates is
(2-22)
*(,+)-'
distribudon and hcat-
Example 2-2. Determine thc stcady PTqcraturc
ransfer rate in a cytindcr *ith lc;gth l'in^tcrrns of two constants of
is a fuiction of thc radius r onl1" and no
iri.gtiti.tt The lcmpcratu'c
inre"tnat gcneradon is prescnt in thc
cylindct'

cquadon is Eq' 2-22:

Soludon:The appropriaefwnr tf lhectnduction
d{,{\=o
dr[ dt'l
Integraring once with respect to t;f,* tlddt
t,
'-F -
OI
dl Lr
drr
A second inte-eration gives
T= CJnr+' Ct
oce two boundary condi-
Thc constants of inregration caa bc detcrnriacd
ratc across a cj'lindrical surfacc with
tions arc specified- Thc heat'rransfcr
arbitrary radius r is

c
: - u # : - k(znrt)g - -ZtHCt
Nodcr rhat thc heat-transfcr ralc actoss any c1'lindrical surfacc is constant
for stcadY condirions.

Spherlcal Coordlnales
of the thrcc
For a sphcrical shapc where the tcmperaturc is a funaion
and timc, o, 7-T(r,0'4'lj' thc gencral form of the conduc-
"*Ji*,L

t,.s&,=.
w
SiEr.Dy, Oxe-ourre.rsroxrt Cor,oucnop Wmrour Gei..Enlno$ 5l

Figure 2-2 @) Spherical coordinare sy.srem_

tion equarion which inchies generation oi energ-v is

;*('#).*7#("",#)
, I A2T.q;', laT (2-23)
fsin:daa: k a?t
The spherical coordinate system is illusrrared in Fig- 2-2ft).
Special cases for one-dimensionaf transient conducrion and onedirnen-
sional, steady conduction for spherical coordinates can bc simplificd from
Eq.2-23. The simplified forms are lefr as an exercise.

2-3 STEADY, ONE.DTMENSTONAL CONOUCTToN

WITHOUT GENERANON

We will now appl.v the conduction cquation to problems in which the

temperaturc is a function of a single coordinate onll In the rectangular
coordinate system the temperature will be a function of the x coordinatc
only, and in bgrh thc cylindrical and spherical coordinare slatems the
temperature will be a function of thc radial coordinate only. The
thcrmal
conductivity is assumed constant and no generation is considered.
The general procedure wc wirl use consists basicalry of two steps. The
-.
first involves. determining thc tcmpcratule distribution by solving thc
appropriate simplilied form of thc conduction cquation. Thi, prLo,
of solving an ordinary, second-ordcr diffc*eatial cquation. Once
":*il5
thc diffcrential cquatioa it rolvcd, troo bounda,ry ondirions are imposcd
ro
detcrminc the two consrants of integration. -The second step involvcs
solving for the rate of heat transfer through the solid by applying the
rouncr law.

iL
 52 Srtery-Srrtt @rroucrrox

Fectangular Coordtnales
Thc srcady, oncdimcnsional tcmpcrature distribution in a rcctaryguhr
planc wall *'ith no en"'ry gcner:rtion is govcrned by thc simplifica roin
of
the conduaion cquation (Eq. 2-10),

o'T
dxJ
-o
solving this diffrential cquation in tcrms of two constans of integratiorl
C, and Co rcsuks in -
T(xl-Crx+C2
Sec Example 2-1.
Thc- consranb of inregration can bc dercrmined once lwo boundaDr
condidons arc spccificd. Lcr us assumc rhar the rwo boundary conditiori
are dctermined by spccifying the temperaturts at trre two crrr?n* surfactr
of thc *.all as sho*n in Fig. 2-3:
r(0)- r!
t(D-:t:
Appl-nng thesc trrvo boundary conditioas rcsulrs in the dimensionless
lempcralure in the wall of
r{x\- r, E_ t
Tr-?], (2-24)
L
The t:mperature distribution is therefore linear *'ith x. The heal-rransfer
rate through thc wall as determjned by the Fourier law is

q=-k'4#-L4L* (2-2s)
The hcal-ransfer ratc per unit arca throu-eh the wall is thc hcar flux and
is

T. ltxt
I. dmrtJln
,tt;- .o

TaOt- Tt ftlt. T.

.t

-{
Frgure 2-3. Rccrangutar gcomctry and boundary
condidons.
ffi.
ffr:'

SrE^Dv, Orc-ouvexsloxr,r- Conoucnqx Wmrotn Garmrnor j3

denotcd by 4'. The double-prime superscript O".oto that thc quantity q is
cvaluated pcr unit area. For a plane wall
. q k(Tr-T)
c:7= L
When Eq. 2-25 is written in the form of Ohm's law,
AT AT
tR, LlkA
(2-26)

the thermal resistance for a plane wall asgoted in Chapter I becomes ,'

6+l
t/
The tlow ol lteat b1r conducri\_@celugh a plane wall is a result of a
(2'27)

temperature difference acrofs the wall and is inhibited by &ermai resis-

ance. which is proportional ro rhe wall thickness and inversell, propor-
tional to the thermal conductivity of the wall and in cross-scctionai area.
Ifheat flows by conducrion through several plane surfaces, the tempera-
ture distribution and heat-ransfer rale taa bc 4"t.'u,t^rd&y ssumirg
frrat rhe teat llows tb^rolghaa.eqgivalcnt thcrrnz{ cin:rit in *hich ttrc heat
llorvsconsecutivcly through a series olrcsistances,cach corcsponding to a
'
separate wall material,
As an cxample of a series circuir, consider a plane wall, denoted by the
subscript l, covered with two different t)pes of insulating materiais,
denoted by subscripts 2 and 3. The geometry is shown in Fig. 2{. The
same amount. oi heat fiows consecutively through each resistance, and

!latcrial l

irrt
i-n,-fr^rlJt ""r-:'
^,-# ^,.#
Figurc 2-.1 Scrics thermal circuit, rectangular coordinatcs.

zt
 5| Srs^Dy-Sr^TE Gorqorrcrro :

thcrefore thc rhermal circrrrit is a scrics circdl If the thrcc

r:ratcriat
propcrtics are known, thc gconctry is givcn aod thc two
cxtrcme surface
tcmperaturcs arc spccifid the hcat-rransfcr nlc can thcn bc derermined
from an cxprcssion similar to Ohm's law, as gircn by Eq. l-14:

,:f4f) T,-7,
' \ 4/,",,,=Ar-.*.R,+.R2+.R3 (2-28)
i |A
,-
oncc the hcat-rransfir rate through the.compositc *all is known,
interface
temperatures among thc three matcrials can bc dctermincd
by applying
Ohm's law to only one wall. ylerial, For examplg n" rcrnp.ru,uri'{
lhc inrcrfacc berween marcrials I and 2 can Uc Octirmincd fiom "i
Tr- T, Tr- T,
o=
' 'Rr - Lt/kfi (2-2e)

Frequentll', plane walls arc cornposed of compositc materials

subdivided
so that the hear must flow rhrough scvcrar materials
simuhancously rarhei
&an,cqrsntively- rilrhen rhis ii thc cqsg ttc (hcrmal circuit becomes
a
pa::lie1 circuir- A rypical cxample of a parallcl circuit
is shown in nig. f _0.
The heat flow is derermined by
T'- T'
n:(+:),", = (2-30)

^,*(ffi)*^.
Individual resislances arc determincd by the cguation

R,= (,:r,z.3,4)
klL,
Intermediare remperarures such as
\ y bc dercrmined by Eq- 2-29.
The parallcl circuir assumcs that thc ^
hcat flow is onc-dimcnsionar. and if
the resistafices R, and lR, arc significantll, diffcrcnt,
two-dimensional
cffects can bccomc imponanr (scc S-ction 2-|
Cyllndrlcal Coordlnates J
The mos-t common condnction-problem involving a cylindrical
geometry
is one in which bcar is conducred radially through-a
Irig" i,"h;"yii;L',
as-shown in Fig 2-5. The rcmpcraturc olthe imioc
surficc of rh.
t"T tostcaty-srarc
:bt.!' "iil;;;a
bc 2!. and thc rcmperaturc of thc oursidc surfacc t f;"*"
F tempc'rarure disrriburion in rhc consrant DroDcnv
gcncradon is prcscnr is givcn ty,h;;;;';iEi
z-zl. suDJcctcd ll,:ll,
;]".:.1:-:: to thc two boundary conditions
T(r)-7,
T(r.)=\
 ;;l'ii[r{'

Srreoy, Oxe-omgrcroxet Corvoucnow WrrHouT Gexenrnox 55

T= T(t\
li = constrnt
tu- =o

Figure 2-5 C.vlindrical geometry and .boundary condirions.

The solution for the local temperarure. l.(r), is

r(r)=r,+(r,-r)WA (2_3r)

Sec Etample 2-2. Equarion 2-31 written in dimensionless form is

T(r)-r _h(r/r,)
(2-32'
To- T, ln(r"/ r,)
Thc temperarurc distribution in the cylhder is therefore logrithmic with
radius.
i
Once thc tcmperature distribution is knorvn, the heat flow radially
-
through the cylinder may bc dctcrmincd by using the Fouricr law for
clli ndrical coordinarcs,

' q--u{4#-..k(?nn# " {2-33)

*L.t I is rhc length of rhc q{inder-
the tcmperaturc distribution giVcn in Eq. 2-31 and sub
-.,Piftu*$",ing
strtutrng thc rcsult into Eq. 2-33 yiclds

o= 4-7. (2-34)
' k(r"/r,)/2*l
zq
56 Srrrol-Srrrt Cd{Dttc?toN

and the denominator

Equation 2-3rl is *rittcn in thc form-of Ohm's.law
of hollow cylinder:
t"ptl*" thc tbermal rcsistancc a

-
E--
ln(r./ rt) (2-35)
2nH
for-a planc-wall
The principlcs of a scrics and parallcl circuit dcvelopcd
,.*irlar Lordio"t. systcm can also bc applied to a hollow-cylindcr
a tubc which is
;;;; F";;ple, supPosc that a Jluid flows. through avcrage fluid
I""*.J uy - insuLting rnatcrial as shown in Fig 2-6' Tbc
L"*o ,J be r, an - thc ouside surfacc tcmpcrature of thc
;;;;; tv sutscrlp.l
;;J;,t* is T2- Thc tubc marcrial is designared Td lt
;;;;fi;; i, no*u.r 2- Thc convcctivc resistancc of thc fluid is givcn $t
;;. l-ig.-]]r. fluid rcsisrance is connecrcd in series wirh
the
rhc rwo conduc-
hcat musr flow
iirl ,.risrunc.s of thc r$o solid matcrials becausc
consccutively through cach rnetcrid'
Thc hcar-flow rate for the problcm is givcn by
/ Ar\ Tr-Tz (2-36)
e-{ 4 r-- - 1 tnirr/rJ,frt(ttlrt)
i,z-f - lrkl 2zkJ

Tr rt --T
T, f'4Al'4
P\,\,t44r1
R'#;,\^,'#
tnl ,.i', I
R' "-fillr
ngttrc 2{ Scrics rhermal circuit cylindricat ScomcrDr'
ffi-r

6*ot'tt'on' Wmrorrr Gersr'rtrot 57

STEADY, Oxe'orxtrlstoxir

uscd in Eq. 2-36 nust h

the total resisuncc
The rhcrmal resis,nce had
bctwecn the two
lffi"i*l]'litrt" tw:'known tcmpcraturcs
t"o*"
ili"'c -o r,,,': $"iffmru,"1*tr":1i$n1i:
;:li*::J:i:f;H;: ;#;;;;"i-i**r"' '*e
is knownis
'; T,- T, (2:37)
c:@,r r'
,l',.t1 ''t'
An aluminum pip" &"i"'-$eam at ltO"C Thc PiPe
Exarnple 2-3' of l0 cm and an outsidc
w/m'K) h* ;;;;^i'[i"t"trctGa'l wbcrc thc ambient
-"l&-185 (o.d-) of tt ;: TiJ;; iiToottain
iir."t., 1'*-
lrf fl $fr;"flk:,:Hl?'ffi::: .xiys: F
$itr:?lffi
of pipe if urunsurarcq
thc pipe ts
udt length with a S-cro-&ick
'Ai"a
Zil-;;"d;cc ,ir. t.u, toss from e:_.prfl t, I_:"."'":"*"-":-'r:;f*;;";
rate per
Dercrmine the heat-ransfer
laver of insularion t*-dlO'W7t'I(i' rlistance
unit length from the inJuittta'pipt'
i"u*t
that the convectivc
#;;;il*;rc-elieible' i' ' ' reiistances
ir {'
pipe the siirificant
'to
Solution: For thc uninsulated -only pipe and the convecuve
hcat llow are lhe ttti"i"tt :t^.:l: of thc steam n
"o"j"'ti"t"l
Sint" the convective resistance same as the
resisancq of Ult 'oom oii' ot the pipe is thc
negligible, the inside su'rf;;;;;t"1;tt rate Per tength in terms of
steam tempcr"tu"' 'init
tt
'{t't"at-transfer
symbols shbwn in the figure
- -,.
-.:q
- =
'r 1- hQ2/ rr)f 2rkr+l/2trrrh*
ilo-30
15
@7;V.rrTt7'z"xo'o6x
80 :452w lm
(r.57x l0-1)+o-177 and
ot tt'c insulation must bc added
For thc insulated otot' lit tttt:LnJc
th. ."pr.rrion for the heat loss bccomes
T,-Tn
q'= I
1= tttv al . l,
- Zrk, Ztrk, 2rrthn
l l0-30

ffi-m#'m EO
- 138 W/m
[i3x tot'1 +0-482 +o'oe6

q
5E Srteor-Srrre @loucnox

Air
f,o'L

Ait
inuT-

.the heat loss from tbe steam by

Thc prescncc of the insulation has reduced
?0 pcrcent Noticc that in both cases the resistancc of thc aluminum pipe
can be neglected wi&out loss in accurac;* for thc calculation of heat-trans-
fer rate.

Spherlcal Goordinates
Thc tempcrature distribution and. heat-transfcr ratc through a hollow
spherc arc dcrcrmined in a manner similar to that'outlincd for the plane
wall and hollow cylinder- Thc stcady, oncdimcnsional kmPctaturc dislrib-
ution with no gJcrarion pr*cnt is detcrrnincd by solving thc simplified
form of thc cr:nduction cqnation writteo in spherical coordinates. llhis
equation is
I d (*{\_t d2(rT):s
td,\'&l t dl
Assuming that rhc boundary conditiom gpccify that thc inner and outcr
surfacc 6f thc spherc arc at knolvn temPetaturcs as shonm in Fig'2'7'
T(r'l-7,
T(r"l-7|.
--_
ffi^, vt/
W,i'
v,l

19
Srrrov, oxr-orrnsrcitrer Corrot'crrox wmlour Gei'anrnor
t,/

Ftgute L7 Sphcrical gcomctlv and boundary conditions'

The ternpcrarurc dierributioe ie rlr lollow sphcrc i' then

rlnl: % /r_1) Qtitt

7=T -'. 1\' rI
vttlt
The temperature in a hollow sphcre thercforc varies hyperbolicnlly
radius. ll''
The heat-transfer rate in thc sphere is dctermincd by
applvirrll
Fourier law to Eq. 2-38. The result is
T,-To (/ t',t
c: Wat+"W
I
The thcrmal resistance for a hollow sphere is therefore
(t. 'l(, )
D-3'i
4;kror,

Overall Heat-Transfer Coefllcient

As shown in Chapter I' when a hear-ransfcr.problcm
tt::1"::,::";'11
thcrmal rcsistances in scrics' parallcl or combinations
ot tne ,i*-l.i:..ii,,'.
convcnicnt to dcfinc ea overell tcat'tranrfcr cocfficicnt
or ovcrrrr u'r'""
is U' rn<l ll rl
tance. Thc symbol for thc ovirefl heat'transtcr cocfticicnt
defincd by thc cquation

c- ul(A1')-d Q'4ll
cocfliule'nl '
The rolc of U is similar to that of thc con"cctive-hcat-kansfcr

?6
eo Sre^Dx-SrerE*ry
\iihcn f-q' 2-41 is comparcd to
Thc unirs of both U and tr arc W/ml'tC
{242)
'=t{}-' total thcrmal rcsistancc of tlc
wc sec lhat U can bc writtcf, in tcrms of tbe
circuit:
u/-'G;i; (243\

coefficienL considcr thc tbree

As an cramplc oI thc ovcrall bcat-transfcr
,i"*"
i"Fls e-+n. vatuc oI Ulor this exanrplc is
;#;ffi;
_ffitffi
croes'cctionrl arcer of rhrcc matcrials arc cqual' so
rll
ln rhb cxarnptc. thc
*"r*ioilJtt-l'hat
-io area should bc uscd in Eq' 243'
there can oe liulc
cach rcsisunc: Ittn varics' wc mun bc
Howevcr, when rhc
#.*t**."*u"t"g
*n "r*2t arca to bc uscd in Eq' 243'
involving a comP(Fne
pt"tft*At.*tn ttlr"lattt rnrl'b thc inoncecrics' Thc valuc for Ul
cvlinds in ryhich ,b. t dt;;.tare cormecttd
tir thc circuit ibowa in Fig 2-5 b

q: UA{ATl,oor= (r,/ r,l ln(rt/ rr)

-7--'n - z'*J 2ek;
l.r*rJr=

UA= T-1i:,./r,t ln(h/rz)

ffi,*-frt'zq
ol llA is a consunt. but thc valuc of cxamplq
U varics
Noticc that the product
corrcsponding'arca' For
dcpcnding upon the "h;;t-;;
tIi pipc zre4 A;' as our rqferencc ^te4
suppose that we *o*t insidc
whcrc
Ai:2zrJ
would be
Thcn the {/ value bascd on '{,
U;n@
i.
arca '{o' wherc
lf U is bascd on thc outsidc pipc
Ao-2mtl
 "Srzeoy. Olre-onreNstoxAr- CoNDucnoN Wmrour
Gglantror 6l

then
uo:
-;i-
\ rrln(rr/ . rln(rt/
0,, ---,
11) rr)

'
Evcn though the values for U, and U. arc differcnt'
the Ul product is
always consunt:
U,A,= UoAu

Example 21. A plastic (k=0.5 W/n'Q,tlP:.carries a fluid such that

tJcooicAvc heai-transfei cocfficient is 300 W/'2'IC The a'reragc fluid
lip"ra** 100"c. The pipc has an i'd' pei
is of-].T and an o'd- of;Lsrr. If
ii"'t"".,.*fer rate through the pipe unit length is 500--W/n'
ioluf",. tbc externa.l pipa-timperature. Also calculate the overall heat'
transfer cocfficient based on thc pipe outside surface aree'

Solution: A sketch of the pipe system is shown in the accompanfing

figure- The heat-transfer rate is given b-v
Tr-Tz
I +- ln(rr/ rr)
i,(2rrrl)' 2rkrl

1 ln(1/r1)
mtrrt -F
or thc heat-transfer rate per unit lcngth is
Tr-7,
c':+
-\-^--=-- | . ln(rr/ rr)
hr2ar, ztkr
-f-
 ffi
iI

6l Snrory-SrrcCororrcnot

Jop- I loo-r2'. l^(z/rs\

ffid:oit-.ffi
r:-365"C
Thc overall bcat-rransfcr ocfficicnt based on ,{o is

UoAo-
1 . ln(rr/ rr)
@rtt-Trk-kJ
|
,,
vo-
r, . rrln(rr/ rr)
;F,* k,
I
-62.69 W/m2-K
2 .0.02x1n(2/1.5)
tJ>(300 - ---63-
As a check on thc valuc for O, ve can calculate fhelheat-ranSer rarc
bascd on the calcutatcd ualuc of IJ.:
q': U,A,(Tt- T)-62.69x2r x 0.02(100 - 36.53) - 5gg 1v7t

Grltlcal lnsulallon Thlckness tor a Cyllnder

An intcresring situarion ariscs when a c-vlinder with low thermal rcsis-
rancc is coverid by an insularion layer and thc insulation is sunounded by
a fluid- Tbc gcomctry is shown in Fig. 2-8. Assume thar thc i.nncr surface
of the iosularion has a known constant valuc of temperature cqual to 1..
Suppose that we wisb to dctcrmine thc cffect additional insulation will
havc on thc bcat-transfcr ratc frorn the cylindcr. lt is nor obvious wbc.tficr

Frgurc Lt Crirical redius of pipc insulation-

w:
'{i

Sraov. Ore-oryaxstoxl @xoucrrox Wmrour Geterenox 63

addirional insulation will incrcasc or decreasc thc heat-transfer ratc. The

hcat transfer at srcady state through rhc grlinder and insulation should bc
cqual to lhc convection ralc from &c surfacc:
q: h-,.t.(T.- T-l
where thc symbols are defined in Fig 2-8.
As insulation is adde4 lo increeses but I decrcases. To dctermine
which cffcct dominates, we can writc thc hcat-transfer ratc as
T'*T*
q= -
ln(r"/ r,)/2rk,l+ l/ h"2rr"l
To determine thc effect of variable insulation thickness on dre heat-trans-
fer rate, wc can takc the derivative of q with respect to r. and cquatc the
result to zero to deterrnlge oprimum condilions. The resulting condition for
oprimum heat flow is the condition
E,
'"=l-0 {2tay
kr
Ttr q*n*iry.l.<"y'4 g=di:=+asleJass g*enp callcd lb 8fu *'ebr- *
"b
represnts the rario ol condurrivc rcistance in lhc :Olid itrfirhtion-ro'rfit
cenvective rcsistancc in thc fluid. The synbol uscd for thc Biot numbcr is
Bi. The Biot nu:nber frequently occurs in problcms involving thc combind
modes of conduCtion and convcction.
The condirion for optimum heat transfer from the c]rlinder is thcrcfore
hit"
Bi= = I-o (245)
kr
By plotting the heat-transfer rate as a function of the ouside insulation
radius ro, we could show that the heat-transfer rate reaches a maximum
when Bi-1.0. If Bi<l.O addition of insulation will incease the heat-
transfer ratc. Oncc thc Bior number cxceeds unitl', additional insulation
will decrease the heat-transfer rate.
When the Biot number is unity, the outside radius of the insulation is
termed the critical radr'us because of the heat-transfer rate from the
cylinder is a maximum when
k,
' cnt (246)
h,
By cxamining the order of mignitudc of both &, and i] that onc can Gxpect
to cncountcr in typical problcms we would scc that the critical radius is on
thc ordcr qf r few nitlirnaers. THoce, we shou.ld be asarc ,that
additional insulation on smaltdiameter cytinders such as smatl-gauge
clectrical wires could actually incrcasc the heat dissipation from thc wire.
On the other hand, wc should clpcct that ;he addition of insulation ro
large-diametcr pipes and ducts will always decrcasc thc heat-transfer rate

,y
 ..
6{ Sraov-srrrr6lotrnor
Exemplc2.5.Ai-mmdiamcrcrclcctricalwircis-covcredwitha2.mm.
thict laycr of plastic insulario (t-OS W/n'K} The wirc is surrounded
iy.i, ",itf, an ambient EmPeralurc of 23'C and i]-10 W/m2'K' Thc
Jr. r"-p"oturc is 100"C
Dctermincthcratcolbcatdissipatcdfromthcwircpcrunitlengthwith
*ti,ou, thc insulatiou Assumc that lbc wire tempcraturc is not
"ra
affcctcd by prescncc of thc insularion"

Solution: First we calcularc rhc Biot gumbcr:.

lo(2 +o'5]
x lo-t
Bi - &k, - 0-5
-0.0,
will
Sincc the Biot number is less than t, the presence of insulation
bear ransfcr from the *'irt. The heat-traasfer rate per unit
incrcasc rhc
length with thc insularion oo *rc nirc is
t.- 1
t*J%-
' ln{r./r,) . I
7-
2ak, 2zrni,
100- 25
- 10.90W/m
ln(2-510-51
++ .

