Electromagnetic Radiation

Exhibits both electrical and magnetic properties.

Different forms of electromagnetic radiation are:

radio waves
microwaves
infrared radiation
visible light
ultraviolet light
x-rays
gamma rays

All of these make up the electromagnetic spectrum.

Electromagnetic radiation travels as waves, and at the speed of light.

Wave Properties

Wavelength: Distance between crests.

Frequency: Number of crests or troughs that pass a given point in a specified

period of time (~1 second)

* The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The only part of the spectrum that we can see is called visible.
Wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.7 micrometers are visable.
The spectrum appears white but contains different colors.

Within the visible light:

Violet has the shortest wavelength

Red has the longest wavelength.

Some of the other waves:

Gamma rays-- produced in stars, nuclear power plants

X-Rays-- size of small atoms
Ultraviolet-- size of molecules like ozone
Infrared-- we can't see it, but we can feel the heat that it generates.
 Microwave-- used in radar, radio communication, microwave ovens.

Radiation Laws

1. All objects emit radiation

2. Stefan-Boltzmann Law

- warmer objects radiate more energy. All objects emit radiation at rate
proportional
to the 4th power of their temperature.

E=OT4

E = radiation emitted
O = constant (Stefan-Boltzmann's constant)
T = Temperature (K)

Stefan Boltzmann's Law tells us:

Amount of power emitted by an object is proportional to its temperature.

3. Wien's Displacement Law

The warmer the radiating body, the shorter is the wavelength of maximum
radiation.

Warm objects (sun) emit maximum radiation at short wavelengths (shortwave

radiation).
Cooler objects (earth) emit maximum radiation at longer wavelengths (longwave
radiation).

A = constant / T

A = Wavelength
T = Temperature
Constant - 2897 m * K

Substituting for T for sun and earth:

Sun's surface temperature = 6000K
Earth's surface temperature = 300K

K stands for Kelvin (unit for temperature)

A = constant/T
constant ~ 3000

For sun: A = 3000/6000

A = 0.5 micrometers (visible range)

For earth: A = 3000/300

A = 10 micrometers (infrared range)

4. Good absorbers of radiation are good emitters (Kirchoff's Law).

Blackbody: Is a perfect emitter and absorber . (Term does not refer to color of
object.)
Example: Bright, white snow is nearly a blackbody for IR radiation.

Sun or earth are not perfect blackbodies.

They are perfect radiators and we apply blackbody laws to them.

Selective absorbers and the atmospheric Greenhouse Effect

Absorption characteristics of certain gases in the atmopshere. Most

of the visible radiation is allowed to reach the surface, but a large
part of the Earth's IR rediation is absorbed and hence not allowed
to escape into space.

Greenhouse Gases
Water Vapor (H2O)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Methane
Tropospheric Ozone
Nitrus Oxide
CFCs

H2O and CO2 - are the most prevelant greenhouse gases

The other greenhouse gases have lower concentrations, but some are more
effective greenhouse gases.

Example: Greenhouse effect in the atmostphere:

Compare typical summer weather in the interior U.S. with Gulf of Mexico Coast.
Both areas at the same latitude (get same intensity of solar radiation)
Both areas have afternoon temps of ~86 degrees F.
Incoming solar radiation

Incoming solar radiation reaches the atmosphere without much interference.

Solar energy received on a surface is aproximately at a value of 1367 W/m2
which is called the solar constant.
Solar radiation entering the Earth's atmosphere can be:

Reflected out to space

Scattered
Absorbed

1. Reflected radiation

It is radiation redirected by interacting with a solid surface.

Solar radiation can be reflected from clouds and the surface of the earth.
Reflected solar radiation directs energy away from the earth atmosphere
system.
* Does not heat the earth.
We measure the about of reflected radiation by Albedo.

Albedo
- the amount of radiation a surface reflects

Albedo = Reflected Radiation / Incident Radiation

Albedo for earth (planetary albedo) is 30%. See Table 2.3.

Objects with high albedo appear light (ie. fresh snow, thick clouds).
Object with low albedo appear dark (ie. a forest).

Albedo is dependent on:

cloud cover
angle of sun
type of surface

Fresh snow and thick clouds have high albedos.

Example:

Fresh snow--0.75-0.95
Old Snow--0.40-0.70

2. Scattered Raditation
- scattering of radiation changes the direction of incoming solar radiation.

Scattering is normally considered when radiation interacts with small objects (thins
about the size or smaller than the wavelength of the radiation).

Amount of scattering depends on the wavelength of the radiation.

