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GHGT-10

High-level integrity assessment of abandoned wells

M.D.C. van der Kuipa*, T. Benedictusa, N. Wildgustb, T. Aikenb
a
TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, PO Box 80015, 3508 TA, Utrecht, the Netherlands
b
IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, Orchard Business Centre, Stoke Orchard,
Cheltenham, Glos., GL52 7RZ, United Kingdom
Elsevier use only: Received date here; revised date here; accepted date here

Abstract

Potential migration of CO2 from subsurface reservoirs along wells is generally recognized as the major hazard associated with long-term
storage of CO2 in geological formations due to possible chemical and mechanical impact on wellbore cement or casing steel. Many storage
projects involve the presence of pre-existing wellbores, penetrating the prospective storage container. Because of their inaccessibility, the main
risk is associated with previously abandoned wells. The actual operations at the time of abandonment determine the suitability of these wells
for future CO2 storage operations. Past and present oil and gas well abandonment regulations, prescribing minimum requirements for the use of
cement plugs to prevent inter-zonal communication, form a good proxy to assess the general status of abandoned wells. A high-level review of
current abandonment regulations showed that required plug lengths vary greatly between different regions, from a minimum of 15 m in Alberta
to 100 m in some European countries. Many experimental studies have been performed on degradation of wellbore cement under influence of
aqueous CO2. Considering that diffusion of CO2 in the cement matrix forms the rate-controlling step in cement degradation, extrapolation of
the results of these studies shows that up to a few meters of cement may be affected in 10,000 years. In spite of the significant variation
between the evaluated regulations, currently prescribed plug lengths seem appropriate for safe storage of CO2 with respect to reported
laboratory degradation rates. This implies that mechanical integrity of cement plugs and the quality of its placement probably is of more
significance than chemical degradation of properly placed abandonment plugs.

c 2010
2011Elsevier Ltd.by
Published AllElsevier
rights reserved
Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

Keywords: CO2 storage; well abandonment; abandonment regulation; cement degradation

1. Introduction

Subsurface storage of captured CO2 in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, or unmineable coalbeds is currently
seen as one of the most feasible ways of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, e.g. [1-3]. Typically, depleted gas and especially oil
reservoirs are perforated by large numbers of (abandoned) production and exploration wells. Many of these wells also penetrate
deep saline aquifers that might be used for geological storage of CO2. Potential CO2 migration from the reservoir along wells is
generally considered as the major hazard associated with storage, e.g. [4-6]. With respect to the evaluation of long-term integrity
of the geological storage system, the quality of wells penetrating the storage reservoir therefore must be taken into account.

Two types of wells can be distinguished, i.e. pre-existing wells and future wells [7]. Future, drilled-for-purpose wells benefit
from the availability of state-of-the-art materials and techniques to adequately deal with sour gas occurrences. In contrast, most
pre-existing wells, comprising both operational and abandoned wells, were designed, drilled, completed and/or abandoned not
taking into account future CO2 storage purposes. Operational wells generally are accessible and can be adapted to fit injection or
abandonment of corrosive fluids. Therefore, the main leakage risk is associated with previously abandoned wells that may no
longer be accessible and consequently cannot be easily remediated if required, without huge costs.

The well system forms a potential conduit for CO2 migration because wellbore cement may be susceptible to chemical
degradation under influence of aqueous CO2 or to mechanical damage due to operational activities. Wet or dissolved CO2 forms
a corrosive fluid that could induce chemical degradation of the oil well cement, e.g. [8-10], potentially enhancing porosity and
permeability. It could also stimulate corrosion of steel, which may lead to pathways through the casing steel [11]. Furthermore,
operational activities (e.g. drilling, pressure and temperature cycles) or natural stresses can result in mechanical degradation
through the development of tensile cracks or shear strain, enabling highly permeable pathways to develop [12-13]. Finally, poor

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cement placement jobs or cement shrinkage could cause the loss of bonding between different materials (debonding) and lead to
annular pathways along the interfaces between cement and casing or host rock [14]. Regulatory prescribed abandonment plug
lengths therefore provide a proxy for first order evaluation of the potential risk associated with previously abandoned wells.