?rX0.5 2ex(25x l0-3) x t0

Without insulition thc heat-traasfcr rate is

4: E,!G"-7-): l0x2'rx(o'5x l0-3x lo0-25)-z'36 *,'

Thc addition of the insulation incrcascs lhe rate of heat transfer from the
wirc by a factor of 4.6.

24 EFFECT OF YARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTilITY

varies with
The rhermal conductiviry of srost matcrials is not constant but
thcrmal conducrivity was
;;;";. so far wc bavc assumcd rhat rhc
a variable
**ont ln this sccrion, howcrrcr. wc will dcrcrminc tcmpcraturc distrib-
the cffect
rhcrmal conduaivity would harrc on the heat florvand
ution in a plaac *ail, a hollow c1'liadcr, and a hollow sphcrc'
lf rlre conctuctioo equarioa for thc rccrangular coordinatc qtstem derivcd
in Section 2-2had bccn dcrivcd asgrrning thc thcrmal conductiviry was a
variable tbe form of Eq.2-5 *ould bccomc

*(-#).*(-f).*(*#).';-*# Q41)
 Errrcr or Verren-s Trcnxrr. @xoucrrvrrr 65

if thc tempcrature distribution in ihe rect4ngular solid is steadn onc'di'

mensional, and does not involve internal cnerry gencration, Eq.247 an
bc simplified to

*lo"#l:' Q4st

Bcforc wc can solvc &is cquation, we must know how $c rhcrmal

conductivity varies with lemPcrature, lc(I), over thc rangc of tcnperatucs
cncountcrcd in &e solid. For many materials, very little accrrraqr b lost by
assuming thc conductivity-temperature variation is lincac
:
+ Br) (249'
where p is a constant. *k(r):'to(l
Integrating Eq. 2a8 once with resPect to x gives

kl)#:q (2-50)

The heat flow through the wall will be a consrant for steady-statc condi-
tions. The Fourier law applied to the wall is

q':-k(n# (2-5r)

By comparing Eq. 2-50 with Eq. 2-5 l, we see that the heat flux is
4": - cr
Substituting Eq.2 9 into Eq- 2-50 followed by integration with rcspect to
x yields

r,(r*o$\-c,x*c,
The values for the two constants of inlegration can bc deternined dy
spccifying two boundary condirions. Assuming that thc boundaries of the
solid are at known tempcraturcs such aq those shown in FiC. 2J' thc
boundary conditions arc
f(0)= 1,
T(L)=7,
'Wt can dctcrmine the values of the constaqts of iotcgration C, a-nd C2,
which arc

9t
6 STI DYSTATEOonoucrrox

ia the wall is lhcD

11g .limcnsionlcss tcmpcratrlrc distnlburioa

W-;*{[rr,+r;,;
r,2- r(x)2
^ T,-Tt I Q-52)
I
wall yth.:"t)n"n thcnnal conductiv'
The tcmpcraturc profile in a plaoe to thc lincar result
itv is not linear, but *'. ""ol"l it" eq'2-52 will
"aul
;iL:;;;*;'Gi ,l"ttJ conductivitv is oonstan! *hca p-0'
or
' ihc b.at flux through thc wall is
Q'- -Cr= - *lo,-r,)+ +(r:-r,')l
which can bc rcwrittca in the form

c":ro(r.ury)+
ttrtrtnal cosduaivity s'duatod at thc
The quandry in parerthcscs is rtre
mean or avcragc temPeraturc, ?-'
of thc *'all' rvhcrc

r^_!,lrr'
The thcrmal conductivity cvaluatcd
al 1- is

r-:ro(r-ury)
The heat flux in terms of k- becomes simply
_ k^(Tt-
s" =--T-T2\ (2-53)

convenicat form' It shoss that

Equation 2-53 is written h a particularly rraries [ryb
rhe hcat flux througtr *"ll';i
;ermal conductivity'that
"
io uc Jcutatca bv tsig. thc. form of thc heat-flux
ili;;;* if the conductiviry is
.qiri*'a*i"p.a fo' **^ttwo wall-surface
"ointtuctit;tytempcraturcs
o.atuatca at the avcrage of thc
of a matcrial lor which thc
If a hollow cylindcr * ioUo* "pltt" 3nsiss a similar proccdurc
thcrnal coriductivity *ti; li"early with tempcrature
and bcat flux throrrgh
vill allow us todctcrminltlt i#p"o*"-Rmlilc
tn * r"*i"rt ir" tcttior pout!11.at tbe end ol thc cbaper'
Thc dctails
Tbe hcat flux througb i lout* cythicr with lincarly varying coniluaiv'
ity ald tlown surfacc tcmPcranrrcs b
q-w,T,-To
f"

' ErFEcr oF vArt^rLE THERII L Cot'rDucrrvfrl 67

and for a hollow sphere the hcat flux is

q
-- \-T" -
(ro- r,l/4tk^ror,
where the values for &- arc dctermincd by

*^-u(t+r,ff)
we can nowsce that the previous expressions for heat flux through a
olane wall, a hollow cylindei, and a hollow sphcre with constant thcrmal
io"au*i"i' may etill-&c {'"d ro dcrcnninc rh. heat transfcr by simply
r.pl"cing tie constant thermal conductivity with the thcrmal conductivity
cvaluated al lhe avcrage did lempcraturc-
when thc thermal conductivity docs not rzry linearly, the heat llux ca1
bc shown ro be surnmarized bi the Fourier law written in the form of
Ohm's law:

s:+ A-

where fl_ Iepressnts tlle mtn ihcrma'l resistance of rhc solid tffitfia{-
Regardtess oi geometry, the mean thermal resistance h based upon
the
mean thermal conducriviry of r'he soiid defined by

r-- l1--] -llJTrf"*g1/f-

and T2are .ihe extreme temPeratures across thc
where the temperatures T1'Then
surface, or Ai:I,-?"1 ti..."tt thermal rcsisance for a planc
wali is

O:L
k^A

For a hollow cylinder R- is

- ln(r.lr,)
R^=_llFT
and for a hollow sphere
p : fo-fi
"n 4rk^r"r,,

' Exearplc 2-6. .t largc planc wall is 0J5 m thick One surfacc b main-
taincd ai a tcmperature uf lS'C and thc other surface fo at ll5'C' Only
two valucs of rhermal conductivity are a.vailable for the wall matcrid. At
0"C k:26W/m'K and at 100'C k=32 Vru'IC Detcnninc thc heat flux
rhrough ttre walt assuming the thcrmal conducti"ity varics lincarly with
temperature.

'lq
 6t SrE^Dy-Sr^TE@xoucnoN

Solutiou The mcan tcnpcrature of rhc wall is

T^-Tr!rTr-ry -4s.c,
Thc mean thcrmal conductivity 6q f3 qfuined by linearly interpolating
bctwccn tbc two givcn ccnductiviry valucs
32-k^* 100-25
32-26 100-0
or
t-=30JW/m.K
The hcat flux through rhe *,all becomcs

a,:!_- 3r il5-35
- 7 - qC: d-lsz:os -6e70 w /m2

2.5 STEADY, ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION WITH GENERATION

umil now wc havc not considcrcd a conduction probrem that invorvcs

generadon of heat insidc tbe marerial. The.pp.o..h
to a probrem invotu-
ing interna.l generation is idenrical to ,i't^,
*.a
in the previous sections.
Fint" the appropriate form of rhe encrg, equation is sorved ror rhc
tempcraturc distnlution ia dre marcrial. The solution will
result in two
consran$ of integration tbat musr bc deternined
by two boundary condi-
tionr Ncxt' thc Fourier law is used ro derermine the hear nux rhroug
ttrc
solid-
Hcar cao bc generared inrernally in a number of wavs. Chemical
rcactions. both endothermic or cxorhermic. can occur in
a solid marcrial.
An exothcrmic rcaction will gcnerarc hcaq whercas an cndolhcrmic
rcac-
tion will absorb heat from the marerial causing a negatitx source
or a heat
srn&. Elcctric c_.rrenr passing through a resislnce
;
!.n.rut., h*t th;
conductor- Hcat gencration arso ocq's in fissionablc matcrials
of lhe nuclcar reaction tfiat rakes place within the material.
* ,.Ji
"

Eeclangular Coordlnates

{s an clmp]c of a problem involving inteinal hear generadon,

a plane wall with a consrant gcncrarion disrnbutcd urrltororty "or,rid",
,h.o"gh;;;
fhc-gcorrrion raic pcr unir votumc i, ai",.J Ll-*r.
9:li*,ytyc..
symbol ge, dic[ in this cxrmple.is a consranr value.
Supposc r# ;;
planc wall hac onc surfacc maintained at a known temperature
thc othcr surfacc is insulatcd- Thc geomcrry and boundary
I, and that
givca in thc problem arc illustrared in'Fig. 2-9.
;J;;;
ffi'
#rt
ai. l
SrElDy. Oxg-onrersroxlr Coroucnou wmr Gri,rtrenox o
V 46- . constrnt
t = coostrnt

lnt0htcd $rrli(

figur! 2-9 Conduction in a plane wall with uniforrn gcncrrtio!-

The appropriate formbT the conduction equation is

*dx- * #:o A
(2-54)

since the problem assumes a stearil; onc-dimeosioa.d rem{sslrelisrribgr-

tion. Aftcr integrating Eq. 2-54 t*'ice. the ternpcratfic disrributicrnis

I("):- #"t*C1xlC" (2-55)

wherc C' and C1 are constants of integration that rvill bc satisfied by thc
boundary conditions.
The fint bouadary condition for thjs problern is simply
r(0): r, (2-56)
The second boundary condition must specify that the surface rt r:.L is an
insulated oradiabatic boundary. Since the heat transferred to this
boundary is conducted to the surface, the condition of an adiabaticstrrfacc

.
would, be

q"l,_,_. rffl,_"_o
or

+ll,- :o
dx L
(2-s7)
An insulatcd boundary in a solid material,is one for which thc tcmpcrature
giadient is zero at thc boundary. Substituting borh boundary orditilrns,
Eqs.2-56 and 2-57,,into Eq. 2-55 results in thc ternperaturc distribution foi
thc solid:
T(x)-f, qtxLt. r \
T=/.r,t'-7L) (2-58)

Thc temperature distribution is parabolic with x and its maximum valuc

3g
 79 Srsry$,r^ts C.orsoucnox

occurs at the insulated surfacc, r-r. Thc ooditioa for

a maximurn
tempcr.tun, dT/ dx*0, uras satisfied by the insularcd boundary
at r-L Thc maxim'- tcmpcraturc iatbc ualt is fhcrcforc ".iAit.i
r@)-r^-rr* otlrf
The equatioa abovc can be recast in terms of dimcosionlessparametcrs,
as
shown in Example l-10:
T
rmr -...t2
,lCL
.
4__t_fr
we should also noticc that all the encrgr gcncratcd insidc
the urall musr bc
conducred from thc surface ar x:0. NL lrcar may
the righr-hand surface becausc it is insuraled and
bc transferrcd ,figh
no cncrry may bc stored
in thc marerial because stcady conditions havc bccn assumcd
rhcrefor,g
an encrs/ balance on t}e wall at the surfacc r-0rcquircs
that
4lr,-o= - C;V
of

-u#1,_,---cTAL
Differenfiarion
of Eq. 2-5g will show thar rhis condition is auromaricaly
satisfied.
Problems involving nonunirorm hear gencredoDr or
. on.. with different
i
boundary conditions. are approached in manncr simirar
ro tlu pro..Ju.i
illustrared above.

Cyllndrlcal Coordlnales
A
. common problcm in c-vlindrical coordinares involving cncrs/ gener&
tion is the case of a solid wirc carrying an elecrric
"u,,tt
*ii i. ,i,i,
showa in Fig 2-10. The currenr is l and -thc ctecrrical rcsistancc
;;;;
is .R. The cxtcrnal surface remperature of the wire is a
knona "ith.
d;.t Th;
energr gcnaated per unit volume within thc wirc is

l2R
4c=T
If thc currcnt and elecrrical resistance arc co'stanls rhc internar hear
gcncr:.tior is also a consanl
Thc steady, onedimensional form oJ rhc conductioa equadon
drical coordinatcs which inctudcs consrant gencrarion
in cylin-
is Eq. 2-21:

+*(#).$-o (2-se)
 SnADY' Orrt-oruexsroxet. Coxoucnox wmr Gorenraox Zt

figurc2-t tonilucfionin a cylinilcr wirh uniform generadon

lntegrating Eq.2-59 twice yields rhe rcmperature distriburion in the wire in

terms of the two constants of integration, C, and C,:

r(r)=Crln.-
S*Q (2-60)
To determine values for C, and C, we musr have tu,o boundarv
conditions. At first glance it apoears that we have only one boundary
condition, which is
T(r"): T" ,

But we also know that all locations in the wire must havc a finire
lempcrature- If we try to determine the cenrertine temperature of thc wire
by-cvaluating Eq. 2-60 at r-0, we wourd arrivc ar infioit" rcmpcrature
"o
as long as the Inr term remains. To prevcnt the unrealistic tempcrature at
the centerline of the wirc we must sct C,
-e.
Alother way of visuatizilg the sccond boundary condition is to realize
-
lhat tbe ccnterline of the wire as an insulated location:

#l*,=o
The ccatcrline must bc insulated becausc of the fact that it is a linc of
tJ^T.try. This boundary condition provides thc samc result rs before,
Cr-0'

7tt
 d
fl
&
4
72 Sreeoy-Srerr C.onoucnox
^l
1'
.t
.i

Whcn thc two bouadary conditions arc rsed to dctcrminc valucs

for C,
and C2, thc tcmpcrarurc disributioa in thc wire bccomcs

ry-#l-(;)'l (2{r)
Thc maxinum tcmpcraturc in thc wirc occurs at thc ccalcr and is cqual
to

qX?2
r@1: r*= +r,
Example 2'7- Determine thc marimum clurent that a r-mmdiamcrcr
barc aluminum (&-2o4 w/m.K) wirc caa cargr withour cxcccding a
tcmpcrarurc of 200"c. The wirc is suspendcd in air with ao ambilnt
tcmperaturc of 25'C and the convectivc heal-transfer cocfficicnr bclwccn
thc wirc p4airis lOW/m2.K. Thc clectrical rcsisrancc of rhis wirc
unir fcqgth of conductor is 0-937 g/a-
fr

. Tlori*, This example is a slighr variarion from rhe siruarion used ro

derire Eq. 2-61. In this problem ihe ,mUient air remperarure
is known
rather than the surface remperarure of the wire. The
apiropriar. uounau,_u
condition is therefore one for which rhe heat conduoed
ro rhe .r,.;o,
surface ofrhe uirc is equar to the hear convected-into
the air. Mathemati-
can),. thts boundar],condition is expressed as

F,irl1")- r-l= - r#1,-.. (:52)

As bcforc, the sccond boun&ry condirion is

{ltlf l._o =o (2{3)

This boun&ry condidon imprics that rhe maximum *ire
remperarure wilr
occur at thc ccntcr of the wirc.
Tbc appropriarc form of the conducrion cquation is Eq. 2-59
and rlc
yludg for consrant gcncration is given in eq. Z-60. SuUstiruring;;;;
boundary condidons 2-62 and 2-63*rcsurrs in thc tcmpcrarurc
distribution
in tbc wirc of

w=ffi{,.*-#)
T}c maximum wirc tcmpcraturc is thercfore
(2-u)

r(0)=?.*.- ,**ff(r-*)
 Srr.rbv, Oxt-onrrxslos,rt- Coxoucnox wrnr Ge.rrnr'nor ?3

The gcncration term expressed in terms o! the current and rcsistancc per
unit length is

o;:+:++:#+
so

r*u=r-+*+(,-+) 2nt

200:25+
72

2',(lo-3/2) x l0
oo3zlr.$$aI1
Solving for the current yields
! =12.2 A

At this point in our development of the princlples of conductiol' we

should again recognize the occurrencc of several dirn:nsironless ros?6
which rccur throughout the chapter. Equation 2-64 is writtcn ia dimeasion-
less form. Thcreforc, the grouPs

qi;'r" L+
and
i,r*
arc also dimensionless. Thc first term is actually a dinemionless geaera-
tion and the product of the two is the dimensiontress generation flrst
identificd in Eq. 2-16. The second dimensionless group is thc Biot aumbcr,
which appears in problems involving the combined coaductio.n/convection
modes of heat transfer.
tn to ,..ogriring lhe existence of the Biot number' we should
"aaitioo
also bc asarc of its cffcct on thc hcat-transfer process. Tbe Biot numbcr is
thc ratio of conductive rcsistance in thc solid to convectilrc resistancc in
the fluid. Therefore, the physical limits on thc Biot nurnber are

Bi-+O when R*oa-+O

or when k-+co, and
Bi-rco whcn .R*,-t0
or r,hcn A]--e.
. S/hcn &c Biot uunrbcr .approachcs zcrq the solid is practically bothcr'

mal and thc tcmpcraturc varics nost in ihc fluid- As the Biot number
approachcs infinity, thc oppositc is true. Thc resistancc in thc solid is much
lar3er thaa that in thc flui4 thc lluid is nearly isothcrnal' and the
tcmpcraturc differences occur predominantly. in thc solid.