Molecules scatter the shorter wavelengths (blue and violet) of visible light more
than the longer wavelengths (red and orange).

Emission--All objects warmer than 0K (absolute zero) emit radiation.

Planck's Law--Gives the amount of blackbody monochromatic radiative flux.

Monochromatic (Irradiance)-- Single wavelength.

3. Absorption

Objects absorb radiation

Process of converting radiation into heat
Atmospheric absorbtion of solar radiation is small in cloudless conditions
Gasses in the atmosphere are selective absorbers
meaning they absorb strongly in some wavelengths and not as much in
others.
the atmosphere absorbs more longwave radiation than shortwave radiation

Nitrogen is a poor absorber of solar radiation

Oxygen and ozone are efficient absorbers of solar radiation
Water vapor and CO2 absorb more terrestrial radiation than all other gases.

Radiation Balance (The Earth's annual energy balance)

Earth's average temperature remains approximately constant. Hence there is a

balance between the amount of incoming and outgoing radiation. This is also
called Heat Budget.

Assume 100 units of solar energy reaching the top of the atmosphere:

30% reflected and scattered back to space by:

atmosphere
clouds
 the earth

19% absorbed by clouds and other gases in the atmosphere

51% of direct or indirect (scattered) radiation absorbed by the Earth:

23 units used for evaporation

7 units lost throught conduction and convection
21 units is radiated away as IR radiation

Assume 100 units of outgoing radiation:

64 units of longwave radiation emitted to the space by the atmosphere

Ozone in the Stratosphere

Highest concentration is roughly 25 Km above surface.

Ozone absorbs UV radiation in the stratosphere thus protecting earth from
Ultra Violet radiation
The energy released by the interaction between solar radiation and ozone
increases the temperature in the stratosphere.
Overall temeperatures in the Stratosphere increase with height.
Ozone layer forms as a result of a balance between the formation and
destruction of ozone molecules by UV radiation.

Heat Budget

Balance of incoming and outgoing radiation is the heat budgetof the earth.

Radiation in = Radiation out

Heat budget becomes complex due to some greenhouse gases (water vapor and
CO2).
They absorb a lot of terrestrial radiation and radiate it back to earth.

Outgoing Radiation

1. Reflected radiation lost to space = 30 units

2. Longwave radiation emitted to space by atmosphere = 64 units
3. Longwave radiation where atmosphere is transparent = 6 units
30 + 64 + 6 = 100
 - Six units escape directly into space because water vapor and CO2 do not absorb
radiation between 8 and 11 micrometers .
- This zone is called the Atmospheric Window.

Temperature

Controls of temperature

Factors causing a difference in temperature .

Most important: Differences in amount of incoming solar radiation

(dependent on latitude)
Differences in surface type (heating of land and water)
Ocean currents
Altitude
Geographic position (coast, desert)
Cloud cover and albedo

Surface type (land/water)

- Different surfaces absorb and reflect solar radiation in different ways

- The air temperature is affected distinctly by the type of surface.
- Largest difference is between land and water.
- Land heats faster and to warmer temperatures than water.

Factors contributing to differences between land and water:

- Water is transparent which lets the heat penetrate deeper.

- Water circulates, and with its extensive volume water is less affected as
 the heat can be despersed deep into the water
- Heat in is distributed through water by convection.
- Land surfaces are opague so heat is absorbed only at the surface.
- Specific heat: Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
a substance 1 degree celcius.
- The specific heat of water is greater than the specific heat of land.
- So an area of water needs more heat to raise its temperature one
degree than same land area.

- Evaporation of water molecules from water is greater than land.

- Because evaporation is a cooling process this contributes to the cooler
temperatures directly above the water's surface.

Ocean Currents
- Warm currents transport warmer water toward the pole. (Gulf stream and
Equatorial) .
- Cold currents transport colder water toward the equator. (California
current).
Altitude

- Temperature decreases at 6.5 Co per Km of height in the troposphere.

- Pressure and density decrease with height.
- Less dense air absorbs and reflects less solar radiation and thus doesn't absorb
as much energy.
- Increase in altitude -> increase in insolation (incoming solar radiation).

Geographic Position

Coastal locations experience different temperatures.

Windward coast: Winds blow from ocean to shore (advecting cooler ocean
air inland).
 Leeward coast: Winds blow from land to ocean.
Mountains act as barriers

Cloud cover and albedo

- Clear nights colder than cloudy nights as terestrial raditation is not trapped
or reradiated to the surface by clouds.
- Clouds have a high albedo and thus reflect a large amount of solar radiation
back into space
- This keeps temperatures lower during the daytime.

