Manufacturing Processes-II

5th sem Mechanical

Section -II
Sub Topic
Chapter 8: Economics of Metal
Cutting & Multi edged tools
 Economics of Metal Cutting Operations
Content
Economics of Metal Cutting
Operations
Optimization Criteria
Choice of Cutting Conditions
Unit Production Time
Unit Production Cost

Photos from internet sites.

 Economics of Machining
Production cost and production rate are vitally important for a
manufacturer.
Increasing production rate means producing more from the
available resources.
Decreasing production cost means less expenditure for the
same volume of production.
If the conditions are so selected to maximize the production
rate and minimize the production cost, his/her profit can be
maximized.
It is however not possible to find a common set of
manufacturing conditions to satisfy this.
 Economics of Machining (2)
A common practice is to treat each case separately
and find the corresponding conditions, then to make a
compromise in between.
Production of a component involves several machining
operations using a variety of machine tools.
Only one operation to be performed on one machine
will be considered and the conditions leading to min.
production cost and max. production rate (min. prod.
time) will be evaluated.
 Assumptions
One operation-one machine, hence manual times
between operations and transportations between
machines are ignored.
Components are ready at the side of the machine
before operation and to be stacked at the side of the
machine after operation.
Appropriate tool and cutting fluid have already been
chosen.
Depth of cut has been selected at maximum value
(limited by the total stock to be removed, chatter
vibrations, cutting force, etc.)
 Optimization Criteria
Unit production time: average time taken to produce one
component.
Unit production cost: total average cost of producing one
component:
As cutting speed and feed rate are increased, both tend to decrease
due to an increase in metal removal rate.
At the same time, they may tend to increase due to increased
frequency of tool changes (increasing tool wear rate).
Optimum conditions do exist where the measure of the selected
criterion is minimum.
Profit rate: it is very difficult to attribute revenue to individual
operations and profit rate cannot be expressed as an explicit
function of cutting conditions.
 Choice of Cutting Conditions
Effects of depth of cut, feed rate and cutting speed on metal
removal rate are the same.
Cutting speed has the highest adverse effect on tool life
amongst the cutting conditions.
Common practice is to select depth of cut at its maximum value,
then choose feed rate as high as possible considering the
limitations such as the available feeds on the machine, surface
finish requirement, force level which the cutting edge can
withstand, etc.
Cutting speed will be selected as the one to optimize the
selected criterion.
 Unit Production Time
Unit production time = {time for machining} + {time for tooling}

tpr = tf + ttp

tf = tl + t c ttp = nt tch
where
tl = loading and unloading time/piece
tc= actual machining time /piece
tch= tool changing time (time/edge)
nt = fraction of tool life to cut one piece (edge/piece)
 Unit Production Time
tpr = tl + tc + nt tch

For turning operation:

volume
V volume of material to be removed
piece
V
tc w chip removal rate
volume
time
w
time
tc machining time piece

Actual Machining Time

V
4
d 2
0
d i2 .l

w d . f .v
di d0
d0 di
d depth of cut
2
l
f feed
v cutting speed
 Actual Machining Time (2)

d0 di d0 di l d0 di l
tc 4 2
d0 di f v f v
2
d 0 di B
if B l tc
2 f v
 Actual Machining Time (3)

N t no. of pieces to be machined

during life of one cutting edge
t pieces time
Nt edge t tool life edge
tc
time
t c machining time piece

 Unit Production Time
Taylors Equation:
1
C n
vt n
C t tr
v
1 n
tc B B v n
nt 1
v
nt
v
Nt 1 1
t tr C n
n
tr
C
Unit production time as a function of the cutting speed :
1 n
B 1 B
t pr t l t ch v n
1
v tr
Cn
 Unit Production Cost
Unit production cost = {cost of machining} + {cost of tooling}

Cpr = Cf + Ctp [cost/piece]

Cf = ( R0 + Rm ) ( tl + tc )

cost of machining time for

per unit time machining
(cost of time)
 Unit Production Cost (2)
R0 = Operators wage rate + overheads [money paid/time]
Rm= Machines cost (depreciation) rate + overheads [cost/time]

Ctp = nt [ tch ( R0 + Rm ) + Ct ]

tool changing tool

cost cost

Ct = cost of each sharp cutting edge [cost/edge]

tch = tool changing time [time/edge]
 Cost Parameters

cost of tool
Ct cost of grinding cutting edge
no. of cutting edges usable
R 0 operator's wage rate labor overhead rate as % of op.' s wage rate
cost of machine
Rm machine overhead rate as % of mach. rate
amortization time