3t
71 Srgruv$rrrt@xouclox

2.5 TIEAT TRANSFER FROI$ FNTS

Hcat conductcd through a solid substance is oftco rcmovcd fr'ono thc rclid
purcly by thc convectioa modc- Siacc thc contrcction ratc is proportional
ro tbc surfacc area, the heat dissiparcd at thc surfacc can bc iacrcascd by
mercly extending the surface- The cxrcndcd surlacc is called ain.
A simplc straight fin with constant cross-scctional ale.a A is shown in
Fig- 2-l t. Thc heat is conducred &tot{gb$c.rolid rutmialof $cfiaaadir
is rcmoved from thc surfacc to the surrounding fluid by convcaion. Thc
lempcraturc oJ the ambicnt lluid is I- anil ihe combincd-lreal-transfer
cocfficicnt is 1.. borh ol which are assurned consunL
To dctcrmine the tempcrature distribution in tbc fin, and a,cnrually the
heat-transfer rate from the surface. r must firsf perform an cncrsr
balancc on a differential volunre of fir marsial We cdrnot use the
conduction cquation developcd in Section 2-2 becausc it accounrs only for
rlcsdrsion so&ad<fu=#..mibffiim'fruilrdrsrfut'
for steady conditions Src ratc ol lreat conilucteil into thc c'lemental
volumc at rshown io F!.2-ll is equalrorhc sum of lhe ratc of heat
coaducrcd our of thc roltmc tt r+lt ptus rlrc rate of hcat convcctcd
from thc surface of the volume:

4rn Qr- t* 4c

Substituting the Fouricr law for thc rwo conduction terms and Newton's
convecrion tero yiclds
lan'of cooling for the single

- *n#1,= -*#1,-,,+r;PArlr(x)- r*l

wbcrc P is the pcrimetcr of thc fin. Dviding all tcrrns by Ax and nking the
lirnir es Ar-+0 gives a sccond-order differeorial equation for the lcmpera-

n __l.l

Figure 2-lt Fin with constant cross-scctional arca-

 HeerTnrxsizn rnou Fws 75

ture distribution,

#-Hgrx)-r-l:s (2-65)

Equation 2-65 may be nondimensionalized by defining a dimensionless

temperature and coordinate as

,,v>-ffi
and

L,L
^x
l:-

wherc I is the base (x-0) temperature of the fin. In terms of the new
variablcs, Eq. 2-65 becomes

aze _4Pt2 n_o (2-66)

dEz kA

The dimcnsionless group (i"PLz/kA) can be simplified to a form resem-

bling the Biot number.The perimeter tirnes the length of the fin is equal to
the total surface area A, of the fin:
A,: PL
Then

4=+
AA e-67)
wherc ,{ is thc cross-sectional area of the fin. Equi.tion 2-67 has dimcn-
sions sf hngth and it can therefore be considered to be thc characteristid
lengih of thc fin l:
PLZ
7-l
The dimensionless group in Eq. 2-66 can now be expressed as

Fort _n,t
(2-68)
kAk
vhich is similar to the Biot numbcr used in previous problems involving
combined co{id&1iril and onvcctira. Thc Bist nunber is then

Bi-fit -tFptz Q-6e)

We should havc expccted somc form of the Biot numbcr to appcar in a fin
problem nhich combines the conductivc and conveclivc modes of hcat
transfcr.

+d
76 Srrroy-Strn @rrnrrnq.r

Thc diurcnsionlcss form of thc fin-cnergr cquation (2-66) can now be

yrtt o in tcrms of thc Biot nurnbcr:

(2:70)
f;':*'lt=o
Thc solution of ft.2-70 is
,{9 - Cic -(Bl)'/:r.r 6'r"Gi)rnt (2-7r)
The valucs of the-rwo consranB of intcgration caa bc dctcrmincd once
two boundary conditions are spccified. The most frcqucntly known tcm-
pcrarure along thc lcngrh of thc fin is thc base tcmperatufc,-4; $ritren in
thc form of a boundary condir.ioo,
T(0-T' (2-72)
This equation will sen'c as the fint boundary condition. The second
boundary condition ma)' t"kc onc of sevcrat dificrcnt forms. Threc of rhc
most commbnb/ used boundary condidons arc considcrcd in thc following
three cases-

Case l: A vcry long fin such rhar thc tip tcmpcraturc rcaches tlre
ambient tempcraturc of the fluid:
T(L-el:7* (2-73)
or
0(r;:s
Case IL A fin with an insulated tip ar -t: l:
{t
el, :o (2-74)

4l
dt lrr =Q

Casc trI:
'{ fin with a convccrivc hcat loss from the tip surfacc arca This
boundary condition bccomes

- k#1,-El^L)-r-f (2-7s)
or

-#1."-#^'
Thc boundary condition 2-72, along wirh onc of cacb of thc thrcc
f#

Heet Ti.er.rsmr mox Fncs 7?

boundary condirions 2-73,2-74, or 2-75, will provide rhree differcnt forms

for rhc tcmpcrature distribution in a fin of consant cross-seciional arca-
once thc tempcraturc distribution in the fin is knowu, &c icer dis
sipated from thc fin can bc determined. The casiesr method of cnaluaa*g
thc hcat-transfcr rate from the fin involvcs determining thc amount of hear
conducted through thc base of thc fin:

t --*#1,-o-- #rr,-r-r#lr_" (2.76)

we can noqr deterrrine th temperature distribution and heat-transfer rates
from rhc fins rhat satisfy thc three given sets of boundaryconditions-

case I: For an infinitely long firu thc dimensionless tempcraturc distrib-

ution is a
Tl t\ _ 'r'
d(0- j#+-:.-"-VETtr
t b- I
-
Bur rhe length of the fin is indeterminate, so ii .is more convenic.nt ro
llcp*ess rhc *aperar+cdisrci&lrrion in +qrm of *:
T( -\ _.r
A(r): j::1--1-:e :.-Y i,e"1t,r (2-77)
To- T-
The heat-transfer rate is
irr
4t: (?i - r_) - VEi l Go- r-) (2-78)
.j' rrr

case II: For a fin wirh an insulated tip, the dimensionless temperature
distribution is
,g),,G. _ cosrr[(ei)'/'(r _0]
oG):
ir- r- cosh(Bi)r/l
(2-7eh

and the heat-transfer rate from the fin is

t1=gil/2$(ra- rJtanh(Bi)t/2 e-80)

Case III: For a fin wirh convection from its tip, the tempcrature
distribution is

g(E)=#*
oosh (Bi)'^( I - {).] + (Bi),/r(l / pr) sinh [ (BD
r/r(
I -
- [
cosh(Bi) /2 + (Bi)t /z(A
I
p L)sinh(Bi;'/z
) ]
/
(2-81)

9
 7a,srrruv-Srrrr Coorrna
and thc bcar-rrans?cr ralc lr
q,-(Btnfl(r:-al{ sinh(Bi)tn +(BD'2(z /z) cosl(ni)trr J

J
(2.E2)

\i Exemph 2{. A stainless sreel (,t=20 W/n.K) fia has a circular

i:{' cross-scctional arca with a diamcrcr of 2 crn and a lcngth of l0 cm- Thc fin
is attachcd to a wall that has a tempcrature of 300'C. Thc lluid surround-
ing thc fin has an ambient rempcraturc of 50'C and the hear-traasfcr
coclficicot is t0 VrcF- K.,fhe end of the fin is insulated- Dercrminc:
a. Thc rate of hcat dissipAred from tbc fia.
b. Thc tcmperalure at rhe end of thc fin-
c Tbc ratc of beat rransfcr from thc walt arca covercd by thc fin if thc fis
b nor ued-
d.Thc hcat-transfer ratc from thc samc fin gcomcrry if thc suinless srccl
. fin is replaced by a ficticious fin with infinirc thermal conducriviry.
; .,
i.
Solutim: T?rc remperature disrribution and heat-rransfcr rarc from thc
fia arc givcn b-v Eqr 2-79 and 2-8Q rcspcrtivcl,v. First, wc will calcularc tic
fin paramctcrs:

A : z R2 - d(0.01;r - o * t0-' m2

- i,y _ roxr(o.o)Xo.r)2 _,.0

-
"t- rn 2ox; x ro-.
&l
- 2o.oxi_x lo-' =0.06283 w/K
a Jhe heat-rransfer rate is

:
+( [ - i'-) unh(Bi)'/2
/'z
ct @i)'

-
(1.0X0.06283)(300- 50) tanh(1.0) = I 1.96 w
b-Tbc fi*'tip tcmpcaturc is thc tcmperaturc at {: l:

-L - I -0'6+8
cosho.
.- :
8(t):
cosh(Bi)r/l cosh(l'0) ls4t
T( L, - f- + 0.648( fD - I-) - 50+ 0.648(3m - 50)
-212'C
c If rrc assume that tbe heat-transfcr cocfficient ovct Lhe surface of thc
wall is the same as that over lhe surface of the fin, the hcat-transfer ratc
 o
k
HeArTRATsFER rnolr Frxs ?9

from thc srall without a lin attachcd is

o= i,s$r- 2'-)= tOxnx t0-.(300-50)-0.785 W
llc prcscnce of tirc fin has increascd tie heat dissipation from thc
- surfacc area covercd by the fin by a factor of I 1.96/0.7g2:152
,'d. If rhe fin thermal conductivity approaches infinii, the Bior i,rmb.r
'l would epproach zero. The hcat flow by conduction through thc fin
' r-iddtenal would have no rcsistancc and the cntire length of thc fin would
becomc isothermal at thc basc temperature. The heat-transfer rate from
this ideal fin would thcn bccome ,/,: i.

gro - h,A,(T6-T-)
= l0z'(0.02X0.1X300-50)= l5.Zl w ,'.,. t il
The ideal heat-transfer rarc is the maximum possible ur(olunt of heat
that can be transferred hm a fin of equal size. The stainless steel fin
dissipates , ,,

.r' ts-7!:_t_t.96 _24Vo

less hear than the ideal fin.

Fln Efllclency
Tbc previous analysis used to determine the temperature disrribution
aad heat-transfer rate from fins only applies to fini that have consrant
cross-sectional areas. whcn the fin is tapered, the cross-sectional
area
varics resulting in a more complex equation for the tempcrature
distribu_
tion. The temperaturc distriburioa and heat-transfer rarcs from tapered
fins arc cxpresscd in tcrms of Bessel functions. A complete t *t rr.rrt
on
the subjcct of tapered fins can bc found in References t and 2.
. A convenicnt conccpt that can bc used to provide a value for thi
heat'transfer rate from fins is the fin cfficiency. fre
fin elficiency is aciirrc<t
as thc ratio of thc actual hcat-transfer ratc from a iin to the
heat-transfer
ratc from an ideal fin:

n:ff 4ecnor
(2-83)

Thc ideal fin

transfen thc maximum amount of heat of any fin of cqual
-
slzc and basc tcmperarurc. Thc ideal fin has an inrinite thcnrrat conduciiv-
ity' and thcrefore its entire length is isorherrnal at the basc temperature.
Thc actual and idcal fins havi the samc geometry and the samc
basc
tempcraturc. The hcet-traasfcr 14: from .&aidcal fin is

qoa^=h,Ar(Tr- T-)
whcrt ,l, is thc cnlirc surface area of rhc lin exposed to rhc fluid at a
tempcraturc of T_.

4tr
f) SreroY-lrec C-or'tDucrlox

The hcar-transfcr ratc from thc aaud lia will thco bc

q^--niJ,(Tr'T-| (2-84)

in a position to dcrcrsrir crprcssions for the fin cfficicncy'

Wc are alrcady-Oc
no, ir"-pte fin cfficienry for a fia with consrant cross-scctional area
and an insulatcd riP would bc
r
- fs')t"(u/txrt-
grcur
't=t--arL(Tb-T-\
(2-85)
r:5fur"*,tai)'z'
A plot of Eq. 2-85 is sho*n in Fig; 2-ll Thc figurc shows that rhe
drops rapidly as thc Biot numbcr incrcascs' A fin *'ith a large
"ft;.i.n.y
oiniot'numbcr-dissipates less hcar than onc with a smaller Biot
""fu.
aumber. If rhc cfficicnry diops ro a vcq'low valuc, it is
possible for thc
surface of the ryall witbout tbc lia grcsant rc rransfcr morc beat lhan trom
rhe wall wirh fin in piacc. wc could hrre anticipated this situation. Thc
Biot numb.r opro.ns thc rario of conductivc to convcctivc rcsistances.
For largc valuc of Bi thc conducrivc rcsistancc is large compared.^ro rhc
"
convccrivi resisancc, and rhc tcmpcrrturc drop in the fin is significant-

Figufc Ll2 Efficicncy for consrant-cross-scctione}$Ga fiD with innlated tip.

 HrerTnexsrrn rnou Fnc tt.
poorly conducting lin occuSrics al at^:t
Whcn thc Biot number is largc, thc
,i"i"", af*,ively transfer hcat by convccrion, and thc prcence of the fin
i.au".t the heat dissipation lrom thc wall
'"?in ,*taob should bc selcaed rhat havc high values 9{ 6:Td
to madc of insulating
.oniu.,i"i,yr that is, metallic fins are superior fins
cocfficient is
;;,;;;ir. in siruations when thc convcctive-hcat-transfer
i"... ,fr. Biot numbcr incrcascs and the advantage of adding fins for the
#;;;i t*reasing thc hcat transfer rate is diminished. If rhc fluid
rhe hcat rransfcr cocfficicnt
iil;;; ptros. uy cith-er boiling or co1{gnsr1q, Thereforc' when thc fluid
t".oio'quir t-g* sloi ia Tablc l-2'
;;;; piasc' it-is ^possiblc for the rrn to actually reduce thc hcat
dissioated from the plane surface'
-'r'r'g"t.
z:iz -ei.'es ihe fiq-efficicncy fora fin with constant cross'sectional
riritras an inilatcd tp. rnc curvc musr bc modified il it is
"r.""ii,t.
;;;.."d ," ;pply ro a fin wh:ch loscs heat from is cnd surfacr arca' The
bc compeirsated for b'v addin-e an
i.'r, ,runrt., iiom thc tnd surfacc may
is such that the additionai
;;;;i;;t length ro the fin. Thc added length*ca*ss
*ni." arca *ifl re+{ {ras:bc.lipaea of
rlrc actual
te ireulatcd.
fin and the errd sufiacc of ttre cnendcdfirmill
Jakob (Rei. 3) recommends that thc addcd lcngrh be cqual lo thc {alio
lengrh of tbe fin.
of the tin'cross-sectional area to perimacr. Thc corrtctcd

Figu!. 2,l3 Efficicnca for fia rith'triangnlar profilc' 1

tn
 'H
':

82 Srrrov-Srrrt oxoucnox

Lr- L + tl2

Ar- Lrr I
-rI
I
,2r' Lr, ,,

i.

ri''i l \"'
Figurc 2-14 Efficicncy ,., wirh rccrangutar profile.
""rrljlr,'"
1., necessarl' ro sarisfl, rhc ins,.rlared dp boundary
condition is tlen
L,- L*
+
The crror involvcd in thc approximarion of adding
to the fin lenst' ro
compcnsarc for hear loss from tbc tip is less
rhan ld dien
Ir; .i
wbcrc l is rhc tia rhickness.
Vt
Fin cfficicncies for scverat other t)pcs of fins are sbown in Figs.
and 2-14' Additioaal fin'cfficicngr 2-13
"uilo -"
avaitaule in Refcrcncc 4.

Exery. 19' Dcremnine the hcar-tnnsfer ratc from thc

rccrangurar fia
sfown in rhc figurc. The dp of rbc fin i, oor iosJat"d
$cT{-:onducliviry of 150 W/r:o.lC Thc base i.rnp"ra,*. "oJ-,hJ;;;
b 100.C and
thc lluid is at 20"c rhc bear-ransfcr cocfficicnt
bctwccn rbc ria and fluid
is 30 W/maIC
 Ur,.,
hf"

Heet Trrxsrrn rnov Frus E3

Solution: To account for heat toss from the tip area we determine thc
corrccred lcngth of the
* fin:

L: L+
$ -to*ff :ron,
",n
The Biot number based on the correcred length is then

".
3ox 9:84
B ,= ^"!1,' - lr9?9e5F
kA 150x0.008 -o.ez2
and the surface area of the fin with length l. is
A,: L, p : e.2095 x 0.g4 :0.176 rn2
The efficicncrv from.Fig. 2-12 is

\-0'775
Thc heat-transfer ratc is then

q = qF"A
"(7, - T *) = 0-77 5 x 30 x 0. t76( 100 - 20i
*327 W
Exanple 2-10. Ar aluminum {k:200w/m.K) annular fin is placcd
on
a copper tube that carries a fluid. fie tube is g cm o.d.
Tnc nuia is at
250'C. Thc fin is 0.5 cm thick and ld cm o.d. The surrounding
fluid is at
70"C and the convcctive-hcat-transfer coefficient i, 60-W7ilt.K"
termine the heat-transfcr rate from the fin.
D*

-+l,F-

ttlp
I
 t
t
I
&l SrrroYSrert Corownox '
- I
'ntr-}
Solufcn: Thc corcclcd t.o$h ,fo*o in Fig 2-14 *.a rofli'.lunt t*
hcat loss frcm tbe tip is

L,-L+j -{r-o)* T-l:s "n

Thc profilc arca is
A, - L,t - 4.25 x 0.5 - 2-125 cm2

;' :(&)' " :

60
( 0'0425 )r/': (
' 200x2.125x l0-' )'"
:O-33
r* rtl L,
_ af5
rt = 7l
r* +_
rl
r+ -z.oe
.
The cfficicnc;- from Fig. t ,ott
,_0.r,
and thc bcat-rransfer rate from thc fia ir

c - ni,A,\7 :T J- "ril?t7r2,2 - t tyf; t -%)

b

= 0.89 x 60 x2 x r(D-O825r -D.Of 1pSO -ml

:31{ W
Thc basc temperalurc of the fin is assumcd to bc thc sarnc as rhc fluid
tempcnalure inside thc tubc bccausc thc rapcrarurc drop across tic
coppcr rube *ill be small.

2-7 STEADY, TWO, AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION

Wc havc assumed so far that the tempcrature disrribution in the solid was
a funaion of onl;" a singlc coordinatc; that is, thc situarion involvcd only
one-dimensional conduction. However, we now nccd to develop techniques
that caa bc uscd to detcrnrine thc heat-transfer'rate and lemperaturc
distribution yhen tbc tempenturc is a function of two or threc coordinarc
variablc" Thc two- and drecdimensional solution urill bc morc involvcd,
and so wc vill have to usc approximatc and indircct or analog merhods to
providc a solution.
Thc compledty and length of solutions lo lwo- and rhreedirnensional
problcne suggcst that mlutin dth a .ligiral conrputer will be desirable
Thcrdorc, two compuler piognms arc includcd in this scction. Tle
prograe language is FORTRAN IV. Thc tlgc of cxamplc programs
sclect d art relativcly ci*plc. m that tbc readcr can follow thc program
dcvclopmcnt without unusual cffort More complex programs arc sug-
gested in thc problcms at thc cnd of thc chapter.
 Sneov. Twq' exo Trntr-oncrsrone! CoilDtETtoil 85

Analytlcal Melhodt
The most obvious approach to iietermining the tempcrature distribution
in a solitl for which thc temperature is a function of two or three
coordinatcs would bc' to attcmpt an cxact solution of the governing
equation. For the case of steadv conduction in a rclid with constant
thcrmal conductivity and no internal gencration, the govcrning cquation is
rhc conduction cquation derived in Scction 2-2:

912':0
Th,iscquatioa ie Laplaoc's cquarion- Tlclocnof laptgr,;cl in thc
diffcrent coordinatc systems is given in Appcndir B.
"TElioa
Laplacc's cguation is a linear partial differential cquation. Scvcral stan-
dard techniques for sq!'ing it are available. One metho{ separation of
variables, is pardcularly usefrrl in heat-transfcr worlc Although this
merhod is not coverEd here, the interested reader b referred to Rcfcrences
5, 6. and 7 for comptete details on this and oths mcthods of soh'ing
Laplace's equation.
?nct the tcmperaturc fistrrturion is dacrmine{ te-rarAess tf ttfu-
ftc hcar flux js dctcrnincd by the Fourier law. ln two- and thrccdirncn-
sional systems this law is most conveniently exprcssed in vector form as
4":-kvr (2-86)
qherc V l" ir thc gndient of thc scalar tempcrature. Thc form of 'thc
gradient in rcctangular, cylindrical and sphcrical coordinates is girrcn in
Appendix B.
The gradient of a scalar quanrir.v such as the temperatur-e rcsults in a
vector quantity which, according ro the vecror form of the Fouricr law (Eq.
2-86), is the heat flux, g'. Usuall;-, we do not consider the heat flux to be a
vcctor quantity since it has dimensions of energy per unit area, ncither of
which are vcctor quantities. Howevcr, it is convcnicnt to imaginc hci.t to
be "flowing" in a certain direction; thereforc, {'ir often rcferrcd to as rhe
heat-fux oector.
An imponant geometric property of the gradient is the fact that the
'heat-flux yector is directed pcrpendicular to an isotherm. a line of constant
tempcraturc, at each point in the solid. As an illustration of ttris properry,
Fig. 2-15 shows several isotherms and representativc heat-flux vcctor at
points l, B, and C in a twedimensional rcctangular rclid- The lcngth of
cach of thc three heat-flux vectors is proponional to thc local temperature
gradient. That is, wherc the isothcrms are closc\r spaccd, the gndient is
large and the heat flux is also large. Where dre isothcrnrs arc *idcly
spaced, thc heat flux is proportionally smaller. In Fig 2-15 the heat flux at
point ,{ ir grcater than at point I, wherc- the tcmpcraturc gndicnt is
smaller.

trt
 s
{l
t6 SrrrotrSrereC.onoucrrox I

f. r cmLrt

Flgure 2':5 Hear-flux vccror and its g-comctric rcrarionship to isorhcrms.

since we can visualizc thc hcat flux as a vcctor. it shourd

have properties
like any other vecror quantiry. wc should thereforc bc able ro
resofvc thc
hcat-flux vecror'inro i'' componenr in the directions of the coordinatc
axes. Expressions for thc vcctorcomponcnts can bc determin.o
uy."p"nJ-
i"g t. form of the gradient For a rccrangular coordinar. ,jrr.rn, rt.
heat-flux vecror is

a"--r({i*#;-84
Thcrcforc, thc heat flux in the r dircction would bc
_ .dr
4,- - KE
Similar. cxprcs.sions can be written for thc @mponcnts
of the heat-flux
vrctor in thcy and z directions
Thc hcat-transfer ratc in thc -r direcrion across a ptanc area p
which rics
in theyr plane is then

(2-87)
',--ol^,(E)l,*

,t
 t&
BF

Snenv; Two_ ero TtncE-DnancroN^L

CoirDtcnou &f
Thc subscripr p indicares that rhe derivative of thc tempcraturc
m.st be
cvaluatcd ai cach point on the plane beforc integration
over rhc a-rea of the
Plane.