- Albedo of clouds depends on cloud thickness.

- The thicker the cloud the higher the albedo (the more radiation
reflected back into space)

Daily variations of temperature:

Minimum Temperature: 1/2 hour after Sunrise

Maximum Temperature: 2-5 pm

* Time of maximum daily temperature is not the same as time of maximum

radiation.
- Intensity of solar radiation decreases in the afternoon.
- The incoming solar radiation is still greater than earth's emition of
longwave radiation
- Since solar radiation absorbed is greater than terrestrial radiation
emitted, the surface, and subsequently the air temperature, will increase.

Air is a poor conductor

- The atmosphere is heated by radiation from earth
- More heat is sent to atmosphere than the atmosphere sends to space
 Comfort indexes

1. Windchill: Takes into account windspeed to compute the temperature we

actually feel. (Windchill temperature)
2. Heat index: Takes into account humidity to compute the temperature we
feel (heat stress index)
END OF DATA FOR TEST 1.

Distribution of H2O

Oceanic
Terrestrial
Atmospheric

* Total amount of moisture is constant.

Largest source = Oceans

Oceans 97

Oxygen (more mass) exerts a pull on electrons => more electrons around oxygen.
Electrons have negative charge
Hydrogen side has a positive charge.

Water molecule is polar

Certain substances dissolve in H20, e.g. salt.

Variables for measuring water vapor in air:

- Humidity
- Mixing Ratio
- Vapor Pressure
- Dew Point Temperature
Humidity:

Describes the amount of water vapor in the air.

Several ways of expressing humidity:

1. Relative humidity
2. Absolute humidity
3. Specific humidity

Relative humidity: RH=((Vapor pressure)/(Saturation vapor pressure))*100

Vapor pressure - the partial pressure of water vapor in the air. (e)
partial pressure - the pressure exerted by any one
gas in a mixture.
Saturation vapor pressure - vapor pressure at the point of saturation.(es)
* As temperature increases, saturation vapor pressure increases.

Clausius Clapeyron equation

Relates temperature to saturation vapor pressure

Es = Eo * exp[(L/Rv)*(1/To)-(1/T)]

Eo = 0.611 KPa (Pa = Pascal)

To = 273 K
Rv = 461J*(K-1)*Kg = Gas constant (water vapor)

L = latent heat of evaporation

2.5 * 10^6 * J * (Kg^-1)

Problem: Compute the saturation vapor pressure over liquid water for a
termperature of 21 degress celcius.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated

Saturated air contains as much water vapor as is physically possible.

Saturation is an equilibrium state.
Unsaturated air contains less than the max amount it can contain. (E<Es)

Recall example of container.

- At first air was dry, vapor pressure = 0, so RH = 0%.

- As evaporation started RH increased
- At saturation, RH = 100%.
Dependencies of Relative Humidity

- Amount of water vapor required to saturate the air

- The number above depends on air temperature
- Highest relative humidity occurs around sunrise

Dew Point

Dew point--the temperature air must be cooled to to reach saturation.

Example: If temp = 78 degrees, and dew point = 68 degrees, air would be
saturated if it was cooled 10 degrees.

Mixing Ratio

Mixing Ratio = (mass of water vapor)/(mass of dry air)

* Specific humidity and mixing ratio do not change if the amount(mass) of water
vapor does not change.

Other Variables

- Saturation mixing ratio (denoted as: Ws)

- Precipitable water, total water vapor content in a column of air over a
certain area. (denoted as: W)
- Dew point depression (T-Td) = DD or Tdd

Another form of the clausius clapeyron equation:

Td = [((1/To)*(Rv/L))-ln(e/eo)]-1
L = Lv (For dew point)(2.5*106 J*Kg-1)
T = Td -> Saturation
T-Td = DD (Dew point depression)
(Measure of dryness in the air)

* T can not be less than Td.

If air is cooled below the initial dew point, dew point drops to equal air temp.

The remainder of water condenses as dew, fog, or clouds

Problem:
Given desert conditions with a temperature of 30 degrees C and pressure of
100KPa, find the dew point temperature for a relative humidity of 20%.
T = 30 degrees C
P = 100 KPa
Td = ?
RH = 20%
Section 2
The presence of cloud condensation nuclei makes it possible to have condensation
without relative humdidities over 100 percent.

Fog

Fog is a cloud which has its base at or very close to the ground.