The petroleum industry is a long-established and global business, with the first wells drilled halfway through the 19th century.
In response to increasing drilling challenges, especially since the 1950s, abandonment practices and governing regulations
gradually developed to present day high standards [15]. Typically, wells are effectively sealed and plugged with cement at
abandonment. Cement satisfies the essential criteria of an adequate plug as it is durable, low-permeable and inexpensive.
Furthermore, it is easy to pump in place, has a reasonable setting time and is capable of tight bonding to the formation as well as
to the casing surface [16]. The condition of abandoned wells is primarily determined by the practiced measures at the time of
abandonment. Especially for older abandoned wells, information on their current status often is difficult to obtain. Past and
present oil and gas well abandonment regulations, prescribing minimum requirements for abandonment, form a good proxy to
assess the general status of abandoned wells. This study presents an overview of well abandonment regulations focusing on
minimum requirements that allow for straightforward comparison. The results are compared to cement degradation rates from
multiple experimental studies, leading to a high-level evaluation of the suitability of abandoned wells for CO2 storage operations
in different regions around the globe.

2. Methodology

A high-level overview of prescriptive well abandonment regulations is generated for 11 countries and states across Europe,
Asia-Pacific and North America. The study focuses on aspects that allow for straightforward comparison between regulations,
such as plug length and position requirements, and comprises requirements for plugs set at the deepest casing shoe, in uncased
sections and across perforations. The assessment of well abandonment regulations is limited to currently employed regulations
and does not take into account newly developed prescriptions specifically concerning CO2 storage.

Per definition this study presents a non-exhaustive overview of abandonment regulations. The selection of countries is based
on two main criterions: First, countries and regions considered are either significantly engaged in oil and gas production or
involved in CO2 storage applications. Second, regulatory data of these countries is publicly available and accessible. In many
cases the official regulations concerning well abandonment prove to be only available in the official language of the country. In
this case unofficial translations are used. Furthermore, all values are converted to the metric system and rounded off to facilitate
easy comparison. Regulatory offices of each country involved are provided with the opportunity to review the results of this
study prior to publication. Several reactions have been received and incorporated in the results. Table 1 presents an overview of
the legal documents evaluated.

Table 1 Well abandonment regulations and guidelines reviewed. Underlined text indicates regulations organized on state level.

Country Regulation
Denmark A Guide to Hydrocarbon Licences in Denmark
France Article 49 (part of Decree no. 2000-278 (RGIE, 2000))
Norway NORSOK Standard D-010
The Netherlands The Mining Legislation and of the Working Conditions Regulation
United Kingdom Guidelines for the Suspension and Abandonment of Wells by UKOOA
Australia Western Australia: Schedule of Onshore Petroleum Exploration and Production Requirements 1991
Queensland: Petroleum and Gas (Production and Safety) Regulations 2004
Canada Alberta: The Well Abandonment Guide described in Directive 20 of the Energy Resources Conservation Board
China Control Rules on offshore Oil Well Abandonment Operations of the Peoples Republic of China
Japan Well abandonment regulations by the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry
USA US EPA Regulations on Plugging and Abandoning Injection Wells for Class II wells.
API guidance
Alaska: The Alaska Administrative Code
California: Section 1723 from the California Code of Regulations
Texas: Rule 3.14 from the Texas Administrative Code
International Conventions London Convention 1972 and 1996 Protocol
OSPAR Convention

Furthermore, a literature survey is performed evaluating results of laboratory experiments on chemical cement degradation.
During the last years many experiments have been conducted to investigate the chemical effect of aqueous CO2 on wellbore
cement. As a result, numerous literature references allow for estimation of cement degradation rates under various conditions.
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Diffusion of CO2 into the pores of the cement is considered to be the rate-controlling step in cement degradation, e.g. [17].
However, not all studies derive diffusion coefficients from their results. In these cases, coefficients are calculated from the
reported results of penetration depth versus time. Based on these results, the experimental results on cement degradation are
extrapolated to penetration depths after 10,000 years. To further aid comparison of the resulting diffusion coefficients,
differences in experimental conditions are disregarded (e.g. different classes of Portland cement, temperatures ranging between
20-80 C, pH between 3 and 8, and pressure ranging from 1 to 300 bar).