Graphlcal Methods
Exact' anarytricar sorutions to the conduction equation
for tc,o and threc
dimcnsions are often impossiblc to achic,ve- For cases
in which;"ly,i;
solutions are difficurt to obtain, approximate merhds
r**td ril
can provide"r"answenr for the
graphical method is a simpre.techniquc that
hcat-transfcr ratc wirh surprising
The graphical method is based"."u.u"y.
on the geometricar requirement of the
vccror form of the Fouricr raw, which srtcifies
that the isotherms and,
constan! heat-flux rines are ajways perpeniicurar
at points whcre the
two
lines intersect. We can rherfrre,["t"i, tt"
isotherms and consront flux
Iines and conrinue ro revise them until they
sarisfy rhe perpcadicurar
condition-
Thc accuracy of the sketched temperature distribution
relared to lhc carc raken in ttre consttnction-of
wit be dirccdy
ttre lines- T,rittr a little
cxperience we can obtain reasonauty
accurate resurts in a shorr aaount of
.time.
The sreps used in the graphical method
can bc outlined as follows:
Step l:
Draw an accurare scare model of the
materiar in which the
temperarure distribution and heat_transf..
rui. a-re desired.
Step 2: Sketch the heat-flux lines and isotherms
on the modet. The llu.r
lines and isotherms form.curvirine"r
heat flux and isotherms, the tangenrs
rq;r;;.-;t au interse*ioas of the
;o- ,h";;;.t wiu bc pcrpcndic.tar.
The diagonals of curvili-rrear squares
bisect each other and are pcrpcndicu-
lar' Rcmember ihat adiacent irotr,.*rl unJi""un* t
cach other' Isotherms are pcrpcndicurar
fines caanot *,
to adiabatic boundarics sincc an
adiabatic boundary is aline oi
oi
syrnmerry arc adiabadc boundaries."o*t n,r-, th"t is, g":Q. Atrso, lincs of
Step 3: Continue to redraw the isothcrms
and flux lines by adjusting
thcir locarion undl thcy mcct the
sp"Cncd in Stcp Z
"onaitions
.h:: ygu Tc satisficd with :h:
-turc of your drawing the teopera-
distribution is known and thc "".c,roq
t."t nu* is acterminc4 as usual, by
epplying the Fo'ricr o*:
T:
lem of dctcrmining rhe heat-trdnsf.,
ilil;;
thir;'fo;or", oroo:d., {h##
,"tc Urriugii .t u"uof I .bcam uscd
m a furnace wall Thc bcam is ,u..ouna.Jri-"in.,
placcd in rhe wa' of the
siae
furnace,;;;;i,t ;ti'r-lu."),
ty-hr"il;;
The nrfa* of
SS Srrrry-Srere Coxorrcnol

Flur lincs

Adbb4i$
surfre

ln3uLliq

tigurc2-f5 Graphical rncrhod applied ro ea t bcam: (a) p}ysical modcl;

O) scale dnwiag of bcam and skcrc$ of llru lioclrend isothcrms'

tbc bcam on lbc insidc of thc furnacc has a tcmpcraturc of fr and thc
sudacc of tbc bcam ncar thc .xtcrior wdl b ar Ir Tbc thcrmal conductiv'
ity oI Scbcarn b*.
The ccatcrlinc of the bc.rr b e linc of ry@{ry md it is thacforc an
adiabatic surfaca Constant-flux lincs aad isothcrms skctcbcd on a scalc
drawing of trc bcam arc shown in fig. 2-16(b|
The bcat is rcsuicrcd to llos' in four chanacls limited oa cach sidc by
flux liaes- Thc'rctal hcat transfcr rate through onchalf of thc beam is
ffi
Srerov, Jwo er.o Trneonararixrer Colorlcrron S9

therclore

c*,- i*
Thc inset in the figure shows a rypical curvilincar square through which the
hcat-rransfer rate is 4r. Thc Fouricr law applicd to thc single curvilinear
squarc per unit dcpth of thc figurc is

,:r=rorL# (2-s8)

II car.h curviliacar squarc is skcrchcd such thar it mcets the condition

Ax= 6y, cach tempcraturc subdivision is cqual The tempcraturc diffetence
berwcen two adjacent isotherms can then bc cxprcsscd in terms of thc
overall temperaturc diffeppce across the cntire surface aed, M, the aum-
ber of equal temperaturc subdivisions ia thc figure:

Ti*r-Ti:ff(aT)*, Tt-T

I{ rle flsi liacs ha* t'etn dfuided irno t/ qtat subdivisiong tre heat
transfcrlhrough cach of the channcls formcd by adjaccnt heat-flux lincs is
cqual. and the total heat transfer through the bcam is

{..r-lf4 (2-eo)
substituting Eqs. 2-88 and 2-89 into 2-90 givcs an cxpression for the total
heat-transfer rate of

(2-er)
when the grid is squarq that is, whcn Ax:rl1.
The heat-transfer rate can thercforc be determincd by drawing a scries
of curvilinear squares and then counting the number of equal tempcraturF
subdivisions, M, and the numbcr of equal hcat-flux subdivisionl iy.

Exa.mple 2-lI. Detcrrnine thc hcat-transfcrratc through thc beam shown

in Fig. 2-t6 if Ir-500"C, Ir:200oC and k:?0 \trr/m.K.
Solunr'on: For &is cxample
M-13 jy-4 (AI)*I-300"C
Then the heat-transfer ratc through rbc bcarn pcr unit depth is givca by
Eq.2-91:

(-z[Sttarl-"J: rem v,o

Thc factor of 2 is uscd bccausc the tzluc of rVras shoyn for only onc-half
of the bcam. .. '
 ,.#
.s
.3

'{
90 Srerpf-Srerribrwcnor ,i

cl
:
+
+ slh rFa
.6
+nv
sgrg
v-tdt .O
\O l$l 6
rS

4
I
T;
il- E Rl
ll=l- F
E
.t ci I
I ---
s.
I

g
o

? *-=- -l

tt)
s

d
I
cl -t
FI =o .5
;-e
Co
Ac
. r!: e
=ncE+
.Es* 3;- E
;'
.C
5r
rt=-!!x E
=i
otr s
o g t E3
=
 Sttrot Two- exo Txnrs-or*rapsrorrr Cclxirraon gl

3A
\-8
-q
lA Al
l^
t-
l-J l*t _,1; ,a
sl>
Fl! Fh-
dlv
sli tlS ld
Fl>
lv lv
l3 '19 tlv
lc lc
ls l: lts -

:
I

*y'.--\ i
I
\./
-

{ g'
o c
u660 c a.=
o= c o
'c 63 o9x o -oc-
t3 q ? E-t 5
E=E
':-'g gaG :x3
.o
o i.E*:E
tr
A
F5=
E
9a Srrror-Srere Ooxoucnor.

IEE{
li t-a
lbb't
l$tq
ttg
-
ON
I
Ii.(
rA t.- lg3{
rl]
dld ls E*
!c
lv
lc ts ls !.F
F'
l:* f
lr;q
lr it
llir
t:;l
I72-'
l.s;i
lexE
IE?E
[=F-:
l- . -
l3r!
I?;i
li-l r
l:a e

; :-J
*r I
F;: *i.
*;=
E E?S
i - Eii
o a:3{
F-a o
.:-q '= Ei-i>
4 -J
.9:; o-=
o= e'- -.41>
E =
e co
E.E ?-i
.:N

tr
Eei t3= =-^eC t ee--
.E .E.r 5
%ts tso
 r; . .[
-fwo-
SrEADy, rso Trnte-onct.rsrorer Corroulnoy fSi

The facror N / M in Eq- 2-9 t is callcd the conduction slnpe

faaor, Si
s:-#,
so that rhc hca( lransfer written in t:rms of .S is
y'- kS(A?n)"_.[ e-g?l)
Thc conduction shape factor for severar shapes are cataroged
in Tabrc 2-1.

. Exgressions for the conduction shapc factor are known for sveral
simple geometries. For cxamplg when iq. 2-26
is arranged in the form of
Eq.2-92, rhc conduction shape factor for piun" wall
"
hollow cylinder of lcngrh I, rhe conductioo ,nifi
is A/L. For. a
ra"t* o Zri1tnp.lr,l.
Notice that the shape factor has dimensions of I'.rg*,.
L
Ana?og i,lc,lhods
potenrial f in a material with constant resistivity
."1i.^:t_..:t-:flricaf
ano no tnrernal sources of potendal is governed
by Laplace,s cquation, the
:amc equation rhat governs rhe tempcraturc distribution
propedy solid wirh no inrcrnal cnergy gencration-
in a coastant
The ,t .quudc; io;
transport ol hear (Fourier's law) and- ttte transport
of charge tbrt^" r"*l
are also similar, as shown in the table. Owing
to ttre siiritarity of th.
cquations rhat govcru thc two phenomen4
the" transport of chargc and
hea! arc said to bc analogous.

lglgous Equations for Thermet and Elecrrical Sprems

Errcrnrclr- Tsrr-Ver
Svsrev Srsrev
Conscrvation cquation v2E-0 grf-0
Ratc cquation -AE :1f
'::n-- '&
potential in the clectrical systm is anaiogous
,,I:-l]i:lionlcss
ormensronless tempcrature in a thermal ro the
system. It is to our
use this analogy bccause voltages "d';;;" ;
are easii,o n,."rur. than tempcratures.
By measuring the rocation or ti.,. consrni;,.;,i"r rines with
a vortmeter,
ye can determine rhe locations of thc isotherms.
The analogy is carried out as forlows- e-*"r"
model of thc thermar
Scometry is cut from a comrncrciary avairablc irecrrically
e bancry.b conncccd o ttc p.p.r !o previde
ilil;
l1f:,,t"d
cnung porcnriar across the modcl Thc crcerricar
the overall
on thc paper must bc
uiu"a..y;Jil;;
lTOg::O
"n"fogou,
. ,fr. io.rponding boundary
in rhe rhermat problcrn. noi UOermat UounAaricr the conduct-
:_":1r,1*t
ng papcr must have a boundary of constant potentiaL Thir _n ."rity t
a''
4t
 X Sreroy.,Srrrt C-onoucnor

achi*cd by- coating rhc oo-undary with a hie*rry conducting paint and
co-nnccring ir ro a bauery. Tbc thermally insuiarcd bouoa-ary
sia-utarcal in the clccrrical qnrcm by an cicctricaily insularcJ
;n b.
which is simply rhe cdgc of thc papcr.
6;;;:
Qrcc:thc oonsrant potcntiar rincs arc rocated with a probc conaecrcd to
a voltmercr, rhc boundary conditions may bc swirched and the
o.ti,og*"i
linel or thc lincs of constanr currcnt, may bc located. 'llhcsc lincs clrrc-
spond ro lines of consrant hcar flur- By using this proccdurc tn. *n
accuratcly gcncrate thc compretc sct of curvilinlr squ"r., in the moder.
and a value for thc conduction shapc facror t dercrmined with
ercatcr accuracy than by the graphical rcchniquc. ""n
l
Thc analog mcthod has thc advanragc rhar rocarcs rhc isorherms
and
flur lincs without rhc rriar-and-crror proccdure of rhc graphicat ;.,h"d,
but ir has rhc disadvanragc thar it rcguires rhc purchasJoi ,p.A^i.qJi
mcnr T:hc -sraphical method requircs only pcncil. papcr. and p"rj;;;.
Botb merbods. howcver. arc pracricatl'rimiri to rwodimcnsionui
g.o-.-
rrics and simplc boundary conditions such as isothermar aad adlabatic
boun&rics. A morc 6lar-il+'cl ,l:.,rroioaf *hcanelog,nethod can
be found
ia X,cfcrcnccs 8 and 9.

Numerlcal lrletbods
Numerical solutions are po*'erfur and versatire rechnigues
when applicd
to slca.dy conducrion probrems. Numericar merhods
applicd prgblems rhar cannot be sorved convenienrty
*
."n *...Jr',uty,
1o uy ort.ii."i'-
liCuo.For examplc, numerical merhods can be used ro J,u. proUt..r,,
invoh'ing radiadve boundary condirions or inrcrnar
.n.rg' gJn.iui;".
Graphical and analog rechniques cannor be conveniently
,-,iOlo pr;;i;;
solutions to thesc rwo t)?es of problems.
Tlrc finitcdiffcrcnce numericar merhod invorves dividing
thc sorid inro a
numbcr oI da- An cncrgl' barance is appried to cach
nolc o,hich r.suhs
in en- algcbraic cquation for the tcrrp.ratur. of cach node. A
cqution b dcrived for cach nodc tooted on thc,boundary
,.p;;r;
,h;-J;
Thc rcsult of thc finitediffcrencc rechnigue is z argebrai. "i r* ,hi
.qL,io^
a nodcs in thc rclid Thc, algcbraic equations ,ipt"..
*,1 sirgl. p;J
diflcrcorid cquation and thc applicablc Lundary conditions
If tbe numbcr of nodes in thc sorid is reraivery smarl wc can usc
standard mathcmaticar tcchnigucs ro sotvc the rcsurting
algcuraic
tions As tbc numbcr of nodcs incrcascs, thc rimc rcquired "qu.-
to achicvc an
cxact solutbn becomcs unrcasonabrc. Approximate solurions
bccomc
adrraotagcors ir thesc cascs Wc will firsr considcr
mctho4 a,llcd re I axa t io n. - ";p;;;;;;
..
A p.-o*ber of equations grows large, the application of programma-
blc calculators and digitar contpurcrs biomes i.por,.nt.
Two computcr
i

Sreeov, Two- ero Tnrer-onrrr.rgorget Coxoucnox 95

programs are includcd later in this section to illustratc thc typ6 0f

sodimensional conduction probrems that can bc b.*t rctvcc by digitar
computers coupled with numerical techniques.
Thc finitedifference rechnique wiil be iirustrared by considering a two-
dimensional conduction problem. Firsr. we dividc thqsolid into aiumbcr
of equal-size squares- The sorid within each subdivision is imagincd to be
concentralcd at the ccnter of the square and thc conccatratcd. mass is thc
nodc- The_interior rcgion of a typical two{imcnsional sotd is *own in
Fig-2'17- Each subdivided square has a rength in the x dircction ofAr and
a length in they direction- of Ay. Thc node designatcd by thc subscdpt
zcro
is shown surrounded by the four adjacent noaes. Each noa. ir imag:ncd to
bc connected to adjacent nodes by a smalr conducting rod- Heaican bc
conducted only along rfu: imaginary rods. That is, inducrion bctween
node 0 and node l, which actually occurs across an interface ofheight ay,
in the continuous material is imagined to rake plage through thc inrlginary
rod connecting nodes 0 and l.
For steady conditions an energy balance applied to node 0 whcn there is
no encrgy generatiorr gives
4

: 9i-o=0 Q-e3)

Figurc 2-17 Arrangemcnt of nodcs for an interiorscciioa

of r twodimcnsionel solid-

'40
 '1U,fl
s
fi
96 Sreroy-SrenC-orcDncnox ji
:l

Ncx! wc apply the foi." law to cacL of tlese temu to tlre

"xpr.r.
cquatioo in terms of aodal tcEpcraturies Thc frnt tcrm would bc, for
cxanplg

o,-o--.#=k$ra1.J-:l3-
whcrc drc tempcraturc gradient is cvaluatcd at thc midplanc bctwecn the
two nodcs and d is the depth of thc twodimcnsional gcomclry measured
into thc planc of thc figurc. Similar cxprcssions caa bc c/ritten for thc three
remaining terms:
T
q.-o-klxt -',r
fr:
nr-*=x4'aff
-',rT
e,.'-kh,xdfrf
If rbc suMjvisiors arc drawn so rbribg/:rc.aI squarg At:Ay and
cach heat-flow cguation becornes indcpandanlof the gpornetry. Horrcvcr,
thc accurary of replacing the temperaturc gredicnr by lbc frnitc dillcrcncc
of two tcmpcraturcs is dcpendcnl upoo lbd ciu- of cach squarc. As cach
squarc is madc smaller, tbe approximation for thc tempcraturc gradient
becomes more accurate.
By substiruting the four finitediffcrence rquations into Eq- 2-93 we see
that thc energr balance for nodc 0 is simply dcpendent upon the rempera-
ture of node Q and the temperature of thc four adjacent nodes when the
grid is square and the thermal conductivity is constant:
Tt+ T2+ Tr* Tr-4To-O (2-e4)
Aa cquation similar to Eq. 2-94 wiI apply to all interior nodes: thar is, ir
applies to all nodcs that arc not locarcd on thc boundagr of the solid and
arc surrounded by an cqually spaccd squarc grid-
A scparate cnergl balancc must bc applicd to cach nodc lhat is locarcd
on thc boundary of the solid- Consider, for cxamplg a nodc dcnored by
tbc subscript 0 located on thc boundary of e did rhat is in conract wilh a
fluid- Thc ambicnt fluid tcmperarurc is I and rhc convccrive-hcat-rrans-
fer coefficicnt betwcen'the solid tnd rhc flull b i.. Thc geometDr is shown
in Fig- 2-18. Each nodc is located at the ccnta of iu rcspecrivc suMivision.
Nodcc rhar cach boundary no,ilc rcprcscnrs only onc{alf of thi mass
rcprcscntcd by cech intcrior nodg
Nodc 0 on thc boundagr cao cxcbange hcat by oonduction wit} three
adjaccnt nodes ia thc soli4 and il can also rransfcr hcat by convcc{ion
with thc fluid- Thc cnergr balancc applicd b node 0 is &crcforc
4r-o* 4z-o* 1ra* g---o:0
 Sraoy, Two ervo Trnre-onreNsrorer. (l*ougron 9I

l<._-

r-rt'E 2-rs .[i,frffif:l#f;

:T"1j:*imcnsionar

Thc first threc tcrms represcut. conduction in the solid and

thc rast term
represents lhe convection ratc to node 0 from the ambient
fluid dcsignatJ
by the symbol o. Subsrituting finitcdifference. approximations
for the
Fourier law for the first three terms and Newton'i iaw
for the last term
yields

kA.vd!#+*faIfi+*f a!3
+ i,d,ya1r_- ro11:g (2-95)
Once.again Eq.2-95 can bc simplified if we
choose rq*d grid. or
Ax:A.v. Equarion 2-95 may bc rewriuen in thc
form "
i(r,+rr*r,+(+)'--['.(+)]n-, (2-,ou)

Thc tempcrarures.at the boundary are functions

- of the tempcraturrs o[
thc n-eighboring nodes and the parl.mctcr i,i;77.
we should rccogrize
this-dimensionless group as the iiot
number.
The finir+dilference method is illuaretcd
in.thc,following cxamplc.
Exaopte 2-12- Detcrmine thc stcady tcmperature
distribution aad hcat-
transfer raks from all four surfaccs
thc figurc' Two of the boundaries
oi tt" woOi*.*i.rii*fii,h;;
i,*,rt"*ia,'"- ,rri.a is insurated, and
---'
"*
the fourth transfers heat by convcction-
 #
";{

'jt
98 SriE^D"SrlrtCoxnJcnox

Surfrcr 8
Ia - l0O"C

I t - I lvtn.li
Sorfa: I i
i.: 50 t in::l( l0 cm 4a"=o Surfecc C
t_ - -io"C I ./ r Dcprh inqht..l
I