Fog forms by two different processes:

1. Cooling (radiational cooling)
2. Evaporation

1. Fogs formed by cooling:

- Radiation Fog (valley fog)
- Advection fog (San Francisco)

formation
- Air near ground cools to its dew point -> condenses -> formation of fog.

Radiation Fog

Conditions favorable for formation:

clear skies
shallow, moist layer near the surface
light winds.

Dissipation of the fog occurs when the sun warms the ground, evaporating the fog
from the surface (cloud base) up.

Advection Fog

Conditions favorable for formation:

warm moist air moving over a cold surface.

surface must be sufficiently cooler than the air passing over.

- Involves movement of the air

- Common in the winter in southern and central United States
- Best example of advection fog is during along the US pacific coast during the
summer (ie. San Francisco)
- Usually a thick fog

Evaporation Fog

Coditions favorable for formation:

Cold air moving over warm water

- Saturation is reached due to addition of water vapor into the air.

(usually achieved by mixing of warm moist air with colder dry air)
- this type of evaporation fog is known as steam fog.

Evaporation of a "warm" rain falling through a cold moist layer of air.

- associated with an overrunning (warm moist air moving over cold air)
precipitation event
- this type of evaporation fog is known as frontal fog.

Upslope Fog

- A type of fog NOT formed by the other two processes

- forms along a hill or mountain

- when cool moist air rises, expands and cools, it can form fog.
- these fogs can persist for days, and are common on the east side of the
Rockies

Foggiest Spot:
Cape Dissappointment, Washington ~2556 hours of fog per year.

Three regions with most foggy days:

1. Pacific Coast States
2. Appalachian Region
3. New England

Dew

Formation:

clear night
objects near ground cool to dew point
 dew forms on surfaces of leaves, grass and other inanimate objects (water
vapor condenses on to them)

Frost

Formation:

cold clear night (surface temperatures fall to 32o or less)

dew point is below freezing too

Satellites

1. Polar orbiting
2. Geostationary (orbit the earth at the equator)

Polar Orbiters

Circle the Earth in orbits carying them over both poles.

As the Earth rotates below them, they scan the entire globe (one strip at a
time)
U.S. normally maintains 2 polar orbiter satellites.
They maintain a sunsynchronous orbit (always picturing the sunny side of
the earth)

Geostationary

Are in orbits directly over the equator remaining stationary over the same
spot on the Earth
Speed of the satellite is same as the rotation of the Earth, in other words the
satellite has the same angular velocity as the Earth
Also known as GOES (Geostationary Operational Enviromental
Satellite)Several GOES satellites are launched by different countries.
The U.S. receives most of its coverage from GOES 8 and GOES 10.
Geosynchronous orbit

Sensors

Two main types:

1. Visible
2. IR (infrared)
- on some satellites there might also be a microwave and water vapor
sensor

1. Visible
 Visible image is a result of reflected sunlight
Can only get these images during the day
Space will look black
Clouds look bright white
Water and most land looks dark, however, snow cover can be deliniated
with a images from a visible satellite as the land is a lighter shade
Sunset-sunrise line is called the terminatord

2. Infrared

- Recall first radiation law: (any object with a temp > 0K radiates energy)

Satellite measures radiation emitted/reflected from the surface of the Earth

and cloud tops
Space is white (cold)
High/deep, cold clouds are white
Low clouds are grey, and are sometimes low enough and warm enough not
to be detected by infared (ie. fog)
Enhancement techniques are used to provide a better image
Shades of gray are assigned to specific temperatures.

Information provided from satellites

Observe clouds
Earth atmosphere energy budget
provide profiles of temperature and moisture (are used in models for
forecasting)
Vertical profiles of other gases in the atmosphere (i.e. oxygen)
Ozone in the stratosphere / temps in the stratosphere
Sea surface temperatures
Distribution of water vapor in the atmosphere
Monitoring of storms (movement)

Stability

Stability of a parcel is determined by comparing the temperature of that parcel with

the temperature of the surrounding enviroment.
 - If a parcel of air is colder than its enviroment
- the air parcel is more dense than the surrounding environment and will
return to a layer where the temperature of the surrounding environment is similar
- describes a stable air parcel
- Stable air does not allow much vertical movement.

- If a parcel of air is warmer than its enviroment

- the air parcel is less dense than the surrounding environment and
will rise
- describes a unstable air parcel

Environmental lapse rate - Actual change in air temperature with increasing

height

Inversion - A stable condition in which the temperature in a layer increases with

height.

