Math 103A Homework 4 Solutions

7.1 Check that the numbers 1,2,4,5,7,8 form a group under multiplication mod 9 and show that
this group is isomorphic to Z6 .
Solution. One can, of course, prove that {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8} forms a group under multiplication mod 9
using a table (to show closure under the operation 9 , and the existence of an identity and inverses)
along with exercise 3.5 (associativity of 9 ). However, we will prove something more general, and
then specialize our result to the case given in the problem. Namely, we will prove:

Claim. Let nZ with n2 and let (Zn ) = {a {0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1}| gcd(a, n) = 1}. Then (Zn )
is a group under the operation n (as dened in chapter 3).

Proof. Let a, b (Zn ) , so gcd(a, n) = gcd(b, n) = 1. We want to show that gcd(an b, n) = 1 as well,

so that a n b (Zn ) . For notational simplicity, set r = a n b, and recall that r {0, 1, 2 . . . , n 1}
and there exists q Z such that ab = nq + r . Suppose, by way of contradiction, that gcd(r, n) 6= 1,
so there exists a prime p which is a common divisor of r and n. Since p | r and p | n, we get
that p | (nq + r) = ab. The fact that p | ab implies that p | a or p | b (by the same theorem used
in the solution to problem 3.9), which, since p|n as well, implies that either gcd(a, n) p > 1 or
gcd(b, n) p > 1, a contradiction. Hence, gcd(r, n) = 1. Thus, a n b = r (Zn ) . This shows that
(Zn ) is closed under n .

By problem 3.5, we know that n is associative. Also, 1 (Zn ) since gcd(1, n) = 1 and clearly

1 n a = a n 1 = a for all a (Zn ) . Finally, let b (Zn ) be given. Since gcd(b, n) = 1, by the
Euclidean algorithm, there exists s, t Z such that 1 = sb + tn. Then sb 1 mod n. If we let
r {0, 1, 2 . . . , n 1} be such that s r mod n then rb 1 mod n, so r n b = 1. Furthermore, since
rb 1 mod n, we see that gcd(rb, n) = 1, which implies that gcd(r, n) = 1 (any common divisor of
r and n is also a common divisor of rb and n), so r (Zn ) . This shows that r is the inverse of b

in (Zn ) . Thus, (Zn ) is a group.

In our case, we get that (Z9 ) = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8} is a group under the operation 9 . Note that
(Z9 ) = h2i. We can dene a function : (Z9 ) Z6 by (2m ) = m for m {0, 1, 2 . . . , 5} (this
is example (iv) in chapter 7, but the author omits some of the details, so we will include all of the
details here). Then is surjective by denition, and therefore is injective as well since its domain
and codomain are nite sets of the same cardinality. Finally, suppose that a, b {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8},
m n
so a = 2 and b = 2 for some m, n {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. If m + n < 6, then m +6 n = m + n
m+n
so certainly 2 = 2m+6 n . On the other hand, if m + n 6, then m +6 n = m + n 6, so
2m+n = 2m+6 n+6 = 2m+6 n 26 = 2m+6 n (since 26 = 1). Hence, in both cases,

(a 9 b) = (2m 9 2n ) = (2m+n ) = (2m+6 n ) = m +6 n = (2m ) +6 (2n ) = (a) +6 (b).

Thus, is an isomorphism.

7.4 Produce a specic isomorphism between S3 and D3 . How many dierent isomorphisms are
there from S3 to D3 ?

1
Solution. Let D3 = {e, r, r2 , s, rs, r2 s} be the usual presentation of D3 (so r3 = s2 = e, and
2
rs = sr ). Dene a function : D3 S3 by

(e) = id
(r) = (1 2 3)
(r2 ) = (1 3 2)
(s) = (2 3)
(rs) = (1 2)
(r2 s) = (1 3)
Note that this function is obtained geometrically by labelling the vertices an equilateral triangle
like so:

3 2

where s is reection over the dotted axis, and r is a clockwise rotation by 2/3 radians. If we
map each element of D3 to the permutation it induces on the vertices (for example r maps vertex
1 to vertex 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 1, so it corresponds to the permutation (1 2 3)), then we get
precisely the function a, b D3 then
above. From this geometric description, it is clear that if
(ab) = (a)(b). For an algebraic proof of the fact that (ab) = (a)(b) for each a, b D3 , one
could write the multiplication tables for D3 and S3 and see that turns the table for D3 into the
table for S3 . It is also clear that is a bijection and therefore it is an isomorphism.
Note that we can repeat the above process with a dierent labelling of the vertices of the triangle
(while r and s remain the same) and we will get another isomorphism. This gives 6 isomorphisms
(since there are 6 possible labellings of the vertices) from D3 to S3 and we claim that these are
all the isomorphisms. We will show this by showing that there are at most 6 isomorphisms from
D3 to S3 . Suppose : D3 S3 is an isomorphism. Recall that an isomorphism must preserve
the order of elements of the group (see the bottom of page 35 of the textbook). This tells us
that (r) {(1 2 3), (1 3 2)} and (s) {(1 2), (1 3), (2 3)}. Thus, there are 6 possibilities for pairs
((r), (s)). The following claim will tell us that this implies that there are at most 6 isomorphisms
from D3 to S3 :