I
L

L--:o(m----J
Surfrcr D
In' 100'C

I t-j r-----i lr
J.: 1t.:l,i
rl
; --r-----r-
Jr Ui
!'
--i--_-_1,__
_tt
'l6to

Solurion: Tbe solid is fint subdivided inro a square g,d as sho*,n in the
accompan-ving figurc. The nodes are numbered from t.o 9. The grid is I
square with A.x:A/= l0 cm. Thc only nodes with unJcnoqn t.-p.rutur.s
are nodes 4 5. and 6. Node 5 is an inrcrior nde. so Eq. 2-94 applies.
T.* T2+ T6+ Tr-4Tr:{1
Node 4 is on a boundary rhat rransfcrs hear by convecrion, so Eq- 2-96
applier

l(Tt + T) + rr +(Bi) r_ - (2 + Bi) 7.: 0

where
h.A,x*-T:, j0x0.t0
Bi,*-T-
Nodc 5 is on aa insulared boundary, so thc appropriatc enerry balance is
qr-..| qr_"* qs-=O
or

k+dfi++k^yd#+*faW.-s
ffit
is

Sneov. Two- l.tD Trnre.Do,lelsror.A.t. C;olroucrrox- I .

or

i(4+rr)+?'j -ZTr=s
Thc remaining six boun&ry nodes are mainrained at knosn tcmPcratures'
so energy balances are not nceded at thesc nodes- The six boundary
lemPeratures are
Tt=Tz:4-200"C
T7:Ir: l'r:100"C
Substituting these tempcraturcs into thc encrry-balancc cquatioru for nodes
4,5, and 6 Yields
M+Tt-7Tq:0 (node 4)

300+ i"r+ T^-4Ti=O (node 5)

150+ fi-2f6=0 (node 6)

Values for the temperatures ?i, fr, and Io may be daer:nined tt sfuirutta-
neously solving these three equations- il'hc solutions arc:
T+-75'5"C
" T':128'?"C
Ie= t39.4'C
. To determinc thc heat-transfer rates pcr unit depth at each surfacq we
will use the finite-differcnce form of the Fourier law when heat is uans' \
ferred by conduction and Ncwton's law when hcat is traasferred by
convcction.
At surfac I the heat-transfet rate per unit depth into the did is
l
. il:fl-a+4*-t+4*'t
- lT -T. T--Trf
il:lUl\r+Q--r')+
-t -T )
: _621.5w/m
That is, 627.5 W/m is convcctd away frorn thc solid al th surfacc l' The
negativc sign indicatcs that thc.heat is rcrnoved from thc solid-
. At surface I the hcat-transfer tate per'unit dcpth iato thc solid is
. qL= q\a+ qlt-s+ q!a+ qi*
rt, t *"1"+f rr;r'1
-^-^\tTt--
=*6r(l aY '2 AY I
+f'.$1n- r-l
:538.8 W/m

5n
 '#t
q
+il
I
$
fOo Srrrov-Srrtt CorcDncrroN n
:
Surfacc C is insulatcd, rc
(c-0
At surfacc D
I I Ts-Tc _ Tr-7, _ t D- ?:
qL* k Axl
- *T-i I
1f ^y )
^y
+ F,!e,_r)
-88.8 W/m
As an ovcrall chcck on our heal-raasfer rateg wc k:row rhat for srcady_
sratc conditions, thc nct hcat-uanslcr ratc inro the solid must bc ,tro:
q'"^: q) + q's + q'c + q'D= - 627-5 +538.8 +0+ 88.8
:0.1 vm
Tbc sizc of .the net heat flow inro rhc solid givcs an indicariol of thc
accuracy of the finitcdilfcrencc mctbod for this panicular.problcm-

Selarallon Technlgues
In Example 2-12 thc solid r'-rcrial r.as rubdividcd into a gid ia *'irictr
thrcc nodes had unknowa remperarures. Thc solution rcsulted in thrce
algcbraic cquations for the tlree unkno*n tcmperatures. If rrc had wanted
to incrcase thc accuracy of rlre solurior by dccrcasing thc grid spacing wt
would havc had more nodes with unkaown tcmpsratures and addirional
equations to solve. In general cach node with aa unknonm temperature
resuls in an algebraic equation that must be solved simultaneously with
thc other nodal equations.
Wlrcn the number of nodes is relativety small. as ir was in Framplc 2-12,
we havc lirdc roublc solving tlrc qmcm of simulraneous cqrurions. \\hen
thc n'mber of cquations becomcs largg borlever, it bccomcs ncccssary to
usc an approximatc mcthod to solve tlre eguarions- A tcchniguc occasircn-
ally uscd in hcat transfcr is thc rclaxarion srethod- whilc tbe relaxation
mcthod has limited applications ro practical heat traasfcr problcms, it is a
pcdagogcd tool that can illustratc lrow numcrical tcchnlues can be
applld to simplc problcms Tbc conccprual Echcmc of tbc relaxation
nctbod will also belp us undcrstand rhe morc praaical nurnerical mcthods
which follow latcr in thc chaprcr.
Tbc prposc of thc relaxation method is lo cstimatc thc tcmpcrarurEs of
cach oodc ia the solid such tbat thc cncrgfba,lelce eqrntlrnr rrt rp
proximately satisficd. lnstead of scning all cnergr-balance cquations such
as Eqp 2-94 and 246 cqual ro zcro, c/c coutd cquare thcm toi tcrn
callcd
a rai&nl- The remperatures arc rhen qnrematicary changcd uatil rhc
rcsidual is rcduccd to a smalt valuc- Thc size of tlrc residrut wiu indicarc
 ti

Srtrov. Two- rrrD Tt{r.EDncrrfloNlr. Cor.rorrcrror l0l

thc accuracy to which the tcmperatures of all the nodcs have been
cstimated- Ifresiduals for illnodat cquadons arc reduccd cxacdy to zero,
rhcn rhc tcmpcraturcs arc cxact solutioasio the cncrry balancc cquations.
To illustrate the rclaxation metho4 we c:ln apply it to thc thrce cqua-
tions used in Example 2-12. The three nodal enerry balanccs in the
cxample werc
4ffi+Tr-7Tr: R,
300+ L+ T"-4Tr: p,
150+ ?i-2Ir3 R.
The right-haud side of cach cquation [as bcen replaced by a rcsidua! .(,
wherc thc subscript indicates the respcctivc node. Our job now is to
determine values of Tr, Tr, and. ?, so that the residuals are reduced to
reasonably small values.The magnitude of the residuals will dctcrminc &e
accuracy of thc approximation of the tcmperaturc. We notice, for examplg
tbat an crror in thc tcmpcraturc of nodc 4 of otre degree will produce a
rcsidual of seven degrces. The dimensions of the residuals arc tcmperature.
Oncc r&c rodd cacrgyta.bace cqsarioas levc bcca derjvcd, &c rcla;ration
tectmiqw according ro tfic foltwing four steps-
Step l: Thc first step in the relaxation method is to assumc values for all
unknown nodal temperatures- We should use our knowledge oi heat
transfer to $ress tempcratures as closc to the actual values as possibte. In
Example 2-12 we must guess values for Ta, T', and f6. The cxtreme
tcmperaturc limia in the problcm are the 50"C fluid and thc 200.C
tempcrature on thc upper surface of the solid. Thereforg thc guesses for
the unknown steady temperatures musr lie between thesc limi.ts We would
cxpect 2"o to bc thc lowest of thc three tcmperatures ana f6 to be the
highcst because it is on an.insulated bou.ndary. Suppose we assume that
the thrce initial values for the temperatures are t
Ir:80"C
Is:100'C'
Ic = l50oC
Step 2: The next step involves substituting thc initial tcmpcrature
gucsses into the residual equations and calculating each rcsidual The
'tesiduals for this example
"t" *.=
-60-c
frs- 130'C
Re - -50"C
Sinct thc rcsiduals ar non,rcno, we must @ntinuc to change the. ternpera-
tures until each rcsidual is rcduced toqard zero-
 H
;{
102 SmrmSrrrt*: q
:i

Srep 3: To reduce thc residuals we changc the tempcratuic corrcspond-

ing to thc abaolutc valuc'of rhe largest residual until that residual is
reduced to zcro. Thc convcrgcncc to the correct set of tempcratures is
often hclpcd by changing thc nodal tcmpcraturc so that thc residual is nor
rcduced cxactly to zcro but is changed to a small value with a sigr oppositc
the sign of the rcsidual prior to change in temperaturc. This process is
called o*nelaxation.
In our cxamplc thc lar-eest residual conesponds to nodc 5. The residual
equation for nodc 5 shows that if wc increase I by 35'C rhe new valuc
for thc rcsidual R, will be reduced by 140'C. thereby changin_r ir ro a low
valuc with an opposirc sign. Norice that a change in I, will also affecr rhe
valucs for R, and R.. A summary of the new values for the three
lemperatulcs and corrcsponding rcsiduals are
?"r:80'C R.: -lJog
. l":: I35'C Rs: - IQ"C
Ie- 150'C Ro: - l5"C
Step 4: Tbe next srep in tbe rclaxarion process is to repeat the prcvious
srcpuntil the desircd degree of accurac]' is achicvcd. The largest residual is
no*' R.. so we chan-qe 7. by an amount to change .R. to a small positive
value. Assume that we decrease I.
b1, 4"C. The new temperature values
aad corresponding residuals are

_ Tt:76"C Rr:3"C
l"s= 135"C Rr: - l4"C
Io:150"C Re: - lS"C
Repeating this step twice, first changing Io. then 1'5, results in the follo*.
ing values:
Dccrcasc I by l0'C:
Tf 76"C Rr=3oC
l"s=135"C Rs= -24'C
?.e = I40"C Ro:5"C
Decrcasc 7j by ?"C:
Tr-76"C Ra- -4oC
It= 128"C fis:4"C
Io:140"C fie:-2"C
Irt four rclaxation stepc Orc tcmpcraturcs arc all within I oC of thc cxact
valucs dcrcrmind in Examplc}-l2.The preceding steps arc besr organizcd
in a rablc similar to the one shown in Table 2-2. By organizing thc
rclaxation srcps and rccording rbe &ta in tabular forrn, thc amount of
ripeatcd work is rninimircd.
m,*'
ffi"
.i

Srreot Two- rxo Tnnee-os{rNsror,r& e.oNDuclloN

Tzbie 2-2 Summery of Tempentures rod Residuab for Exrnpk 2.12

SrrP T1 R. Tr- R, T. R4,

Iniial gucss EO 100 150

Initial rcsiduals -60 t30 -50
tncrcasc i"5 bY 35 80 135 r50
New residuals -25 -10 -t5
Dccrcasc 7. bY 4 16 r35 150
Ncw rcsiduals 3 -14 -t5
Decrcasc fr bY l0 76 t35 l4tt
Ncw rcsiduals 3 -24 5
Dccrcasc 2'r bY 7 76 128 t40
4 _t
Ncrr residuals -4

The finite-difference apfioach using a relaxation methd can be ex-

lended to cylindrical coordinates. and the resulting differencc cquations
arc described in Reference 5.
lf internal generation is present in the solid, the relaxation technique can
be used without any complicarioa- Suppose rlat ar a particular rrode the
energy generation ratc per unir volume is a'f,. Thc cncrry balancrc for an
interior node 0 in a two-dimensional systcm with four neighboring nodes
as shown in Fig- 2-17 is

Qr-a* 1za* 4t-* qr-u+ qo:0

Replacing each heat-flow term by the finite-difference fortn of the Fourier
law gives

k^yd!J:&-+k^xdf+*Uaff
+ r*aff +q,f, ax6yd=o (2-e?
If the grid is squarq Eq- 2'97 becomes

fr + f2+ Tt+ T4- 4To+ O'; @X\' :O (2-e8)

Whencver a nodq is located on the boundary of a rcli4 the rcsidual

cquation depcnds upon thc type of boundary condition at thc surface. For
cxampte, t-he residual equation for a surface node on a flat surface in
contact rvith fluid is givcn by Eq. 2-!16. Residual cquations fior other
boundary conditions arc $unrnrarizcd in Tabh 2-3. In each casc the
eacrgy-balance cquation is witten for the node dcnotcd ty trc mbccript O
To this point wc have considcrtd problems iin which the temPerature is a
function of two coordinates only. Ho*cvcq thc tcchniqucs we haw devel-
oped for two-dimensional problems can easily be extended to thrcedimen-
sional problems. For cxample, if wc considcr a typical node 0 in a cctnstant
ProPerty solid {,ith no gencration rurroundcd by six nodcs as shown in

4.
 lol Srrrov{rrru Oolrpucnorl .

Trtfc 2-3 Residud Eqrnriotrs rr Bo.ndery Nodes rn Tno-Dhrnsio;ret

Sfsteos, &t!$c Gri& (&-Af,l
Conorriox Gtoranny Noorr.Eeuenon
Fbt surttcq
isotbcraal o'E *ti- ro-&
bouodary
(7i- 12- 13, beat
input at surfacr
pcr unit rrca - g')

Fler surfacc,
iasularcd i(rr+ :rJ)+4-2To- 4
boun&4r
7-
lr
ti&+
Ar

Flar nrlacc
ia conuct i(r:+ rr)+ I,+(Di)I-
virh floid -f2+Bilfo- Ro
(Bi-itx/k)

Encrbr corncr,
both surfaccs i(r'+ rJ- r"- &
ilsuhrcd

,Errcri:r orncr,
borh surfaccs i(r,+ rr+{BDr-
in contao -(l +Bi)ro- no
witb r lluid qsi_fiAx/k)
W
Sceov, Two- exo Txesr-orMEr.srorrlt.Gor.{Drrcroil fGj

hlcnba corncr,
both surfaccs i(f,+fJ+f2+f,
iasulatcd -3Io-Rc

Intcdor coracr. i(4+r.)+fz+llt

both surfaccs in +GDT-
contact with a !--'r-'l 'r
fluid
-+BDfo-no

.:$

Figure 2-19 Arrangcment of nodcs for an inrcrior

scction of a thrcc-dimcnsional rclid-

&
 106 SnorSrrrt Corsoucnor.r.

Fig 2-19, an cncr5f balancc applicd to Dode 0 will givc

?r-a* 4z_o* 4r--o* g.+* grs* ge_o-0 (2-ts)
F4uation 2-99 caa be cxprcssed in tcrms of tempcraturcs of cach noC: by
replacing tbe heat-flow rerms wirh Fourier's law:

xlv*!J+tarA, rtl ro +ksyuzru

*d.xdzff+rlxa;,-L-5 r.- ro
+ *,p4r4., =6 (r_r0o)

If the grid is drawn as a serics of cubes, or A-r-A/-A.r, Eq.2-t$Q can bc

simplificd to
Tt+ T2+ Tr+ T1+ ?i+ 7:- 6 Io-0 (2-r0t)
Thercforc, the nodal equarion in a thrccdimensional problcnr, *irh
no gencration when the node is in the intcrior of a solid and each nodc is
at thc ccntcr of a cube. is simply thc sum of thc rcmpcratures of cach
neighboring node minus six rimcs the temperarure of the ccntral nodc. The
form of Eq. ?-l0l is similar ro rhc nodal cncrgr balancc in a two-
dimcnsional problcm, E4. 2-94.
If intcrnal energy generadon is prescnt in a rhrccdimensional solid at a
ratc pcr unit volume of qi'. thc nodal equarion for an inrerior nodc is

q't'94'
T,+
.Tr+ Tj+ T.+ Ts+ T6-6T0+ -o (2-t02)
Thc residual equations lisred in Table 2-3, which apply when $re node is
locatcd on the surfacc of a t*'o-dimensionat solid. can be cxrended ro
three-dimensional problems. The derivation of the new residuat cquarions
is lcfi as an cxercisc,

Matrlr Technlques
Tbc rclaration tcchniquc is a suirablc merhod for solving bcar-rransfcr
problerns lhat involvc relativcly few nodal equations. However. the rclaxa-
rion mcthod is not particularly adaprabte to computer mcthods because it
rcguirts a sclccrion of thc nodat cguarion with thc largcst rcsidual. A
computer opcratcs scquentially and the proccss of detcrmining a maximum
valuc from an aray cannot bc accomptishcd cfficicntly. Mcthods other
than rclaxation arc used when a computcr solution is sought-
Whcn incrcascd accuracy or a lergc gcorrctry dicrates a targc numbcr of
nodcg the usc of a compurcr bccornes desirablc. A convcnient,nerhod of
dctcrmining thc tcmpcrarurc disrriburion in a lwo- or threc-dimensional
solid which is casily adaptablc to a computer is the raarri.r- inzrcion
methd- Thc matrix mithod is bascd on rcprcsenting thc encrry-balancc
ffi
Streot' Two- er.ro.TnreE-DMENsToNAL Cor.rouqnox IOZ

cquations for each nodc in the form of a matrix. lf wc subdivide thc solid
into a nodcq for cxampte, cach nodaLcquation can be cxpresscd as

arrT, + arrTr+.. . * ar^T^: f,

arrTr* auT, *.. . * auT^- b,
(2-r03)

o,iTr+o^rT, * ... * a^7,- b,

where the au's and D,'s arc known constants and the lj's are the unknown
tempcratures.
Equations 2-103 can bc condcnsed and wrirten in matrix notation as

! AT:B (2-r04)
where A is a zXz cofficicnt matrix defined by
I orr ar2
. ar.l
o., de or.
o:{I , :l
I
(2_l0sa)

t"", aa2 ;,^)

while T and B are cotumn raatrices consisting of n ctements each:

(2-105b)

To calculate the unknown temperalures, we must determine the inverse of

the matd:g A-1, which satisfics the equation l

T:A-rB (2-r06)
If the elements ol the inverse of marrix A are givcn by
ctz
[.r, c22 .,".|
cul
C=l-'
._':1I ":t
: I
(2-r07)

ihe unkno,*,n nodar rempera*.f1":r. !ll* ;; *""i1",,"".

crr6, +c-Dr+c,rDr+ .. . *c,"d - 7",
c'D,+c,,Da+ cobr+ -. - *c2nb,-f,
(2-108)
c^ib, + cobr+ c"rbr+... * cub^o i,
 q
il

108 StEeoy.Srerr
Cor.lqrcnor

Since tbe ralucs

for all

,#$:
cxamplc.
-
--'r-'wr ucsloo ts'illustraled
U ,n. f"ff""ili

yffi '*',^fi,:+ft'mfi ,hff "-'"',.:'fi :.j".,",,::-.:*urionin*re

iT, |;n*:: T "':'r';-;:T ;:
Y' d & a' r" -eri
wi
=
';i'r;'*.:i
ExampJc2-12.

t.*Dk

lluid
= SO r| n:.t -0' l. I tir.X
I- .
1-,
50.c 4,:^ 'O losubrcrJ

sorurion: The sorid

.. ,.
into a ssuar
ftsure. Each il. ;r; l'" i:-Y'"d'o
-li''r;.-+
*n]r**;#i}ili#Hffi:#.,#*,:,i:$,*

J'ffirfi,$fr cs that are uscd

il the

,,* ,]i'_ 5oxo.6

=2.5
(Bi)f =25150- t25oC
2+ Bi=4.5
mi:
tri
&

Streov, Two- rxo TrnsE-ouo.rsroper.

or*oucncx ld

p-rr-l
l-:J---1---
tL, loi61o;
r : | ; i r
--T---r-T---- i-t -T
;i e i s i g i,; __{_Ar
__?___F_1F:_+_-
l^ l- r
Li 3i3igi,
-
-T---i--T--i
I

The 15 nodal equarions *,,],, ," the marrix form of Eq. 2-t03 are then
Node l: - a.5 ?., + Tr+ lTe = -225
Node 2: T,-4i,+ ir+'ri: -2oo
Node 3: Tz-4Tr+Tr+Tr: -2gn
Node 4: T3-4T1+ Tr+ fr:
-2gO
Node 5: Tr-ZTr+ |Iro= 100
-
Node 6: lf r-a.Sf"+ Tj+
ITtt= _ 125
T2+l|6-4T7+
I{. 1: rr+ a+ f,.=O
:)"9. !' T,+Tr-4Tr+T*+r,,:s
rr-arr+
ri+ r,, =o
ljo{e !:
Nodc Io: iTr+ Te-2Tto+'l r,r:o
lode l!: lfr-+.Sfr+ Ir:= _ 175
jl{e 12: T7+Tn-cir+r,r: - 166 }
Nodc 13: fr+ f rr-lf * fi.
Node 14:
r, -- f OO

Te+ Tn-4T.+ Iu = _ 100

Node 15: lTro+Tn-2Trs- lSO
The clements of thc two matrices A and B can
now be detcrmined by
examining the cocfficicnts in the 15 nodal equations-
The constants on the
right. side-of each cquation arc the .f*.Jr,tf,"t make up thc column
matrix 8' Many of the ctements in matrlr A
arc zeio and the nonzero terms
arc gathered closc to thc diagonal.
' Thc ncxt stqp is inrcrsion of matrix A The clcnncnts
of dre invened
rnatril ate rhe elemcnts co in Eq. 2-102. fo ior.rt-a
matrix of ,hi";; ;t
hgd is quirc time-consirnils-.'nor,un"-t ty, ,t-a*a
subroutinc are availablc and iircy 6.ari,
U" in a "oqrp"rc,
short d;;;
""o ".pLy.a
rcl1c for the 15 unknown tempcraturc.
The followingprogram is ancxample of a FQRTF.AN
_ program rhat will
solve for-the nodar tcmpcraturcs.
It is r,rrirrcn in a gencral forrn so that an
tnterestcd uscr can copy it and apply ir to an ;niriauU problcm wruch
 lI0 Sraroy-Srer Coxoucnor.r

may o" dilfercnr from thc cxamprc

problem considcred hcre tnput varucs
{c iV, tbe numbcr of nodcs wi{ ,"il;l.;;;"urcs
rgr,C, and thc.lV elcmcnc oi matrix B. rhc.lV2 valucs of
Th.e
lxamgfc progam.uscs a subprogram called
matrix A. MATIW ro inverr
A listing of MATINV t Cir.i;"'npp""dix lv{. Orher suboro.
grams arc availablc to invcrl
,"trii 1,. *,,iroufi;.tJil il ;;
-wil;;
"
computer ccnler ro d.rd::.i11-subprogram
caa bc
duplicaring rhe subprogram MATINV. ".orr"J
A lisring of thc program is:
Program Llsilng lor Eramplc 2-!3

DtMENSION A(50.50).B(so).c(50,5O),T(50)
FSAO . N
FEAD, ((40.J).J-1.N).t-t.N).(B(t),t_ l,N)
CALL MATINV (A.N.C)
DO20I-l.N
SUM - 0.0'
OO !0J-1.N
10 SUM-SUM+C0,J).8(J)
20 T0)-SUM
wRtTE(6.40)
walTE (6.50) (t.r(t). t - r.N)
STOP
40 FORMAT (1H ..... sTEAOy TEMPEfiATURE DtsTRtBuTtoN
us tN DEGFEES'./,
Byl MATRT' ,rre"io"'iJc* NtouE ...,,/
50'cELsf
FORMAT (4(,r
'=TERMTNED
(.Q..) -,.F S-2.2X')) /)
END

The program inpur is shown below.