Adiabatic process - when a parcel of air expands and cools, or compresses and
warms, with no interchange of heat with the surrounding environment

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

- Change in the temperature of an unsaturated air parcel when displaced
vertically. (10 degrees C/Km)

Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate

- Change in the temperature of a saturated parcel when displaced vertically.
(varies: 5-9 degrees C/Km)
- Parcel becomes saturated when the temperature of the parcel cools to the
dew point of the parcel and the water vapor condensates
- This point where condensation begins is called the Lifing condensation level
.
- If the parcel continues to rise beyond this point it cools at the moist
adiabatic lapse rate

Enviroment Lapse rate varies

by latitude
altitude
longitude. Season to season

* Can change fromday to day

Types of stability

Absolute stability
 - Enviromental lapse rate < moist adiabatic lapse rate
- Absolute stable conditions represent an inversion.

Stability can be a result of:

- Radiational cooling at the surface allows an inversion to form (warmer

air aloft)
- Advection of cold air at the surface
- Air aloft moving over a cold surface

Absolute Instability

- Enviromental lapse rate > Dry adiabatic lapse rate

- A rising parcel of air will continue to rise
- The environmental lapse rate is steep, as it must be greater than
o
10 C/1000m

Conditional Instability

- Environmental lapse rate > Moist adiabatic lapse rate : and :

Environmental lapse rate < Dry adiabatic lapse rate
- In other words the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and
dry adiabatic lapse rates

- Conditional instability depends on whether or not parcel is saturated

- Thus the atmosphere is stable when the rising parcel is unsaturated , but the
atmosphere is unsable when the rising parcel is saturated
- The atmosphere is usually in a state of conditionally instablility
- The average enviromental lapse rate is ~6.5 degrees C / 1 Km which lies
between the dry and moist adiabatic lapse rates

Instability can be a result of:

- Intense solar heating of the surface

- Heating of an air mass from below as it goes over a warm area
- Influx of warm air at surface, ie. warm air advection
- Cooling an air mass aloft through cold air advection
- Any factor that warms air near the surface in relation to the air aloft
makes for an unstabe atmosphere
- Also any factor that cools the air aloft in relation to the air at the
surface makes for an unstable atmosphere
 Mixing
- A parcel of air is lifted (cooling adiabatically) to a certain level, where
it displaces a different parcel of air which
is transported to the surface (warming adiabatically) This process
of mixing the atmosphere eventually warms
the surface and cools the air aloft, thus steepening the
environmental lapse rate

Lifting a layer of air

- Lifting a layer of air (ex. 1000-900mb layer) the top of the layer
(900mb) cools more than the bottom of the layer (1000mb) thus making the layer
more unstable.

Stratospheric Inversion

- An inversion is present in the stratosphere

- A thunderstorms growth is capped once it reaches the stratosphere .
- Strong thunderstorms can break the cap producing an overshooting top.

STABILITY REVIEW

Stable Atmosphere

Resists upward and downward motions of air

Enviromental Lapse Rate < dry adiabatic LR
Enviroment is always warmer than the parcel.

Unstable Atmosphere

Does not resist upward and downward motions

Enviromental lapse rate > dry adiabatic LR
Warm and Humid air near the ground, with cold air at the upper levels

CLOUDS

Typical diameters:
 Condensation Nuclei 0.00002cm
Cloud droplet 0.002cm
Rain drop 0.2cm

Terminology

Precipitation: Liquid or ice particles falling to the ground.

Hydrometeors -particals of all sizes (from cloud droplets to hail)

Nucleation -- Formation of hydrometeors from vapor.

Diffusion-- Water vapor looking fora hydrometeor to condense onto.
Collision -- Two hydrometeors collide to combine into a larger particle.

Nucleation
If a cloud drop is in equilibrium with the surroundings than the droplet size
remains the same (the amount of evaporation = the amount of condensation)
If a cloud drop is not in equilibrium with the surroundings than the droplet
size will increase or decrease in order to come to a state of equilibrium.
(Evaporation < Condensation) or (Evaporation > Condensation)

Cloud Condensation Nuclei

Necessary for cloud Formation
Tiny solid and liquid particles
Product of human and natural activity

Forest fires
volcanoes
Wind Erosin of soil
Salt water spray
Discharge from chimneys

Two factors affect evaporation

1. Droplet curvature
2. Chemical composition

Droplet Curvature
Curvature effect refers to the greater vapor pressure needed to keep a drop
from evaporating (keep the drop in equilibrium).