In order to evaluate the suitability of current well abandonment regulations for CO2 storage operations, a comparison is made
between the extrapolated long-term cement degradation and minimum abandonment requirements.

3. Results

3.1. Well abandonment regulations

All evaluated regulations prescribe that oil and gas wells are plugged with cement at abandonment in order to prevent fluid
flow from the reservoir towards other strata or towards the surface. In general a minimum of three cement plugs is placed during
abandonment operations. However, actual abandonment measures depend on specific conditions that could influence the minimal
requirements on the number and length of cement plugs.

A general distinction can be made between minimum plug length requirements in European and non-European countries.
Especially prescriptions on cement plugs at the deepest casing shoe, i.e. the transition zone between uncased and cased sections,
show large variations as is illustrated in Table 2. While in most European countries the prescribed minimum length of the cement
plug is up to 100 m, in evaluated non-European regulations the minimum length is significantly lower, ranging from 60 m (200
ft) in Alaska, USA, to 15 m (50 ft) in Alberta, Canada.

Table 2 Cement plug requirements at the deepest casing shoe level.

Option Minimum Minimum extension above / Comment

length [m] below casing shoe [m]
above below
Denmark Either 100 50 50
Or 50 50 0 + Mechanical plug within 50 m from deepest casing shoe
Norway Either 100 50 50
Or 50 50 0 + Mechanical plug inside deepest casing
The Netherlands Either 100 100 0
Or 50 50 + Mechanical plug
United Kingdom 30 30 0
Australia
Western Australia 60
Canada Alberta 15 + * 15 * * Depends on formation
China 30 If borehole has no gas, oil or water-bearing strata
Japan 30 Minimum of two 30 m plugs required
USA API 30 15 15
Alaska 60 30 30
California Onshore 30 15 15
Offshore Either ** 30 ** ** Plugged from total depth
Or 60 30 30
Texas 30 15 15 Only if aquifers are protected

In uncased sections and across perforations the minimum plug length requirements range from 30 to 100 meters. In Alberta,
Canada, the minimum prescribed plug length varies with the depth at which the plug is set, i.e. the minimum length at depths
below 1500 m is 60 m (200 ft), while at shallower levels it is 30 m (100 ft). Table 3 shows the requirements for sealing reservoir
sections as well as permeable layers in uncased zones.

In the case that mechanical plugs are used, in general additional cementing is required. Regarding the assessed regulatory
frameworks, only Japan does not require additional cementing when a mechanical plug is properly placed. Again the required
length for additional cementing differs significantly between the countries studied. For instance, in the Netherlands and in China
a minimum of 50 m additional cementing is required, whereas API guidelines recommend only 6 m (20 ft) of cement to be
placed on top of a mechanical bridge plug.
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Table 3 Cement plug requirements at the level of reservoirs or permeable layers in uncased zones.

Option Minimum length Minimum extension above / Comment

between zones below zone [m]
[m] above below
Denmark 50 50 50
France Either Natural distance 50 50
Or Natural distance 100 100
Norway 100 50* * With respect to source of outflow
The Netherlands Either Across reservoir
Or 100
Or Natural distance
United Kingdom 30 30** ** if formation fracture pressure could be exceeded
Canada Alberta Either 30 15 15 At depths < 1500 m
Or 60 15 15 At depths > 1500 m
China 50 30
Japan 30 30
USA API 30 Above intervals or individual zones
Alaska Either 60 30 30
Or From TD 30 Total depth
Or 45 30 15 For each significant zone
California Either Total wellbore
Or 60 30 30
And 60 Across water-bearing formations

A more detailed discussion of the evaluated well abandonment regulations is presented in [18]. The different regulatory
frameworks show diverse levels of stringency. However, it should be noted that the scope of this study is limited to the
prescriptive regulations and does not include potential complementary regulations on e.g. labour (safety) conditions and
environmental impact, which could significantly influence the effective management of well abandonment. Furthermore, in
practice abandonment measures may be more rigid than prescribed.