The firsr linc contains the sinele
value for ,,\', which is rhe number
of noa., fo, rf,i, p*l.ri", p.;i.;:iil:
ncxr y'y' rincs rist ths elcmcars. au of
marrir e. r."l-or the 15 rines of
conrain 15 talucs and cach rinJ rcprcsenrs data
Thc lasr rwo lincs of dzra are $e i5
ri*J"ar.
of rhe subscript r.
"arii-,f,..otumn g.
""fo., matrix
Progrrm lnflrt lo? Erample 2-13
r5
1.. 0.. 0.. 0., 0,5, 0.. 0.. 0.. 0., 0.. 0.,
--4.5,_ o.. 0.. o..
t., 0.. 0..0.. 1.. 0.. 0.. 0.. o. 0.. 0.. 0..
1.. :... o_
:. 1.. -... r.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 1.. 0.,0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. o_
.r..0..
l. 1. 0.. -...
l_ t.. o. 0.. r.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0., 0.. o_
9.._o: -2.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. o_5. o- o.. o_. o.. 0..
o.5. 0., 0.. 0..0.,
-4.5, t.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.5. 0.. 0., 0..0..
:..:" 9.. 9..-0..
r_ -4.. 1.. 0- 0.. 0.. 1.. 0.. 0.. o_
t..o..0.,0.. .t.. _...
:..:"0-
r..0..0..0.. r.. 0.. o-
r.. 0., 0-. 0.. 1-. _4.. !.. 0.. 0.. 0.. r..
:- 9.. o..
t.9..9..o.. 05.0.. 0.. 0.. 1.. _2.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. o.s.
9. 9., a. 0.. 0.. o.5. o.. 0.. 0.. 0.. _4.5. 1..
0., 0.. 0..
0..0.. O.,0.,0., O_, r..0.. O.. 0.. 1.. _.t., r..0..0..
 Steeoy, Tto- er.ro Trngt_olgnstoxer Copoucnox
; lll
o.. 0_ o.. o..0.. 0.. o.. ,..
o.^ o.

L[ I i;i: qi I i r,[ * :,";:::',

-26.. -2A.. _20O.. _2OO-^
-l0o"
-roo.. -roo., -il: :il- o-.0.. -12s" o.. o.. -rzs..

The progran output is shown

below.
Progrrm Ougrn ior Eremple 2-t3

'..sTErorTrPEFArlnt
_._ , . ,,vv r.vN rR rrEcREE.:si
:LstrrsnffiD'.
cELStt s DETERm!{EO Ay
--'lSfll|BLtTrONlilOcREES
A i{ATRtx tl{vERstoil TECHHTcluE ...
(1r- ss.57 r(A-r3s.e, T(3)- 1 5s.55
T(s)-156.p6 (6)- (r1-155.3s
69.36 T(7)- 196.51
T(9)-l3s5i T(r01-1a6.91 T(1r)-
T(41-129.91
T(t3Ft10.69 T(rtt- 66.11 T(12)- s5.83
r 16.9, I(r5) - 1 16.56

This exampre is idendcar ro Exampre - that the3rid

2'12 except
cosrp:risoq af r&c cquiraftrt is srnrr*r.A
_ r"il* ii'li
rhc gnd sir.rns on r,. *"lu.. "*;
f*6:l;;;;;*',lr.J .t&c influenc-e itrar

Tabk 21 Cooroarlson of Temperatures

Resulting fmar Coarse
eod Fioe Nunerical
Grids
TevprnrG Te.vpen.rruE
l0Xl0cm Erid 5x5 cm grid
letuar-E:ltZl lerrvnr-e 1-t:y
j'r = 75.5"C
Ts-12E.7"C
?"e - 69.3"C
fi = l29.O"C
]"e= 139.4"C ?^ro- ta0.9'C

The program wrincn for Erample

2-13 is completely general.
simplv copicd cxacdv tna It can bc
problcms' It can solvc for "ppriJio il. ;ilt"r
; or steady conducrion
tbi temp.ra,*Jiirrrii",ron in
a one-, rwo-, or
Itle;airncl{onal problcra ri,"t
;;i
vari.ct' of boundary conditions."onr"lnr';
,
equarrons and dctcrmine.the
Th;;;;;;;:T?"ff:.fi,[: ;:::i
etements
along with rhe numbcr.r:*r^ll;il;#.d ;;;; A and B. Thesc etements
"f
.as illustratcd in lhe exampre progxam. as input data cxacrtv
. Thc matrix_invcrsion o,og"u,,,lf,ould
not be used urhcn
"ln#.*"n drc numbcr of
nodcs cxcre& 50. whn. p:"Ul:,
sophisticared numerical
i"rJ;-lffir j0 nodcq a rnorc
rritr,oa ,""i *
{royto.lc *"d i;;t rhe sct or simurtaneo*"-:..::-!1JR:r..19)
mcthodismoreeconomicaror"o*iu,..,i-#il:":tfj[lfitr+T$r;
l'ff.'#l'ffi,':-::1.- ;;;; i"':*l'il'"1* and rhereby mini-
 ' ,l
ll2 Sreror-Srrrr C.oroucnox

- To help in thc usc of lc gro.slg rhe ublc

bclow lists rhc grmbols
ro tbc prograrn atong wirt
il;1;;;;TJ"#,o, .,"o-
used

Splopls thed tn ho8rlrl

for Exernple 2-13
Sn*ror
DEFDlrnoN
IJrrr
A0.J) Twodimeasi
rilrh .\ ;?ilJfL:!-rhc.cremcn6 in

B0) o*tst3ionjl
marru B. dcfincd1T.-"-
of rlc clcmcnrs in
. ir Ec.2_t05b
c(r.J) ,**1TT,i1{ arn-y of thc ctcmenrs
marnx c _ A _ r. dclincd in rhe
in h.
Zi-lOt
It lntcgei valuc equal rc thc
numbcr of nodcs
r(t) One-dir

'';;?ilibiltffir,'d;ld""n"
in
'u"i' 'c
llerallon Technlqcs --_
Anumcrical mahod i:
lho, p:"lplarly welt-suircd for a compuler
solurion is an ircration nahl
cxpticirly for rhe rempera::r-.
h*A-"i tf"jng ...1, nodal equarion
crergr-balance eguation
for an {'l,;;.'#._1.r0,..
"f inrerior if wc consider an
the result is
-siven in q. Z-X "ra.'1"T. two-dimensional solid.
".
Tt+ T2+
- T:t Tr_4To_O
If wc solve ior the temperature at nodc
?Jro, we eet

!r1 cguadol
1,
properdes subdividcd
oo,*,1r:lt"-# il:l a sorid wirh conshnr
inro a squarc a"ra *itfr-no,
procedure or sorving
boundary
ror rrrc.temp."ail
wi, resutr in a
;il ililirfl,rirjiLr'r; Ti
simitar;d;;.;;;.i'l,no,., if
5::1 on a toundary U,.t
cauadon ror u. r..firrurc
*"*iil;;; ;;;i thc nodc zcro is

"n u. a.t.*i..j";r.":r{:};,,,""i.,r.
ro

_ i(rr+ rr)+ r,+(Bi)r-

-'o-----75;----=

'?;lrTr':;"""1.H,?:H;:Hn:;'6i,vbcdaerminedby
cquauon for thc
ot-^n
tcmpcrature
oJ cach nodc may bc
lh.e kmpcrarures of rrrittcn in terms
.lhc nAgf,Udng o.,aJ-il,
cguals thc numbcr of
nJ.s with unknown of eguarions
The irerarion proccdure ,***r,l[ber
*" b. ll;;;'r'n.'r[,ir,.0..
 Steeov- Tro rxo THRf,E-DrMENsroN^L
co*oucnox
Step l: Fint deriva nrv{.r el)
-_, -.
ror cach
"*;;-:,'ily ffitr i:J:*yrs *os barancc
cquations cxplicitly ir
t .,o" .1,ilT_lttp"faturq solvc
of th"
cncrry barance "."h
;ir[:'H":-'11,frf;1:_;-.-* tl" ""d";;;; ;"
;:::ffi .:::ffa;ffi
help ia determiaing

Step 2: Ncxt, assu

ff,n#,trJJ#Hi}:ffit

ffiffi1#';3tt#tftifr:Hfi#ffi*F$
step 3: Next calcu'ilte
new values for rhe
ter using thc nodat
;luatigns .derived in. step l- on."';' ;;:l*tturcs
;:I;:'Tg"'.lH:l:,iou"ru.,i,i.i:"".fiff"T;.#*'":,ffi*
;""1T; jtTii*:.:T,1ffj:"nr.:jis-;:#m.tr1.
particulr or.'J1;:-t-T'- o:ud/
.temperarures witl be a.*.rLri-rr",
_. ..Jrarron technique
method- is oftcn *I"a ,rr" i*Jsl"ali
Step 4: Repeat Steo ? rrnrir rr^ ....
',:il0:,,::":.,,:::_q:#,T,f,::H",::,h:i1;"fr,il
;,1.,;;;ff
r"Il i'"'"1T;fi'*T.: j: ilrustrated in rhe foil
ontr.u'*tlolm,riH:
eq.uarrons, whjch is 1"Tt-ns *HiTlfiJ;
i:iH,H:,." r";rt*_t""k ## r:ffi,ffi!..ffii

;ff{,,[ #,r#-xru.S#i*#[t;
#*{?iffii;**,:,,TtrH*ffi :ff
,ffiH:

l*i{-fr;3',*'i' r rtcpc outlincd for the ftcration

me&od.
 ...g

ll{ STEADy$rArEOoxpucnox $
-9
,{

Sep f: Solvc cxplicitly for tbe rcmpcratwe

of cach aodc.
Nodc 4: .r;#**
Nodc 5: r.- s
.444 *
T,
* T,

Nodc 5: ,r-
# * *
Step 2: Assrimc initial values for the
nodal tcr An intelligcnr
go.s. fo, the iniriar vatu.s ror &e
threc ,","*-rlfr1ltTJ
r.-80"C
?"s- 100"C
Ie- 150"C
Thesc arc the samc initiar vatues
wc uscd in rhc rcraxadon-rnahod solution
of rhe thrcc equations.

Slep 3: Calculalc ncwrals*sr+remprraurcs using tlrc cxpticif

of nodal cquations As sooa as form
a Dcw tcmpcnturc is calculated, use
succcssivc stcps- it in

a= #*# -?1.43'c
_5-_ 3ffi .11.43+ 150
' 7. -;- T:130.36"C
r,:+-ry=t4o.r8'c
Srep 4: Repcar Step 3 rltit sugcessive tcmpcraturcs
spccifid rolcrance level. As.sumi-ng convergc o within a
nodcs ro diffcr by lcss than 0.1"i
,il;JT;;c tempcrarurcs for all
for *o ,o'iG". ircrarion srcps, wc
rcpcar step 3. A rable surnmarizing
tir. ,orrt, i, Jov,,n below.

lrrnenox Srrp Tr("C) Tt(C) rc("9

lnidd gucss 80. r00.
I r50.
71.43 13036
2 t40.t8
?5-77 t2899
3
r39.50
7557 t28.n r39J9
4 15.y r2E.7l t39Jt

In four itcration steos- all the tcmpcrarurcs wcre within

in 0.r "c of oe uarues
"offi no;#;;.
Srcp 3, so thc orb".o l,
valucs are idcnticar ro thc ncaresr 0.t.C, rhese
cxacisorutions for *;;*. eguations g'en in
 Srrlov, Two rlro Tsnrr_ouENsroNA! Coxoucnox
lil5)-*

E*".{..2-I2- lvc shouH also notrte thai for this p-articurar cxamprc thc
retaxation technique was able to converge to within-only l.c of rhc cxact
tempcraturc valucs in four iteratioo steps, starting wittr thc same initial
valucs for l[c tcmperatures- Thc relaxation results are given in Tablc
2-2.
The exact solution of thc nodal equations, the relaxation-solution aftcr fow
stcpq and thc itcration dution aftcr four iteration steps provide tempcra-
turcs for thc three nodes that dilfcr by lcss than loC-

txemple2-iS-Determirrc tcmperarures for the 15 nodes in Exampre 2-t3

using the itcrarion mcthod.,comparc your resulc wirh trros" out ty iiJ
the matrix-invcrsion method.

sohtl,o' The rolutioo of t5 cquations by hand using drc iteration

rncthod is rcmcnrhat dme-consuming, making a computer solurion rcason-
ablc. Thc four steps in the iteration method ire as follows

t
r'? rlc f5:rtdzl cquarions are simply rearranged lorms of thc aodal
cquations derircd in Examplc 2-13. They are:
7,:50+0:22f2+0.1I I ?:
, Tr=50+:(rr+ Tr+77)
Ir:50+ ilrr+ 1+ rrl
Ir-50+ !{rr+rr+rr)
?"r-5o+ lrr+ !r*
Ta=2lJ'tg +0.l l l Tt+Q.22271+0.1I I ?.il
Tr= l(Tr+T6+Ts+Ttz)
rr=l(rr+ T7+Te+Tf,)
Tg: !(rr+ rr+I,o+ ?",0)

r,o-jrr+iT"+lT|'
Ir - 3&ggg + 0 -l I I T6 + 0.222Tt2
r

Ttr=25+l(f?+ Irr+ Trr)

llr-25+t(I, +Tn+Tt1)
T'.-ZS+:(Te+ Irr+ rr:)
fij-2'+12",o+ i f,.
These cquatioas appear between statcmcnts.
2l and, 22 in thc program
lrstmg shown bclow-

s4
 . ."tn'rl
-

. -'' {

116 Sr?^Dy-Sr^rD CoNDucnoN

Srep 2: Thc initial nodal rcm.peratur*

arc all sct cqual to zcro. Wc
aware that thcsc arc not intcni-ecat arc
considcring rhe given bTo.ry
iri,i"t-;;r* for tbc tempcrarur*
irro,r"* ri.Lc reguircd ro rcach thc'
cvcnruar solurion will undoubicary
bc incrcasJ bccause of this gucsr
zero is a convenient value to But
p.ogr_ *O thc added rim6
to obtain a solution is of ::t-,
liule "
l6quireal
J"6"**-.*f,*-G;T];1ffi:
solution' Thc initiar temperatures
arc sci ro zcro rn statmcnt 15 in
program listing. rhc

Step 3: Tbc steps required to calculatc

thc new rcmpcratu 6 of the Ij
nodes arc achieved in rhe srcps
program lisring.
b;;;" ;;ents 2t and 22 in rhe
Step 4: Thc ncw values of eacb
nodal temperature are compared with
thc old varuc and if thc diffcren..
b.;";."*" o ress than a rorcrancc
:::1 :Pccificd.upon
inpy! rhc ircrarion ;; is tcrminatcd and rhc
rcmperarure'r'arucs are pfiarcd- cutreni the lemperarures arc
srorcd in tu
1T"r: T(l) an1t9'oc
".ir* "rrhc
*-p.r"i"r*'f?"rn previous iteration
TTtu nt t"t''^oti'J..t i. p.rro**l;;;:
fit'.l|.1|ttrLil.ff "'"n
Thc program listing is:

Program Ltsflng lor Erample 2-15

orMENsroN rtrooirr(Gj
READ. N.TOLER
WRITE (6,10)
r0 FORMAT (1H .3X,'... STEADY
TEMPEBAT1.;RE DtSTRtBuTtON
t&.ff-.:;*srus DETERMTNE' By AN o.i^lion
tN../.
,ecHNrouE ..: ./ /)
ts T(l)-0.0
20 rr(t)-?0)
DO 7O t-1,50
2r T(l)r!e.Q a 6222.T(2) + O.r r t.T(6)
T(2) -so.o+ o:so.61ry* 1e1+rfr1
T(3)- 5o.0 + o2so.6r1ey* r1l1* r1eli
r(.) -so.o + oeso.otsy + r1s1 + rlsii
T(5) -5o.o+ o.soo.T(4) +o.25o.TO
o)
T(6) - 27.28 + O. 1 r 1 . T(.r

r(8)+Rr2)ir.Tfl':"')
) + O222.T(D+ O.r 1 i
]91-92so.cr(z)+r(6)+
]gl- 5ro.cr{3p r1-4 * rp1 * qr qi
Igl:o2so.o{4) * r(a) * r0 o) * r(, ll)
nr o1-62*.t t) + o.5m.T(9)+O:ss.rOS)
T(1r)- 38.8s9+ o. t r t.T(6)+ o ar".T(12)
r(12)-2s.0+ o2so.6rg4*11.l
r1*r1is1j
l!13)-es.o*o.zso.6r1ey+r1rz1* rlre;
_^
22 ]j::l- T.o* oeso.cr(e)+ r(1 at* ro sii
TO 5)- 25.o+ o2so.T(1b)+
o.5oo.r(r.)
DO 3O J- 1.N
 Srneov, Two_,txo TrnraomnrsroN^L CoNDucrIoN llz
rF (A8SOT(+T(J).GT. TOLER) GO TO 50
30 COMNNUE
wnlTE (5.40) (K.T(K),K- I,N)
40 FoRMAT(lH ..7(..r2..)-.,p.s.21
STOP
50 OO60J-l.N
60 TT(J)-I(J)
70 CONTINUE
wFtTE (6.80) TOLER
80 FOFMAT (1 H'..TEMPERATURES OO NOT
COI{\/ERG TO WfTHITT .F6.3./.
1.OGRES tN so ITERATION STEPS)
STOP g
ENO

The input co$ists of two values on a singJe line, which should appear iq
the following ordcr:
N: rhe number of nodes
TOLER= rhe tolerance level in oC betweea two diffcreqt
iterations steps. If the di.ffereaces in the tempera-
tures of each individual node ia succcssive itcration
steps are all less than TOLER the iteration proce-
dure stops and the aruwers for the temperatnres ar
printed" If the differcace in any nodal tempcrature
for successive iteration steps is greater thaa iOfEg
the itcration procedure continuis.
The input to this particular program is:

Progrum lnput tor Enmple 2.15

15, O.t

The program ourpur is shown below.