Vapor Pressure - the pressure exerted by the water vapor molecules on a

column of air
Saturation Vapor Pressure -
 - to keep a droplet in equilibrium, numerous vapor molecules surround the
droplet in order to replace the molecules evaporating from the droplets surface.
- a large number of water vapor molecules means a high saturation vapor
pressure which is needed to keep a droplet in equilibrium
- in order to keep a drop in equilibrium the air must be supersaturated
(maintaining a relative humidity above 100%)

Water vapor molecules are not as strongly attached to a curved H2O surface.
Evaporation is more rapid
Smaller cloud drop have greater curvature -> more rapid evaporation
* This is called the curvature effect
Saturation vapor pressure is a function of temperature.

How high does the RH have to be to keep a droplet in equilibrium with the
enviroment?

Fig. 8-3 page 193

Note:

For droplets size < 2 um, RH > 100.1%

But RH rarely ever is > 100%
How do cloud droplets become larger?

2. Solute effect

Condensation happens on cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)

Most are hygroscopic (like water)
Condensation begins when RH < 100%
Solutions have less evaporation than pure water.
Solutions occur when condensation occurs on impurities such as CCN
Since condensation is too slow to produce rain (would take days to produce
raindrops from cloud drops)
How do some clouds produce rain in about 20 minutes?

Two Processs:
1.Collision and coalescence
2. Bergeron process (Ice crystal process--takes place in cold clouds)

Collision and coalescence

Happens in warm clouds (warm clouds have temperatures above freezing)

Need droplets of different sizes
Larger droplets are heavier
 Heavier drops fall faster
When cloud droplets fall, air resistance affects the falling drop.
Air resistance depends on:

1. Size of the drop

2. Rate of fall

Greater speed -> more molecules are encountered

Speed increases until droplet reaches its terminal velocity
Speed of a falling cloud droplet or ice crystal depends on:

1. Force of gravity
2. An opposing force caused by air resistance

When the resisting force balances the force of gravity, particle falls down at
a constant speed (terminal velocity)
Larger particles have a smaller surface are to weight ration, so they need to
fall faster before they reach their terminal velocity -> Larger drops fall faster
than smaller drops.
Need droplets of different sizes
Larger droplets are heavier
Heavier ones fall faster
Coalesce with smaller droplets
Finally grow large enough to fall from cloud to earth as precipitation.

Important points on coalecence

Takes place in warm clouds

Need different droplet sizes
Still need good liquid water content
Updrafts in the cloud
Electrical charges

Pressure

Definition: Force exerted against a surface by the collision of gas molecules.

Equation of state (gas law)

Describes the relationship between pressure, density, and temperature.

Pressure = Temperature * Density * Constant
Constant = gas constant -- also shown as R (287J/KgK)

Highest pressures are recorded in winter when temperatures are lowest.

Reason:

Air pressure is proportional to both density and temperature.

On cold days, air molecules are closer together (higher density).
Decrease in motion of molecules (because of lower temps) is offset by
higher density.
* Low temps -> greater density -> greater pressure

Pressure Measured in:

Millibar (mb) -- Average range is from 950 mb to 1050 mb.

Pascal (1 mb = 100 pascals)

Two types of pressure variation:

1. Vertical
2. Horizontal

1. Vertical
Presure decreases with height.

2.Horizontal
Important for weather
Drives the wind

Reduction to sea-level pressure

Sea-level pressure = 1013.25 mb mb=millibars

Accounts for the vertical changes in pressure, so we can examine the horizontal
variations of pressure.

Wind is important for:

1. Moves storms/weather systems
2. Transports heat
3. Transports moisture, dust, and pollens

Wind

Results of horizontal difference in air pressure.

Hydrostatic Equilibrium-- PGF balanced by gravity.

Wind is controlled by:

1. Presure gradient force
2. Coriolis force
3. Friction
4. Centripetal force
1. Pressure gradient force

Arises from differences in pressure

Spacing of isobars tells you:

Amount of pressure change over a distance

Light or strong winds

Isobars -- lines of constant pressure

Isobars are drawn every 4 mb.
With isobars, we can identify patters of high and low.

Closely spaced isobars -> Steep pressuer gradient -> Strong winds
Widely spaced isobars -> weak pressure gradient -> light winds

2. Coriolis Force
You need a moving object for the Coriolis force to occur.

Is is a result of the Earth's rotation.

NH - deflected to right
SH - deflected to left

Deflection Depends on:

1. Rotation of the earth
2. Latitude increases with increasing latitude
3. Object's speed

-->

Conservation of Angular momentum

Air parcel moving away from the equator moves closer to the earths axis of
rotation so speed will increase. Air moving north from the qeuator moves faster
and becomes westward.