3.2. Chemical degradation of well cement 100

The evaluated results of chemical

cement degradation indicate that
10
diffusion-based degradation rates are
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degradation under influence of water-
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mechanism. after 10,000 years. Overview obtained from numerous degradation experiments described in
literature [8, 10, 13, 17, 19-25].
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4. Discussion

The review of laboratory experimental studies indicates that diffusion-based chemical degradation rates of cement are
relatively low. The general results show a maximum of up to a few meters of cement that may be affected in 10,000 years. It
should be noted that more recent results show substantially lower rates, presumably as a result of increased understanding of the
degradation mechanism and ability to simulate the natural system. Even under very high temperatures extrapolated degradation
rates would result in a maximum of 12.4 m of cement plug degradation after 10,000 years of exposure to CO2, assuming that
diffusion processes define the degradation mechanism. In order to translate the experimental results to field situations, several
limiting factors apply. Whereas cement samples in the laboratory in certain cases were immersed in a bath of supercritical CO2,
well material in reality will be partially surrounded by reservoir rock, limiting the available reaction surface, the supply of CO2
and the transportation of reaction products. Furthermore, in specific field cases, especially in depleted gas fields, the availability
of water necessary for degradation may be far more limited compared to the experiments. Moreover, injected CO2 will push back
the brine present in the storage formation. As dissolution will take place slowly, many wells may not come across the CO2-water
contact at or near critical levels, such as the cap rock. The presence of only connate water would significantly limit the chemical
reactivity of CO2. Finally, higher salinity of formation water will likely decrease the solubility of CO2 and reaction products, thus
reducing cement degradation rates. Especially relative high concentrations of calcium and magnesium in the brine may limit the
degradation of wellbore cement. However, these conditions are highly site specific and their effects are difficult to quantify.

Taking into account the maximum extrapolated penetration depth of 12.4 as an end member, the evaluated regulations require
cement plugs to extend beyond this length, with most regulations requiring plug lengths of 30 to 50 and even 100 m. On the other
hand, the lower bound of prescribed plug lengths (i.e. 15 m) would only just exceed the maximum penetration depths and could
potentially compromise well integrity. However, regarding the limiting factors that apply to the experimental results as well as
the extreme temperature under which the end member penetration was observed, in practice 15 m of cement may be sufficient to
maintain long-term wellbore integrity. In this respect, the 6 m (20 ft) cement cap on top of a mechanical bridge plug,
recommended by API guidelines may not provide an adequate seal for future CO2 storage operations. Although diffusion-
controlled cement degradation in vertical direction appears to form no significant hazard under most regulatory schemes, in
lateral directions the 2-5 cm thick primary cement sheath is likely to be degraded in timeframes in the order of (tens of) years,
subsequently enabling CO2 to attack the casing steel. Still it seems unlikely that significant amounts of CO2 will affect the
primary cement sheath over large depth intervals across an adequate caprock.

Although cement plug lengths allow for straightforward comparison between regulations and to evaluate against experimental
results, it should be noted that abandonment regulations extend beyond plug length prescriptions. Thus, verification and testing
of the plugs location and integrity is required in many regulatory regimes. Moreover, the prescriptive rules are generally allied
by goal-setting legislation on the construction, intervention and abandonment of boreholes aimed at reaching acceptable risk
levels with respect to health, safety and environment (HSE). Due to the large variation in the specification of testing
requirements and linked goal-setting regulations, these were not included in the current high-level review. Therefore, the results
of this study are based on the assumption that wells are properly cemented and plugged at the level of the sealing caprock with
no fractures or annuli present or induced.