Program OutF,t lorErample 2.15

"..STEAOY N OGREES CELSTUS OS'FMINEO BY

AN'TEAATPN
'MFERATUAE.OISTII'"UTION
TECHNTOU...
T(1)- 88.48 r(e)' 138.r2
r(2)- r38.78 T(10)- 140:76 .
r(3)- '158.41 r('t1)- 58.04
T(.)- 1 66.1 6 T(rz)- 96-Il
r)- t68.25 r(13)- fl0.59
T(5)- 69.19 T(1:llL 1r6.82
rsrtrfacc ,,i*L"
'V
T(7)- 1ott.36
. Explain
 ,'. 'ff1
'il
_{
l+:

,a
Il8 .Sreroy-Srerr
Corrpucnor

Examph 2-15 is wrinca in a gcncrar

form so
appricd'to e widc varicgr orstJay;;;rt"; that it caa bc copicd and
probrcml The'sansr
spccify oaly two inout valucs. ni
which thc t"1no...r
fi"i;, tiJ numbcr of nodeq N, fc
nrr. is unknocq il il sccond is
TO_LE& ro which rhc calcularion *ifi thc rolcranog
The prqgram is limired to
*-*ai*""
_tgl rya.s Uy tl.lu_U.. of srorage locationr
allocarc4 altboueh rbc DIMENSION
;;;
vide for rDorc sbrage- Ifrhc ausrber"'i";;,i*
can be chaaged ro pro
sreps cxcecds 50rvithour
thc tempcratures converging, tb. p.ogrr;;ili'p*,
b{9a,i"g a lack of convcrgenec- diagrostic sraremcri
"
-^.Y,1* !.. nr9er."- f
cquauons rcust be dcrivcd and
to a differenr problenr, new nodel
applicd
solved cxplicitly for ihe inaluJual
tcmperarurcs. Thesc N equadons nJi
and 22 in the program-
must bc'inscricO Uer*.enlu;;;;

REFERENCES

t Han rtaufa.Addison-r*'cstcy
i;Iffiftffi; pubtishing
tu
Z D. Q. Kcrr, aad A. D. Xraur^Erczlcd
SurJace Heat Transler, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Nco, yorh tgZL
- Eeat TmrJcr. vol lalohn Wilcy & Sons.
:. ll. l"t1\ Inc_ Ncw york. 1949-
" trl*ffSil
'Erriciencl or Exta'a"a si;cll
Trorc' AsME.vol. 6?, pp.
t Hcar Transfer' Addison-wcslcv Publishing
"iff;"ff',l'# co.. lnc-
6'Y N' Ozisfu' Boundary varuc probrems or Heat conduction
Inrcxr pubrishcrs
Group, No, york- 196g.
Z G-. Myc4 Amtytica! MaMt ia Condvtiq
1
Book f-ompany,
Hcar Tmaslcr. McGraw-Hill
Ncs l,orlq t971"
t- C. F. K.za!, -An Elcctrical Gco]1,:trical
Anatogue for Complcr Hear Ftoq-
_ Jroy.,tsMf,. vol. 67, pp. I t3_7t( tgaj.
9. C. F- Kaz:a" -Hcat Tnnsfcr Tcmpcrature patterns
Strocorre b Companri,,c M+S1.
of a Muldcomponcnt
r0.M. L remcs, G.
fi. )iil'".r. ?t, pp. 9_t6, t949-
".tu\:lo_:-Ciiil",i7iii,o
with F2RTRIN aadcsilii'i"i'
Mcthds
yorl
te
?Wr**.ion "a-Crowc{ Ncw

r(
22 T(
g
 ':--..':::......-
i ' '- --i+'+4' t{
SF':i'r
H'i'
h;ir.
F'.1
IJ'
!,r,,

PROBLEMS

Tbe p'ro&tcms in &is <daoter are organized

in the manner shown in thc table.
Four problens ruggcs, sohd;. Tl,cy proU-t"rn.
"oarol*
2-73, Nq original programs
;c 2-7e 2-7l, 2:72, and
o".d. r.. p *titr*ler-fo;;;-t
' nceded for sorrruions
are dcvelopcd in the examples within
thc chrpro '''"'

FAOELM mrlfBRs. SECIONS ."rura",

2-1 lo 2-?,3 Z-l to Z-3 Steady, one-dimensionat conctucti.rn withost
fenralioa
2-211o217 21 E rcct o, varirble .lhermal conductivity

2-281o?-3a 2-S Steady. on-dirnensional conduciion wtlh

Eenera.
lion
2-35 lo ?-46 2.6 Heat lranster,rom ,ins

247 e^d21l 2-T Steady, hflo- and three-dimensional conduction.

anatytical methods

2-49 to 2-58 Z-T Steady, two_ and three-dimensional conduction.

graphicat mthods

2-59 lo 2-73 2-t Steady, two- and three-dimensionat cooduclon.

numerical methods

I .r..ttt,

t5 ;|*.11,",*
,, l-rt
is *,l*^y:ush-a
cm rhick and
plaac Ji"**",
(k-0.65 {m.K) tbar
has on cxterioi
te'pcraturc of 25'c c-arorratc "Jp.r"**-"r ;,"E;T;:{}
u" o"rr'J-r.J;;;;t *?l
Calculatc thc ccntcrlinc tcmpcratur. rhc wat pct unit area-
of thc brick wall.
2'2 Thc hcat nux throueh I l0-crn-thick aluminum plate is

trfr,.:t
* ol* ii rr r$'c iil;d"l.t-ffi'*'. or
5
*"
x 10. tV/u2. One
otr*r JJacc oi
^rl.N,
zn su$sc rhar the atuminum platc in
hobtcm z-2 k r:{*;by a type 304
stainlcss rred platc of thc samc thickncss. A*r;;
surfacc tcmpcraturc are thc ,fr", ,f,o hcat flux ead .oac
samc as in probrem 2-2. De tcrminc
;ilHbH;f #,ffi ,' ; n--L
*-
rhc othcr surfacc .
[]ffi;??:?T,Hl; ffi:frl Hffi h
 t
lZ). Snrur-Srrn Coloucnox

g'il* i.'# ;:il.F"nyir;,'x' # sS: :Iiffitrr,il.t

durilg rbc eilrerand tbc i::sidc
walr r"tr"* i.ii""i Dercrainc rhe capaciry
of rrc
!1tia_f nhnt ia *arrs recssary ro makc
- uo
-P rvt
fo hcal lost ihrarEh thc c.atl
c"t",rt"ti ihe bcat nuJurorgr, ;. ;;.
\rrt f
2-5 A figle paac of gtass is 4
rhc bcar'tra'nsfcr ratc rbroug*r
--
thick and ho. alarca of 2 f. Dctcrmine
o. gr"* ir ,il'.-i;.c
"* -' and thc otbcr sidc is 20"c
Calculatc tlc hcal ftux thrJugn "";
o'. _J"rr.---

2-6 Conparc rhc heat_flux valucs for problcms

rrandcrrcd through rhc war or 2_4 and 2-5. Is more hcar
rhrough *;-g; for simirar rrapcrarurc dif_
fcrcnccs? Suqgcsr r.ay5 ro rcducc
,rr. i.iir*, fiilrn rhc glass-

2-7 A c,vrindcr wirh diam-crer of 20 cm aad

pcrimcrcr. Onc cnd of the c-vlinder_ ,cngth 50 crn is insutarcd arouod
irs
lrom rhis
is-11; i;;;"ilc
of 300.C and a ptanc 25 cm
cnd of rhc cvtindcr
Dcrermine rlc bcar-uatfcr
i, I00.C. Til;eHjt conducdvityi 2 W,/n.K.
rarc arong-rhc
aad rerqpcrarurc of rhc cyliadcr.
;;;ffi. c,vrinder aad carcurarc thc

A long alurrinum wirc wit}r diamcrer t

.2{is covcri cm can.
,rirc *;o i-.-_,r.,,"i' r,,,;i:
" ouuidc surface
Thc rcmpcrature of rhe
.i,i,i;:iff I'SfrijH"t,*:
insidc insulation tcmDcrarurc.
of rr.;-i;;lon is 30.c Dercrmine
3-7 xro-. g/m.
The clecrrical r$rr@'cc,J.*"L $e wire po.unit lcnerhrhcis
"f

with c-rrcnor rcmperarurc I20.C

_t-,i
cn 1 "y-.pjp.
s covercd wirh a J-cm
and oursidc.tiamerer of l0
rayer of asbesros (,t:o.r-i u,/rn.K)
ou*idc surfacc of thc insuladonis ar insrlarion..rf rhe
35'c, *lrrr"" ,i. hcar-uansfcrrarc
srcan pipe pcr unit lenqrlr of pipc. from rhc
calcutaic o. ,r,..-.r rcsbrancc
insuhrion for a unir lengri of pipc. of rhc

d*"1", d"!,'L;";'|or
r^ .11 ^
E'Npc'rurc of 500"c and an ousidc:;oml:stjon gascs f.roo a furnacaTbc ducr bas
aiu-"t.iJ oirn- Dcrcrmin $c thickncss
of iasubtion (* -0.2 w,zrn'K) Oar is
rbe inrla$oa ro a levcl fr",. .n""ess"ly;;;"o the ousilc surfae of
y:gd_ig, injur. _io loucbes tbe surfacc. The
tases iarr r specific hcar of l/xe.K,; ;;;r.;
t000 "nyo*
r GDpcrrturc &op of l0"C over a'auct t.0 kg/s ead cxpcricncc
tcugtl-ot OO rn. *ur. rhar
rc$sraDo? of thc duct is smat rbe thermal
co-mpared ,i o"r oi the insutarioo
}iShcsr tcriFEraturc and thar thc
that one wrq w suoJecreo
could bc subjected to
ro wtthout
withr injury is 65.C.
i. ,
,, ,.
.r i
'L'u Deerraine thc rhcrnret r'.,isrencc
sPbcte *ilh en iacrnal diT:g of 5 on,and hear-rransf.cr ratc truough e holron,
.-rndlcdvig of 20 w/rn.K. *,"-Ja;.mccr of t0 crq and a
"n
n.tm,.i"i'""i'
-thcrnal
rurcs arc rm-c crlcrnal swlacc kmpcra-
-isoldrcspccrivcry.
 hor.'rds l2l
2-12 Thc wart of a r.
F*""T,*H:Tff"fr
cxtcrior surface of thc
,i:JxffiHi*F::,t's r".'Ji;:
embicnr.,"*;;;;/:fi a";l*i.,f
I

Calculare va.lucs for *'Jfli*#yziixinlLT:

crcur ead
ideatify ell
rhrous:h rhc,,*.; ;ilt:fr#;:*h:ffi*:#,**#::,'
*,._,r l]-,-::::,_-
"fl
rcsisanc<

2-13 Dcrcrmine thc thickness

ii *. ti*..iii'il"
of iasutarioa (ft:
Assu EG th a r t hc prcscncc
in probrem z-ri'uri;i#/frm*Trffi:
i*ri.,il"
Q;j
-o#''"",t"rr*,
cocfficicrrt. Calculare thc "r,i,. the ou tsidc hcat_transfcr
tcmpcraturcs.f U",f, ,"i*_ of thc iasulation.

n stvrofo". A:9.635 wrzm.K)

-2-I.<
cvlindcr. icc chcst is io tbc forn of e iollory
Thc insideai".... t. 70'50.m'.thc
il':".: "5t : Td.
outside
* n" lilllll'.is
r"ng*, is r:o cramerer is 0-60 m. end.
tbc
eround rbc,,y."r.; ; j;
i|:: :::"rTt=lf 'il,)51,1*,". il
., 0"c.. il. ilr,.L
Dctcrminc tbc timc rcqdrcd for rhc
.."r:*#iiffi
ic to
the air and sq*rofoara-
corno,.,.fut**
:lr.,#ff ;:f1;,."i.:T.,n"r""''*e'i";ffi
t"i.n, oi-r,iil;i;tJl"i,l"ijr?,t;;;T.-'*
n."-,
r:fl
it'" r*T*T ff rhc ends
"
2-15 A manufacrurcr builds
two models of a hot w:
3j;"r11':.,1"ff LJt.o."o*_;;;;.",";:fi lJ:::#**:,:J:
;J:f 'il:;,",H*":i:1,$[:#,1';*trff f lf;yi,f ff fj
yI* .,ij,1; il:;,',l"" :;,=;rTffi*jru:tli:.,:,
3li

*:+*gffihl'r=tl:'*{fr'"'ffi#
l",l;::Jff;'r1,,ff l'-,.i-"o.,il-il",i,l
prcen! eacrs/ *"rr,,r,", ,t'.

r*1[4"''rli,:*Hfl_:.f-4 cm in diemetcr has a surracr.

tcmperaturc or
pr*. n", ..pi"i;Tfi lfr
itT"lfr :iH,]1ffi #tr*fi xffi J'*.
g11tr*1:l*;iJ/f,
da)
(b)
Dtaw rh thermal circuit
Dcrcrminc oc
,1Tr#i:"ff
rnd labct all rcsbuncc*
tot"t.hcat-ran"ll;rff;*
ffi
(c) Dcterminc o. .rr"rlo.
surt""l';;;:;, rod pcrnnit leagrh.
both ios'laton
 ln Srreory-SrenCoNDucrro*

2117
. for thc compocir rra[ sho*n in rhe figurc, dcrcrminc thc thcrmal
conductiviry, *,- Abodttcrnrinc rlrc intctfacc tmpcrairurcs Z; -a f;.
Fbid
.t F:0nfl:-{ * . l5 {;n.li
l-. ?oo'f

r. J@'C .-

2-lt Air ar 120'c flows ovcr dre rop of a rargc horizonrar s-cm-rhick s."injcss
sccl plarc wbmc uppcr su-rfacc is mainaincd .l z]o"c
fer.cocfficicor is 30 w/nalC Thc uppcr srf:cc of rhe
lt. .on".criu.-i;;;;
plarc r** zm wTriJy
radiatioo to tbc air. Dccrminc rhc sicaay kmpcralure
of thc roiu surrace of thc
plare.

_Ll9 A boc&ey arena in e_sruhifuncdon building has r surfacc arca

of 1600 mr.
ls loairbiDcd by cooring coits thar circurare'througrr
Jlcjcc
the figurc A ba-*crbar floor is raid over rhc icc,
rhc icc as iuusrrared in
having a t5.cn ai,
rhc icc and 6c floor- Thc cffccrivc convccrivc{cat-rrajnsfcr 9p r**.n
cocfficiclr in thc air
gap ir 5 w/n2'rc rbc surface of rhc baskerbal
Roor is in onracr *irh 25"c air
end fbc onvccdvsbcat-transfer cocfficienr is 3
h:g rbc ligtu b 2SO W/m2. Th ffid lr- {m2.K Tb. *, odi"";
ni
W/D'K rad lor ica *-2-O */m.lc Thc tos,c6uaio
i ,lr*rrr", eondncrivity "r;;
of 0J
ediabadc- If rbe b*kabat floor is rcfi in prae r- -ry bc assumcd ro bc
emoun! of caig
ii l, csrimare the rninimum
rhat must bc rcmovcd trorn o" ;cc to t<ccp thc icc fmm mclting.
 l'RoBrric lB

t-
Jcm
,,
l-5 cnr
I_-
J (nt
,
I
C@ling coils Adiebrrk iwfist

Estimatc thc cost to opcnrtc thc coolitrg systcm for 24 b. Assnae that ttc
rcfrigeradon unit has a cocfficicnt of pcrfonnrncc of 2-0 aad clectricity cosa
50.06/kwh.

2.20 A largc flar fall is cxposcd to a fluid rhar has a temperarur. of 200"C
The wall is covered wirh a 5-cm-thick layer of insulation with ,t=O.j {m.IC The
tcmpcraturc of the interfacc berween rhc insuJation and wall is loo"c Dctcrurine
thc value of convectivc-heat-ransfcr cofficicnt which must bc naintained oa thc
cxposcd surfacc of thc insulation so that thc surfacc will not excecd a tctrrpcraturc
of 150'C

2-21 A tank consisrs of cylindrical ccntcr sccrion *it[two heraisphcrical cad

rcctions. Thc tank contains a hcatcd fluid that rr6inrin5 thc imidc surfacc
tcmpcrature of tlle tanl at 350'C. Thc task is st,inl6s stccl with a constant
thictness of 2.5 cm. The ousidc diamcrer of rhc cylindrical scction is 2 m and it is
2 m in lcngth. The air surrounding thc iank has an ambicnt tcmpcraturc of 25"C
Thc convccrivc-hcartra$fcr cocfficient bctwecn the air and task is ? {m!.IC
Determinc thc amoun! of heat that must bc addcd to rhc fluid in the tank to
maintain its tcmpcraturc. Assume only radial conduction tbrough itrc tank

7-22 A 2-mmdiameter coppcr wire covercd with a. l-nm-thic,k insulation

(&*0.18 w/rn.K) has a tcndency to ovcrhcar whcn uscd in a laboraroryrdo,icc.
Thc hcat-rransfcr cocfficient bctwecn thc insulatioo and air is 34 w/m:.K Would
thc additioo of thicker insulation incrcasc rhc hcat dissipation from rhc wirc? If so,
what is the maximum pcrccntagc incrcasc in cncrry dissipation that caa bc rcalizcd
by adding insulation? Dctcrminc thc critical thickness of insulatioa that maximizcs
thc hcat-transfcr ratc from thc wire.

- 2-B Using thc proccdurc ourtined in Scction 2-3 for dctcrmining drc crio'cal
.insulatioo thickncss.on a cylindcr, show that thc critical insulation ttickness on r
sphcrc is givcn by

tri- t'o
k1
-zo
of
2kt
h,

67r
 tU Strroy-Srrrr Goyoucnol

2-2a. Dcrcrai* an cxprcs;io fT .n" f--p.orurc distributioa ead hcat flur

-,
through r rall
pleoc il
rhar [15 e varietion ticrmal cooducti"ity of qi;;;
(l +tf+.f} Tbc $all bas e *iltb
t and tbc boundar conditious arc r(0);
aDd {r)- ?i rbc r,
rynbots } ud c,cpr6cDt
"o**,J
2-25 Dcrcrmioc aa cxprcssion for thc srcady tcmpcraluc
distn'bution in a rong
hollow.cylindcr uo
ffica-s'tao ,.-p.,",ur"r'it ,1. *..."r conductivity of
the cylindcr varics lincarly wirb
i i1f._
F-pcrarurc 1ra1 * Un.
srcady rcnperature distribution for four planc
.*1T,-T:
shova in rbc figure Lisr rhe four rhcrmar surfaccs in cooucr is
and thc highesr t lasl Erplaia tbc reason ""nau"iiriar
ia order of rowcsr firsr t
fo, y*"0""irilo.

\
l_,
.{ R C t)

2'27 The srcady tcmpcrarurc distribution in a planc

-.
figurc'
surface is sho*r in thc
Docs rhc rhcrmi conduoivitv ri,. iri.i"i'i-n.r*. or dccrcasc wirh
tempcrature? "r
Explain thc.rcasoa for _vour dccision.

2-28 A currcnr of 200 A k passcd through a srainlcss

srecl wirc which has a
2-mm diamcter and a t-m hagth. The clccrical
,.rirt"n"" of thc wire is 0.125 O
and irs rhcrmer condrrctivity is- .r 7 w
Ibe virc is mcagrrcd at t50.G
/ 'K- Thc lcmpcrarurc of thc ourcr surface of
(a) Shrc tic govrraing cquarion for thc srcady-srarc rcrnpcrarure.
thc wira
I(r). in
(U.) rbc gorrraing boundary condirions.
_Surc
(c) Solvc.tbc diffcrcatiel cquarion
(d) Calanlarc rhc wirc ccnrcrlinc Empcraturc.
(c) Assumc rhar yor nish ro add iluhtion (e_0-15 W/n.K rc rhc
surfacc oI rhc ryirc end thar rhc convcctivc-hcat-ransfcr
cocfficicnt on
rhc iasularion is 60 W/m:.K. Could thc currcnr
' in rbc yirc bc
incraascd, or woulld jt have o bc decrcascd.
assuming that thc ourer
surfacc of thc wirr is at a constant tempcrarurc
of 150"C?
 Pnou-rr.rs t25

distilutio3 in e consrent Psqpcro/

2-D Show that thc stcady tcmpcraturc pcruoit Tolunc

-ffi
with uaifonn gcncration 9'i is
r,oili tyfina"t

W - #"t[' I(r)--(;ljffi
I{d-
.['-t;fl
T-
]
Thc bousdary coriditions are [ and

constaat &ermal olductivity' i}"

2-3o Thc watl shown in the tigun has a
."i"1" t,.:o is iasulatcd and thi sutfzct tt,'Lir.naioainoda,cr'pcfitotrc
i"iy J*a" e constant hcat-gcncratioa ratc pcr. uait volumc 4f, b distributcd
emoutrt of hcat that can
throughout thc wall' bctcrrrinc thc rna;irnum
".ifirtly ttc *att qcr unit volumc suc! the stcadv tempcraturc rt
;;;,J;t:ldc q
tha-1
ft - 15 w/m'IC Calculatc thc tcmpcranre
i".i no, cxcccd 120.C *hen'f-0-t
of thc insulatcd surfacc of thc wall'

*.r ri:*i;{
- r -60'C

/<' The
2-31 A plane wall of width L bas a consant thermal conductivitypcr unit
gcncradon
surfacc tcmpcraturcs arc t(o)ftt "oa r1f1=7t' Thc heat
volumc in rhc wall to thc exprlsion Qt:8x7. Daerminc thc
""rio ""'aoraing
following quantities in tcrms of k, B, T6 Tv and L:
in Thc steady tcmPcralurc distribution' I('r)' t
O)Thc tocation of thc planc of maximum temPrature'
i.j n. beat flux lcaving thc wall at thc surfacc x =
L

2-32Aplanc wall is 1.0 m thick and it has onc surface

(r*0) i"ry]lf-d^*$'
the othcr surfacc (,r - l)is maintaincd at a constadt tcmPeratur'
"ll10:1 T:
genetatr'o ryt Y*'
thermal conductivity of thc :r'all is 25 W/m'K ao! a lniform
;;il;;";.ovJ ;;;-,h'""ch'rit thc Determinc e dimcnsionlcss
1!-
wall- Dctcrminc thc maximum
cxprcssion for thc tcmpcratut. aituiiutio" in thc
;p.J* in thc wall ;t,h; b""tioo of thc plane whcre the sraximum
tcmPcratuc occttf,s.