Cost of time: R0 + Rm , usually expressed in cost/hour

 Unit Production Cost

C pr R 0 R m t l t c n t t ch R 0 R m C t

But from the earlier analysis:

1 n
n
B B v
tc and nt 1
v tr
n
C
 Unit Production Cost (2)

Substituting these in the main equation, unit production cost can be

expressed as a function of the cutting speed:

1 n
B
R0 Rm t l t ch R0 Rm Ct v
1 B
C pr n
1
v tr
Cn
 Optimum Conditions
In order to get the optimum conditions (i.e. the
optimum cutting speed), one needs to optimize the
objective function according to the selected criterion.
It is necessary to find the point where the slope of
the objective function is zero, (i.e. the partial
derivative of the objective function w.r.t. the cutting
speed) is zero.
Solving for the cutting speed to satisfy that condition
will give the optimum cutting speed for the selected
criterion.
 Minimization of Unit Production Cost
C pr
0
v
Solving for the cutting speed gives the cutting speed for
minimum cost, vmc and the corresponding tool life tmc:
n 1/ n
n ( Ro Rm )tr C
vmc C tmc tr
1 n [tch ( Ro Rm ) Ct ] vmc

1 n Ct
tmc tch
n Ro Rm
 Maximization of Production Rate
t pr
0
v
Solving for the cutting speed gives the cutting speed for maximum
production rate, vmp and the corresponding tool life tmp:
1/ n
n tr
n C
vmp C tmp tr
vmp
1 n tch
1 n
tmp tch
n
Machining at High Efficiency

unit prod. cost

Unit production cost

Production rate
production rate

high
efficiency
range

vmc vmp Speed

 Flank wears
A tool-wear relationship was established by F. W.
Taylor for cutting various steels as:

vT C
n
Where:
v = cutting speed;
T = tool life [the time (in minutes) that it
takes to develop a flank wear]; and
n and C are parameters that depend on
feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling
material, and the tool life criterion used
n is the slope of the plot
C is the intercept on the speed axis at
one minute tool life
 Tool Life Curves (Taylor 1907)

Log T f1
(Tool Life)

Log V
n
V T C
V- cutting speed
T the time that takes to develop a flank wear land of a certain dimensions
n- constant depends on cutting conditions, Always, n > 0
C constant (When T=1.0 min, V = C)
 Taylors Equation for Tool Life
VTn = C

Tool-life curve
Log-log curve
T = (C/V)1/n

LogT = 1/n logC 1/n logV

Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. the slope of these
curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equations and C is the
cutting speed at T = 1 min.
 Taylors Equation for Tool Life
VTn = C
Given (V1, T1) & (V2, T2) from testing for carbide
What are n and C?

V1 T1n = C, V2 T 2 n = C
V 1 T 1 n = V2 T 2 n
(T1 / T2 )n = V2 / V1
Then n = log (V2 / V1) / log (T1 / T2)
Or n =[ log (V2) log (V1)] / [log (T1)- log (T2)]

Once we get n, then C = V1 T1n

 n =[ log (V2) log (V1)] / [log (T1)- log (T2)]

T2

T1

C
V2 V1
 Typical Values of n and C

Tool material n C (m/min) C (ft/min)

High speed steel:

Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Non-steel work 0.25 900 2700
Steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000
 Problem 1

A coated carbide cutting tool has 60 min tool life when

cutting mild steel at 1.2 m/s. If Taylors tool-life
exponent is 0.25.
a) find Taylors tool-life constant
b) find the tool life if the cutting speed is doubled.
 Broaching
What is Broaching?
Broaching is a machining operation in which a tool
used is called as broach having series of cutting
teeth.
In this operation broach is either Pulled or Pushed
with the help of broaching machine on the
workpiece surface.
Parts that is produced by the broaching have good
surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
Principle of Broaching
When the broach is fed in a straight line, metal is cut
in several successive layer with the help of
broach.
The thickness of each layer is same and called as
feed per tooth and sum of the thickness of all the
layers is called as depth of cut.
Broach Tool
Broach consist of three sets of cutting teeth. They
are:
Roughing teeth
Semi finishing teeth
Finishing teeth
Broaching tool

35
Broach tool nomencluture
Broaching tool
 It is a multiple tooth
cutting operation with the
tool reciprocating as in
sawing machine.
Machining operation
completed in a single
stroke.
Teeth are at a gradually
increasing height.
Broach are originally
developed for machining
internal keyways.
It is extensively used in
mass automobile
component manufacture
for various other surfaces.
External broaching tool
Broached shapes

Internal holes and other round shapes,

keyways, profiles, gears
Need leading hole to place the pilot
External faces, T-shape, co-planar
surfaces, gears
Holes calibration Broach diameter
slightly bigger than the hole.
Broaching

vertical
horizontal

46
 Horizontal Broaching

Mostly all are pull type.