Still, the evaluation of well abandonment requirements against experimental results indicates that the mechanical integrity of
the cement plug and the quality of its placement might be of more significance than the chemical degradation of properly placed
abandonment plugs, which was also proposed by e.g. [9]. The presence or development of fractures in or annular pathways along
the cement is also demonstrated by field samples, although no significant CO2 migration was reported in these cases [19, 26].
However, similar mechanisms may strongly affect the bulk permeability of the cement and could play an important role in
migration mechanisms, potentially significantly enhancing cement degradation [27]. Migration pathways are most likely to occur
at the interfaces between cement and casing or between caprock and cement. Several mechanisms, both syn- and post-
operational, can deteriorate the bond between the cement-steel and/or cement-rock interfaces, such as poor mud removal, cement
shrinkage or pressure- or temperature-induced stresses inherent in well operations [12]. Therefore, the importance of adequate
placement and testing of abandonment plugs and annular cement is stressed here. The quality of the actual cementing and
abandonment operations performed by operators or service companies is crucial not only for isolation of depleted reservoirs, but
also determines the feasibility of second life applications of the asset. In order to effectively seal wells for future storage
operations, it would be recommendable to assess the state of the primary cement sheath at least at the caprock level prior to
abandonment.

5. Conclusion

This study presents a high-level assessment of oil and gas well abandonment regulations of 11 countries and states around the
world, focusing on minimum prescribed plug lengths. The prescribed abandonment plug lengths are evaluated against published
experimental results on cement degradation, providing a proxy for defining the general suitability of abandoned wells for
geological storage of CO2. The study shows significant differences in abandonment regulations worldwide, with minimum plug
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lengths ranging from 15 to 100 m, depending on the governing regulatory framework and their position with respect to casing
and perforations. API guidelines recommend a minimum of 6 m of cement to be placed on top of a mechanical bridge plug.

Extrapolation of laboratory studies of diffusion-based cement degradation under influence of aqueous CO2 shows cement
penetration depths in 10,000 years that typically are in the order of a few meters. The reported worst case presents a maximum
CO2-brine penetration of 12.4 m into the cement in that time span. Thus, the lower bound of prescribed plug lengths of 15 m in
Alberta, Canada, only just exceeds this maximum penetration depth. Taking into account the severe temperature conditions at
which this degradation was obtained as well as the limiting factors that apply when translating experimental results to field
conditions, in practice even 15 m of cement may be sufficient to maintain long-term wellbore integrity. However, the actual
contributions of these factors cannot be quantified. The combination of a bridge plug and a minimum of 6 m of cement, as
recommended by API, likely is insufficient for long-term storage of CO2. Many national regulations require significantly longer
plug lengths of 30 to 100 m and the vast majority of experimental results show much lower degradation rates. Therefore,
diffusion-controlled cement degradation in vertical direction appears to form no significant hazard. Assuming wells to be
properly cemented and plugged at the level of the sealing cap rock with no fractures or annuli present or induced, cement plug
length prescriptions generally seem adequate with respect to long-term well integrity.

In the light of the limited diffusion rates in intact cement and the adequate plug lengths prescribed by most regulations, the
mechanical integrity of the cement plug and the quality of its placement probably is of more significance than the chemical
degradation of properly placed abandonment plugs. The presence or development of fractures or annular pathways in the cement
or along material interfaces will strongly affect the cements bulk permeability. These phenomena, which may be associated with
either operational activities or degradation, will play an important role in leakage mechanisms and may significantly reduce the
sealing capacity of the cement. Therefore, previously abandoned wells form an element of attention in any prospective CO2
storage project. Both their history and post-abandonment status should be meticulously evaluated with respect to potential
integrity issues. The quality of cement placement and testing of abandonment plugs and annular cement are crucial not only for
isolation of depleted reservoirs, but also determines the feasibility of second life applications of a reservoir.

Acknowledgements

IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG) is acknowledged for funding and supporting this project. The results are
published in full as IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG), Long Term Integrity of CO2 Storage Well
Abandonment, 2009/08, July 2009

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