Jet max (streak) forms in trough of jet (due to tight presure gradient)
Curving of jet and change of wind speeds around jet max
Regions of strong convergence/divergence
Polar jet is strongest and moves farther south in winter

Relationship between highs and lows and the jet stream.

Recall:
 Winds converge around a low presssure system.
Divergence at the uper levels.
Jet stream plays a role in creating upper level convergence or divergence.

Observations of jet stream:

Jet flows in a curved pattern, high and low pressure systems are stronger.
Highs and lows are weaker.

Curved jet -> more upper air divergence or convergence.

El Nino happens every year. But major events only happen ever 3-7 years.
Pressure over Easter Pacific changes, thus weakens trade winds.
A normal El Nino event only lasts a few weeks.
A major El Nino even lasts for several months.

Strongest El nino Events

1982, 1998

Trades are responsible for El Nino (Not the only cause--exact causes are still
unknown).
Trades blow westward from a region of high presure to low pressure.

Air Masses

Air mass: A large body of air with relatively the same temperature and moisture.

Source of heat and moisture in the troposphere: The Earth's Surface

Air staying over a certain area can adopt the temperature and moisture qualities of
that area.

These regions are called Source Regions

A source region is:
1. Large (> 100,000 Km^2)
2. Little change in topography

If air sits over this source region, it takes the region's temperature and moisture
characteristics.

Heat and moisture are mixed by radiation and mixing.

Two things needed for air mass formation:

1. Source region
2. Circulation - Air mass needs a good air flow pattern to keep the air within the
source region.

Air mass classification:

Classified based on geographic source region

Classification by letter:
1. Moisture
A. Continental (c) - Dry (from land)
B. Maritime (m) - moist (from ocean)

2. Temperature
a. Tropical (T) - warm to hot
b. Polar (P) - cool to cold
c. Arctic/Antartic (A) - cold to very cold

Major Types:
1. Continental polar (cP) cold, dry, stable
Source regions: Cold, dry places (e.g. NW Canada)

2. Maritime polar (mP)

cool, moist, almost stable
Source regions: NE Pacific Ocean, Western Atlantic

3. Maritime Tropical (mT)

Warm, moist, unstable
Source regions: Gulf of Mexico, e.g. provides precipitation for easter U.S.

4. Continental Tropical (cT)

Hot, dry, stable
Source Regions: desert regions of Horse latitude, SW U.S./Mexico

5. Continental Arctic (cA)

Very cold, dry, stable
Source regions: snow/ice covered regions of siberia and Northern Canada

cP: Moves S and SE of US

In winter: Can move as far south as the Gulf Of Mexico
In summer: only moves into the central plains
* Brings relief from heat and humidity!

mP: Also SE
mT: Moves north and northeast
In summer: Warm, humid air pushed into the foothills of the Rockies
In Winter: Only Gulf coast states

cT: Tends to be stationary

Expands and contracts during summer months.

cA: moves South

Tends to lose its characterisitcs
Exampe: If it moves over the Hudson Bay, will warm and pick up moisture.

Upper level divergence -> surface convergence -> sfc pressure drops -> low
intensifies.

Distance from trough to trough is longwave.

Normally 4-6 longwaves going around the Earth.

About 4,000 to 8,000 km

Also known as Rossby waves.
Normally move eastward very slowly, or remain stationary. May even move
westward (retorgrade)

Zonal - Small north to south extent

Meridional - Large North to South extent

Barotropic - Isotherms parallel to contour lines.

Baroclinic - Isotherms cross contour lines (area between pts 1 and 3 on
fig 13.7)
**Shortwaves disturb the flow and make the baroclinicity stronger.

For a storm to get stronger, you need:

1. Upper level support
2. Short waves
3. Jet

* Upper level divergence is very important for the growth of the storm.
Therefore, you need to know areas of divergence on upper-level charts.

Difficult to measure with upper-level winds.

* We use vorticity
Vorticity - measure of the spin in the atmostphere
Viewed from above, air spinning cyclonically (counterclockwise) has
positive vorticity.
Earth has vorticity = planetary vorticity.
* Always positive (earth spins CCW about its vertical axis)
* Earth's vorticity is a function of latitude

Vorticity increaes from 0 at the equator to a maximum at the poles.

-At the pole, local vertical is the same as earth's axis of rotation. Air
parcels rotate about the local vertical.
-At the equator, local vertical is perpendicular to earth's axis of
rotation. Air parcels do not rotate about the local vertical.

Example:
Ferris Wheel
Equator is the Ferris Wheel.
Parcel of air is a seat.
Seat rotates around the axis of rotation of the wheel -- not the local
vertical.