Both internal and external broaching can be done.
Consists of a box type bed having length is twice the length
of stroke.
All modern machines are provided with hydraulic drive
housed in the bed.
Job located in the adapter which is fitted on front vertical
face.
Small end is connected to hole of the job, then connected
to pulling end which is mounted on front end of ram.
Ram is connected to hydraulic drive.
Rear end is supported by guide.
Horizontal Broaching
-Cutting speed- 4 to 15 mpm.
-Return speed- 35 mpm.
-Automatic stops are provided to control the
stroke of ram.
-Used for small works like key ways splines,
gun barrel
-refilling, cutting internal and external gears
with helix angle less than 150
Vertical broaching
 Applications of broaching

Examples of internal
shapes that can be done
on broaching machine.
Specification of broaching machine
Power of the motor and its speed
Length of bed
Length of slide stroke
Rated pulling force
Cutting stroke speed
Number of speeds
Return stroke speed
Maximum size of cut
Weight of machine
Size and floor area
Broaching process
on a press the tool is pushed
on a broaching machine the tool is
pulled
Using special machine stationary broach
Broaching Machines
Broaching Machines
Mainly broaching machines which are used in the
industries are of following types:-
1. Horizontal Broaching Machine
2. Vertical Pull Type Broaching Machine
3. Continuous Broaching Machine
4. Rotary Table Broaching Machine
5. Surface Broaching Machine
6. Keyway Broaching Machine
Horizontal Broaching Machine
Horizontal Broaching Machines are capable of both
internal and external surfaces.
In operation either workpiece is kept stationery and
broach is fed past or broach is kept stationery and
workpiece is fed past.
This machine has bed similar to the lathe machine.
This machine range from 2 to 60 tones and stroke of
3m for internal broaching machine and for external
broaching machine it ranges upto 100 tones and stroke
of 9m.
Vertical Pull Type Broaching
Machine
This type of machine are available
for both pull up and pull
down type of machine.
This machine is only used for
internal broaching or hole
broaching.
In this machine we can mount
more than one broach.
In the pull down type the
workpiece is mounted on table
and the broach is lowered to
pass its front pilot through the
workpiece.
In the pull up type, the only
difference is that the ram is
provided at the top which will
carry the broach from bottom to
top.
Continuous Broaching Machine
This machine are available both in horizontal and vertical
type.
In this machine the broach remains stationery while the
workpiece moves continuously past.
In this machine the workpiece are fed past on the chain which is
traveling continuously with the help of sprockets on both the
end.
The chain has a series of fixtures which will hold the
workpiece.
In this machine the workpiece is loaded on a side and unloaded
on the other side.
Rotary Table Broaching Machine
This machine is also used as a
Continuous Broaching
Machine.
In this machine a table is
provided which continuously
rotates about a vertical axis.
On this the fixtures are
mounted and broach is held
tightly on broach holder.
The shape of the broach is
same as of the table.
As the table rotates the
workpieces are loaded,
machined and unloaded.
Surface Broaching Machine
In this machine either workpiece or broach moves
across each other.
This machines are generally vertical and hydraulically
operated.
This machine is an alternative to milling machine so
machine fixtures are also used to hold the workpiece.
These machines are used for large quantities of
workpiece having flat surfaces.
Keyway Broaching Machine
This machine is the simplest type of machine and
it can be used for general purpose also.
If multiple keyways or splines are to be cut the
single broach can be used with the workpiece and
indexed after each other.
This machines method is the oldest methods of all.
Advantages of Broaching
Broach has a longer life than other tools.
Broach can perform roughing and finishing
operations.
High skilled operator is not required.
Interchangeable components can be produced
at faster rate.
Disadvantages of Broaching
In this process, all jobs need a fixture.
Sharpening of broach is difficult and expensive.
With the help of broaching, it is difficult to produce
blind holes.
Initial cost of broach and broaching machine is very
high.
Applications of Broaching
Broaching used for producing the variety of
shapes, internal and external, regular and
irregular profiles.
The examples of components produced by
broaching are as follows:
1. Bearing caps
2. Bearing bodies
3. Cylinder blocks
4. Connecting rods
5. Gears and Turbine
6. Keyways
7. Splines