2-33 A long solid cylindct har I consrrnt &crna! conductivity

t rd ouside
- *t*!^ !l
adiue
-il; r- Crcacration cxisu wi6ia tbc ciin&r a! Imaintaiacd
ratc ryt
-t*it
rt a coilrtrnt
- tt thc stcrior surfacc of thc cylindcr b
ia thc
^ri 11, dcrivc - .ii*ioiftt tl" ttoay tcmPcranrc distribution
lenpcnorc
cylindcr in tcrms ol k, r., f,' and ,{'
f through ft in an
2-y Atoag holtow cylindcr has a constaat crrrar oassi4
exial dirtction Thc tcngth; th";;;t f- nt insidqsurfacc of thc cylindct'
 lN SreADy-SrerE Corouclox
r-ri, is insularcd and t
r:'-'"* "ia";rlc il+tT:";*:J.-';:illiffr :1.1;h.*f#
rylindcr- Yo'.rnJr;;';.-.d ia tcrms ir t, n,' *. t-,,,
ffJi:
2-3S A t
stainlcss srccl pan p!."a on thc
srovc. Thc paa has a diamcrcr
qtr and a rhickness of of 30
3 Tlrl pan i;
bctwcea thc watci and thc rin or ry ;; ;
boil qrarcr and the disrancc
bcrwecn rhc air and 6.^fT
oi-pan irI-"i
Thc hcat-raasfff cocfficicnr
3m
ard oursidc rhc pan is 50;c. Bdmarc
j w7;-[
ir,ilr.r"g. air tcmpcraturc inside
;h. ,;;;;;*. of rhc rim of thc pan.
cross+ccrionar arce of diamercr,/ and.rcngrh
."Ho1"tr:;i:: ilff," I is

:,:."'*f i#l lI: *H* i:;"Ti.:: f r*: ;xf ::;i:-,:'; f :;

:i'
f uncrion or
j:"= gl ;t'ri" ".* ;,) ;rf,j(,:;,i*.nn:
di men sionrcss
Bior numbcr_Bi - F"rt2 *t _0.r. r. rO.
7 ir,rur"r.a rip area-
"r."*il!'"I
2-3? A fin with trianpurar profilc is
attachcd ro a surface with a tcmpcraurc
e*.c- r+c "la-nrqer;J t i*,ar,*,;J;;;;. i.*" oI
drid.*.*'!f { cm. T}c. of t0 ca rad e base
sutmunding nuid u ar r,o.c end the ircal-rransfcr
DaenninJfl,. rl.,u,,Tnjlr r",. f,o_
;::IT?Jrf#rn:.K. rhc fin pcr unir

1-39 rin *ilrr trrickncsr

'{ stainress srccr
rurrouads e t<m-outsidt_a;ryrcr
i rnn end ouri& diarnercr 3 cm
"_*.* nrii ,;,np.*,*. i, io:l
rube. T?n
*'irh a convccrive-hear-rransfcr cocfficicnr
turc is 150.C. Calcularc thc hcat_ransfer "i;o v;j. K. The tube_*., rcmDera_
r",. trorn'rt,. fin. .

2'39 A copper fin wirh circular cross

secrion widr an arca of 0.25 cmr
.: Tlt-yl..rnp"r",uo.i rzs.C ir"';;ffi;i,.,
of 2.i cm is arrached and lenerh

Hf:::il:;:[?;*.t-35 w'lm:'K' carcurarc rhc hcat-rransrcr rate and dp

(a) rhc fin has an insularcd dp. and
(b) hcat is convccrcd from rbc dp surfacc
arca.

tf rT vcrl' rong alurninum *ires wirh diamercr

rogcthcr. The wircs arc locarcd; of l cm arr ro bc sordercd
L tlr;-ZO-ii,7-t.61 wirh a rcmpcnrurc
25'C. If rhc solder has a meldng
*rnp.rai*. of :-fuIC. a.,".rninc tbc amount of
bcat input rcquircd ar the intc*acc of
disrriburion in thc wirc
or *,. ,". *i* whcn thc lcmpcraturc
is srcady.

2-41 A solid circular rod of lcngth

2L diamercr D. end thermel oonductiviry
cxrtnds berwccn rwo wa[s rhar
arl u.,r, .l"J".J t
ambient,"Ilp.ra,u.. suiounairig
cocfficicnr is f,' Dcrcrminc an
rh. ;-l;';_ ;; "i'
;: :Tff::;;l_3"r3:
cxprcssion for thrdimensionrcss
disrribution in thc rod and an srcady kmpcrarurc
cxprcssion for thc roat hcar-transfcr
rod. Your answcrs may bc cxpresscd ratc from rhc
in rcrms ;at;: fi, r-, ana r"-
 ffi
sl
ii al

hoBLnG ttT
742 Al caginccr wishcs
ro malc acorratc ncasuremenb
. lcaving a r6t spcci,_Dca- Thc rcst of thc hcat llur
spccim"" ;;;-,"d ;00"C and
noailorcd by I thcrmocoupt co*irting iB rcmpc121tup
oi*.'J.I *i,t, diamcrcr of I nn aadis
thcrmal coo.uctivity 75
{rn-K- n tcrnperature b 20.C and
".tUiitlU..",.o
rhc convcctive-hcaGrarsfcr coefficicnt
b.,*;;;;;
25w1m2.K.If rhc cnginccr monirors tt. t""iri,i and rhen'ocouprc dres is
. tlc possiblc crror.in thc hcaGrrnsfcr."**"..oi ilo* n" spccimcn, dacrmine
u*scmenl ju, duc to conductioa thmugh the
tlcrmocouplc lcads.

243 A singlc-cylindcr^air-coolcd
larrn mower qngjng opcratcr uadcr
coadi tions"Thc cvrindcr rcmprature cannot crcced stcadv
enaular fins are placed arouni thc
:-m;c]ir Lti.' .i'j""J
cylindciTh;;-; oJ cn rhict ald arc 2 cra
roag from basc to rip' Tttc-tins^ar-e
casiir"* n.i""roe.diamctcr of the cngiae
s linder at the basc of the fin on.' ;;;:
;h;"*" operarcs
n'- ;;;
rnd that the hcat-rransfcr cocfficient
* ,h;;l*;;;iip or the tu b t2in 30.c air
Brimare rhc hcar-ransfer ratc from {nr.K.
a ;"r,;;;.;'i:rmine the number
aecded to coot a 3-kW cnginc
to ,h" gr"-"n';;;;"r" if thc coginc of fins
cfficicncy ot wo ir Let an
dissipared rhrougi thc fins.
and 5@o *rc ,";l f*;';;:;ori o, *" cngine ectury i5

2{4
one ead of a circurar.poker is praced
in a fire. Thc poker is madc or
k-ss w/m'&and ir ha"r r.ai",,,...r Jilo;;: m: r,..r
350'C' rhc air around rhc ooker j^;.'k;;il il of thc pokcr in thc fire is
tbc lengrh of rhc poker bcrwecn
t+=zs i rempcrature of 60.C. and
the fii"
{canpcrarurc of thc handlc
of thc poker. "rra,fr"ni[ is 0.6 rn Btimetc thc
2{5 A fin rith consrant cross-scctional
uniform hear-generation ratc.pr
arca l, perimeter p, and lcngth l, has a
unit notumc of ilr,rrr""gr,"", is rrorumc-
s surrounded by a fluid rrith constant Thc fin
f_ .end consrant-
l"fi lTXf":Ticicnr {- srro*,h"d. il#;;"i:'.0;,,*,",ure
"aUi"ot"a_p.-rature
distribution in

where
'(f)=(,-Q")(t'+.ffi).n,
e1g;- 1fl-r-
Tt- T-

. g.-=_#A-_ (dirncnsioiless gcncration)

4P(T|_T_)
h'PL2
B i-
kl
Thc boundary conditions
arc
0(0)- 1.e
d0t
4L-,-o (insulated rip)
 128 Srr^Dy-SrAr@rorrc.r:onr

sLcw-rhat the Eoperaturc oo*t u* reduccs

to thc onc dcrivcd in Scction 2{
for a fin :'i& insulard tip whcn rhe gcncration
t Jr..O to zcro (Oc_0).

2-46 A popular styh of sol&ri1S

clcmenr of rhc gun is sbown ;n oc
q. b* a powcr rating of 50 W. I}rg hcal;e,
Lrch. n-. .r.-"1, r approximarcly l0 cm
long aad it bas a 3-mm-square crocs scction wirh tbcrma.l conductiviry
W/n.K. Thc ambicnt air r
of 55
rcmpcra,urcorrbchcarcr".!ffi iH.eH*":i:.;,,:,"yS:X.#..":$i
bc rcachcd aficr srcady usc. Do your c'*h;;
;;;; rhar rlre soldcring gun nol
1".#:l;ru"uously?
Usc rbc rcsutrs .r p."llili_cS for the rempcrarurc

247 Thc rempcrarurc disrribution in a rc[d q/ith

T(x"'-)=avza6'2+cx+d. whcrc thc *-2.5 W/m.K is given b;
cenrimercrs Values for drc constanc
iii i* i. and borh x and.r. are in
"r" a_1.0
arc. Kr/cmr: D=1.5 K/cm:: c=1.0
K/cm; r'-3gg K. Dctcrmine O.air..iioi
ar (:..y) locarions of (0.0). (1. l). and (3.0). of rhe heal-flux vecror
"n;;;;.
, 2-t{l For rhe remperarure disrriburion gvcn in problcm 247. dererminc
hcar-rransfer ralc pcr unir dcprh across the
thc'sfia;';;g from r=0 ro ),_3
and-y=0 from r*0 ro.r-5 cm.
cm

,at .T:: steam pipcs are placcd in conact.

-
surrounded by asbcsros insutadoa ro
as shown in rhc figurc. and
rcducc *" f,o, f"rri-m rhc pipcs.
havc an cxrcrior diamercr of t0 cm Thc pipcs
rr,. our.ia.
-a ;;;.;.,
or thc insularion is 30
 housc flt
co. Thc pipcs carD/ ste.aa wirha tcqpcreructf IJO.Crte Oorntof OC*g/r.
Thc crtcrior surface of thc insulation avcragc 35'c Esrihrte thc hcit-trrDsficr ratc
6roug! thc irsrdation per unit lcagth of pipc. Esr;mrtc thc cooductiostapc.factm
for rhc.insulation- Estimatc thc lcngth of pipc in which thc stcam tEpraolrc will
drcp 5'C

2.50 Hot vatcr pipcs are located on OJ-m ccotcs ia I oolcrctc (k-15
{n.K) slab as shown ia thc figurc. If Oe ousidc surfaccs of ric coactuc uc.at
30'C asd tlc watcr has aa avcragc tcnpcraturc of 90"C cstimatc thc hcat-raldcr
rac lrom cach pipc per unit dcptb.

30'c

2-51 The cross sccrrbn of a t-ll glinnay shown in thc figure has at insidc
rurfroc ttnpcraturc of l70oC and an cxtcrior tcsrperaturc of JO"C. Estirnatc thc
bcat-transfcr ratc rhrough thc chimncy pcr uoit lcngth il &-2.0 W/rn.lC

2-52 The long stccl (&-a3 W/rn.K) anglc shown in thc figure has ooc surface
at l00oC and the othcr surfacc mainraincd at 200"C Estimatc rhc hcat-transfcr
ratc bctc/ccn thc two surfaccs pcr unit of lcngth.

J
3cm
-T-
 -")
130'Srrrr-Srrrr Corousnor

1 2.$ fA squerc ducr srics hor grscs ruch that its surlacc tcnPcraturc
\Tbc duct gasscs rhroqi r hng lela of circular asbcstoe (ft-O25 w/n'K) :
b 3m'C f;

iii6tio" rs sbowr io rbc figura Thc outsidc rurtacc lcmpcraturc of rbc esbcstos is
45'C Enimatc Sc bcat+ndcrrarc fro,rn tlhe gascs pcr uait lcngtb ol ducu
,'-q

2-54 Radioacrivc sastcs arc scalcd in a sphcrical conuincr and buried in tlrc
canh. A l-mdiamctcr sphcrc is buricd at a dcpth of 25 m' whcrc thc soil thcrmal
coaarc$riry js .10 wrb.lc Tbc surfacc ol rlrc carr! has a conslant tcmpcraturc of
l5'C. Tbr*zste marcrial trncrarcs htrt rte nrcof l00O W- What tcmPcraturc
docs thc conraincr have to bc dcsigncd to withsrand?

1'55 A buried pipclinc traffPons oil with an avcta8e tcmperarurc of l5'C' The
pipc has aa ousi<ic diaroctcr of 05'm. insidc diamctcr of 0.45 m. and it is buricd at
a dcpth of 5 m.-lf lhc surfacc of thc canh is 5"C. estimate thc stcady hcat-transfcr
rau lrom thc oil pcr unir lcngth of pipc. Hou' far can the oil bc transported until irs
avdagc rsmpcrarurc dropc ro l2"C if rhc spccific hcat of the oil is 2000 w's/kg'K
and its flow rarc is J0 kg/s? Thc thcrmal conductivity of rhc soil is 1.0 rA'r/rn'K

2-55 An chcrricat poncr cablc is buricd in thc canh at a depth of l-5 m. Tlrc
cablc dienrcrcr is l0 sn. The thcrmal conduaivity of thc soil is l-5 w/m'K and
the rcmper-aturc of the surfaca of thc carth is 20'C Thc clcctrical rcsisancc of lhc
cablc pcr unit lcngth is l0-. 0/m. tf thc insuladon on the wire is limitcd to a
tcmpcralure of 120"C cstimatc thc maximum currcnt that can be ca:ricd by thc
cabl,e.

2-5-, A small clccrrical furnact is in thc shapc of a parallclepipcd- The furnace

wall is construOed of esbcsros insuladon thar is l0 cm thick on all surfaccs of thc
'furarca Tbc intsrd cavity of thc furnecc is e crbic shapc 0-5O m on a sida
Dcrcrsrbc lbc powcr consumption of thc furnacc undcr stcady oPerating condi'
riom if rbe inarnal grrlacc of rhc asbcstos is 220"C and thc ousidc surfaca is at a
rcrnpcratur: of 45"C
 PRoBrsfir l:ll
t-sS Oit is traasporrcd ia e pipc buricd with iu cqrtcrfmc 6 m beloqr thc
surfacc of thc eanb- Thc mcallic pipc has I l-n o.d- end OJlm i.d. The thrmal
cooductivity of lhc soil is l-s Vm'K- and thc rcil dr iatcdacc tcmpcraturc is
-20"C. Decrminc thc hcat inpul to thc oil pcr kilofretcr of pipc tcngth rcccssary
ro maintail thc avcragc oil tcmpcraturc rt 20"C if thc orl llory ratc b 90O kg/s.

2-59' Thc fin shown in thc figurc has a basc tcmpcraturc of 200'C A sourcc of
cncrgr is incidcnt on thc rip of thc fin with an caerry flu.r. of 5000 W/m2.,Thc
cxtcrior surfacc of thc fin is insulatc4 Use the relaxation mcthod to cstimatc thc
tcmpcratur6 at aodcs I through 5.

r. 100'C Enrt lra .0.1 m!

,r- - 5ooo rv/m:
-
-

2-60 If thc tcmperaturcs of nodcs I through 8 in the figure in "C are assumed to
be 50, 51. 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 and 57, calculate the rcsiduals at nodcs l, 2, 4, and 5.
Numerical valucs for thc symbols in the figure arc i],:5 tff/m2'X,,f.t=19
w/m2'K, I--40oC, L-5 cm, k:20 w/m'K. By changmg the tempcraturc
corresponding to thc nodc with largest rcsidual, dctcrrninc lhc tcmpcraure of that
node which will rcducc thc rcsidual to zcro.

,i r' r-

jI

r
2-61 Thc:figurc show: a rclid wall that har thcrrrtl cocdrrtirity *. Thc
r
surfacc is extroscd to fluid witil ambicnt tcmpcrantrc I-
Derivc thc rcsidual
cquations for nodcs l, 2, md 3 in terms of thc tcmpcraturcs of nodcs 4 througb 9
gi- F,t/k
^n6
 lj12 Srr^DySl^TECoxoucnor,s

Fluid fr.. I-
L

-L--O
.F,
2{1 Vcrifr.all rhe relaxation cquadons givcn in Tablc 2-3.

26 Usc thc rclaxarion mc$od |otd*rllcfiltqmr*sns

the unknowas arc all berwcen 0 end 10.
TLr talues for a!
r+51'-ft^vt
6.y -l: +r -35

2:-Jr.-l4n- -9
3r-4:*3r'* -ll
2x + -{x'- 20u = 9

2g, rhe rwo-dimcnsional srcady rempcralurcs of

poinr
througlr 4-9l.Iare
-, in tbe figurc-
nodal
surface rempcraturcs arc shown and thc sorid
I
has a thermar
conducriviry of 2 W/m. K. Calcularc rhe rempcrarures
undcr two condirions:

:00'(

lil
_+____+_-__J
rlt:;
ioioi lr
-_+_____l
r,:lJi
roioi
i----i----1-
'iofc
(a) No intcrna! cncrry tcncration is prcscnr
(b) A.pnt*! cncqgr gcncra_tion pci unir volumc cxisrs rhroughour rhc
solid cgual ro tmO W/rd.
 q1;

hosl5ts t33

245 Rcpca.t hoblcm 2.64 using an ircretin rctni$n

24 C'k-'t"c rnc rcqecnrs,cs of rh J-
iod6 rtorll il dc figurc. Usc thc
rclaxatioo tcchniquc.Thc rhcrmal conduaivityof rbcsollt b 30
{a.lC

-lruleat

1-67 Rcpcar Probtcm 2-66 using rn ircrarioa tcchniqu-*

2 A rcctaagular tquid nitrogca dcvar ii slpportd b.v two staidess sreel

legs as shown in thc figurc. Thc lcgs 62ij1r-in thc Aacing b.t*..a inncr rad outer
walls of thc dcwar. Thc rcgion scpararing rhc *zlk ir crracuarcd and fillcd with an
insulating matcrial. Btimatc thc boil-off ratc of rhc tiquid niaogra drrc to bcat leak
through thc lcgs by using two differcat mcrhods:
(a) Nodal cquarion using tlre rclaxatioa slcihod-

lsf.&n
$dqam

t2
 .a

lll SrreotiSrrrt Comucrrorr

(b) Crraphicalncrbod.'
Support dcuil:

T I
li inr

__l
li'r

2{9 The tong. recun-rular ber sho*n in rhc figurc has two adjrccnr
surfaccs
thrt .rc .
raainuiaed at consuni rcnpcra&rc ahd tu.o a jaccnr surfaccs
that
rra_sfcr hcar.[' convcnion. ]iumerical srlucr arc & 30 rf'/m .
- K. {, _:O WZii.
I {. -:O $'1$i l(. iad !r- * l00qC. Uring r noA"t ,uMlulsion as sho*n in rhe
figurc. dctcrminc ilrt srcad-t rcmperalur* of rhc l-s nodcs b1.a rerararion
mcdrod

h,.T

-iUiit------E;+

-'.jr,'(

' ,:0'(
l-70 \orlhobicrn l-69 br a mauir-inr.crsion rcchniquc. Derive th3 gnc?g
balaacc cguadonsf'r cach nodc aod dcrerminc rhc clcmcnts of maricts e and-b-
tbc pto8ram gscn ia Eramplc 2-13. Comparc vour ansB,crs u,irh thosc
lsc
dacrmiacd in hoblcm 249.

l-?t Worl Problcm 2-69 by an ircrarion rcchniguc. Modify rhc compurc,

prograh ia Frample 2-15 aad usc it ro dercrminc vatucs for rhc t5 nodal
r=mpcnutcr comparc Jroui anrwcrs riri thosc dctcrnr.incc in problcms 2{g and
2-70.
tr
. hort'Ms t3S

2-72 A loag stccl clrenncl (&-15 {ra-K) k shown in thc figurc. Thc op
surfacc is iroecrn f rt . tcmpa.turc of 100'C whilc thc bottom rurface k et
300"C Onc sidc & crposcd to .k (4 - lO0 V"i f) er {0'C ead thc othcr sidc is
insulatcd. Thc intcrn:l portioa of $c chennd i: in contaa with e lluid rdth I
rcmitcrarutl of 2fi)'C end i-Zt */aeC Dctcrminc thc stc-edy cmpcrntwcs of
thc 20 nodcs rith unknown lcmpcnrucs. Usc thc matrix tcchniquc end rhc
computc Fotrarn in Eranpk 2-13.

t, . r(xlwrn:.K
f-. ao'C

l_ :nr.\ ,i ':5 i';-:.x lod. C

"w l-'loo"c

2-?3 Work'Froblcm 2-72 wirh rn itenubn tdniquc. Usc drc @rnput r PrG
gram in Examplc 2-15.
,