Moving air also has vorticity in addition to the Earth's vorticity.

This vorticity is calld Relative vorticity.

Around low pressure system:

Counterclockwise circulation
Positive relative vorticity
*Cyclonic circulation

Earth vorticity + Relative vorticity -> Absolute vorticity

(2 ohm sin theta)

Absolute vorticity is positive most of the time (in middle and high
latitudes of northern hemisphere)

Relationship between vorticity and convergence/divergence:

Increase in vorticity -> Convergence
Decrease in vorticity -> Divergence

(Change in absolute vorticity) / (change in time) = divergence

(-)divergence = convergence

Thunderstorms

Thunderstorm: storm containing lightning and thunder.

* At any time, about 2000 thunerstorms are happening. Mostly in tropical and
subtropical regions.
 Thunderstorm is a mesoscale weather system
Affects a small area
Short-lived
Storm may be a single cumulonimbus cloud or a line or cluster of clouds
(can extend to 62 miles!!)

Air moving upward could be due to:

1. Unequal heating of the surface

2. efffect of terrain
3. lifting of warm air along a frontal zone
4. divergence of upper level winds

Air flow associated with thunderstorm is associated with thunderstorm is

associated with strong up and down movement.

Thunderstorms require:

Warm, moist air

When lifted--releases heat to maintain upward
Scattered thunderstorms forming in summer are air-mass thunderstorms
They develop in warm maritime tropical air masses away from weather
fronts.
They are short-lived
They rarely produce strong winds and hail.
In the mid-latitudes, air mass T-sorms is mainly a summer event.

Stages in the development

1. Cumulus stage
2. mature stage
3. Dissipating stage

1. Cumulus stage

Humid air rises and cools

Condenses into a single cumulus cloud or cluster of clouds.

At first cumulus colouds grow upward a short distance and then dissipate.

Reason: Cloud droplets evaporate as the drier air around the cloud mixes with it.

After drops evaporate, air is more moist, so risiting air can condense at higher
levels.
Cumulus cloud grows taller.

Rising air can't keep these large and heavy particles suspendd.

As these particles fall they drag air with them.

This leads to downdrafts in the could.

Downdraft gets stronger as drier air is drawn into the cloud causing some raindrops
to evaporate. (cooling)

The appearance of downdrafts marks the beginning of:

----------

Hurricanes

Cyclone originating over tropical oceans

Late summer or early fall
Called a hurricane when max wind speed is greater than 74 MPH
Winds in very strong hurricanes can be greater than 155 MPH!
They are not associated with fronts.
They form in a uniform mass of very humid and warm air.
The minimum latitude for hurricane formation is ~4degrees.
Normally hurricanes form in tropical regions between 5 and 20 degree
latitudes

Major hurricane forming areas:

1. Western tropical North Pacific

2. South Indian Ocean
3. North Indian Ocean
4. Tropical waters next to Australia
5. Pacific Ocean west of Mexico
6. Tropical North Atlantic (west of west coast of Africa)

Huricane Formation

Two conditions must be met:

1. Very warm surface over ocean water.

Requires a sea-surface temperature of at least 26.5 degrees C (80 degrees F)

This temperature must be through a depth of 60m (200ft) or more
 Temperature of the water is important since it controls the rate of
evaporation of water.
The higher the sea-surface temperature the greater is the supply of heat in
the storm system
This is why when it moves over colder water or land, loses source of energy
and dies.
These conditions for water temperature are met over the tropical and
subtropical North Atlantic and North Pacific oveans in Summer and early
Fall.

Hurricane Season: June-November

2. Significant Coriolis Force

Recall that the coriolis effect weakens toward lower latitudes and is zero at
the equator
We need the influence of the Earth's rotation to be strong enough to sustain
a cyclonic circulation.

Structure of a hurricane:

Low pressure system

Weakens with altitude (~9800 feet)
In the center is an area of cloudless skies, sinking air, and light winds (less
that 25 km/h)
* This is called the eye
The eye shrinks in diameter as the huricane intensifies.
It may take almost an hour for the eye to pass over a location.
The eye is surrounded by the eye wall.
Eye wall is a ring of cumulonimbus clouds which produce:

* Heavy Rains
* Very strong winds (~100-115 knots)

The most dangerous and destruction part of the hurricane is near the eye on
the side where the wind blows in the same direction as the storm's forward
motion.
Cloud bands, strong winds, and heavy showers spiral inward to the eye wall.

Ref: http://www.atmos.millersville.edu/~syalda/met241web.html