Claim. Let G be a group. Then any ismorphism from D3 to G is determined by where it sends
r and s, i.e. if 1 , 2 : D3 G are isomorphisms with 1 (r) = 2 (r) and 1 (s) = 2 (s), then
1 = 2 .
Proof. We need to show that 1 (x) = 2 (x) for all x D3 . By hypothesis, 1 (r) = 2 (r) and
1 (s) = 2 (s). Also,

1 (e) = eG = 2 (e)
1 (r2 ) = 1 (r)1 (r) = 2 (r)2 (r) = 2 (r2 )
1 (rs) = 1 (r)1 (s) = 2 (r)2 (s) = 2 (rs)
(r2 s) = 1 (r)1 (r)1 (s) = 2 (r)2 (r)2 (s) = 2 (r2 s).

2
Hence, 1 = 2 .
By the above claim, there are at most 6 isomorphisms from D3 to S3 . Since we have already
exhibited 6 isomorphisms, it follows that these are the only isomorphisms from D3 to S3 .

Remark. The proof of the above claim can be used to prove the following: If G1 , G2 are groups and
G1 = hXi for some X G, then any isomorphism from G1 to G2 is determined by where it sends
the elements of X. See problem 7.9 for the case where X is a single element.

7.8 Call HG a proper subgroup of G if H 6= {e} and H 6= G. Find a group which is isomorphic
to one of its proper subgroups.

Solution. We claim that Z is isomorphic to its proper subgroup 2Z = {2n|n Z} via the function
: Z 2Z dened by (n) = 2n. First, note that for n, m Z, we have (n + m) = 2(n + m) =
2n + 2m = (n) + (m).
Next, note that is injective since if n, m Z and (n) = (m), i.e. 2n = 2m, then n = m by
usual multiplicative cancellation of the nonzero real number 2. Hence, is injective. Finally, is
clearly surjective by denition of 2Z, so is an isomorphism.

7.9 Suppose G is a cyclic group. If x generates G, and if : G G is an isomorphism, prove

that is completely determined by (x) and that (x) also generates G. Use these facts to nd
all isomorphisms from Z to Z, and all isomorphisms from Z12 to Z12 .

Solution. By saying that an isomorphism from G G is determined by where is sends x (where

G = hxi), 1 , 2 : G G are isomorphisms with 1 (x) = 2 (x), then 1 = 2 .
we mean that if
So suppose that 1 , 2 : G G are two isomorphisms with 1 (x) = 2 (x). Let g G. Then
g = xn for some n Z. Then

1 (g) = 1 (xn ) = (1 (x))n = (2 (x))n = 2 (xn ) = 2 (g)

(We used the fact that 1 (xn ) = (1 (x))n , which you can prove as an exercise using the facts that
1 1 2 2
1 (x ) = 1 (x) and 1 (x ) = (1 (x)) along with induction). This shows that 1 = 2 .

Now, suppose : G G is an isomorphism. Let g G be given. Then g = (h) for some

h G. Since G = hxi, we get that h = xn for some n Z. Hence,

g = (h) = (xn ) = ((x))n .

This shows that G = h(x)i.

Now, we will determine all isomorphisms from Z Z. From the above work, we know that
if : Z Z is an isomorphism then (1) must be a generator of Z, so (1) {1, 1}. Since
any isomorphism : Z Z is determined by (1), it follows that there are at most 2 such
isomorphisms. It is unclear, however, that the functions we get by setting (1) = 1 or (1) = 1
are actually isomorphisms, so we will check this. First, the function 1 : Z Z given by (n) = n

3
(i.e. 1 1 (1) = 1) is simply the identity function which is an isomorphism. Similarly,
satises
the function 1 : Z Z dened by 1 (n) = n (so 1 (1) = 1) is clearly a bijection, and
1 (n+m) = (n+m) = n+(m) = 1 (n)+1 (m) for any n, m Z, so is an isomorphism.
Hence, there are exactly 2 isomorphisms from Z to Z (given by 1 and 1 above).

Now, we will determine all isomorphisms from Z12 to Z12 . Again, we know that if : Z12 Z12
is an isomorphism, then (1) must be a generator of Z12 . The generators of Z12 are 1, 5, 7, and 11
n
(it is a good exercise to prove that the order of an element m Zn is
gcd(n,m) , so the generators
of Z12 are those elements that are coprime to 12). Hence, we have 4 possible isomorphisms. We
need to check that all these functions are actually isomorphisms. We will do one case; the rest are
similar.
Suppose that we want to try to dene an isomorphism : Z12 Z12 with (1) = 5. If we want
to be an isomorphism, then we should have, for each n Z12 ,

(n) = (1 +12 1 +12 +12 1) = (1) +12 (1) +12 +12 (1) = 5 +12 5 +12 + +12 5
| {z } | {z } | {z }
n times n times n times

Thus, we have a denition for as a function; we now need to show it is an isomorphism. For
n, m Z12 , we have

(n +12 m) = 5 +12 5 +12 + +12 5 = 5 +12 5 +12 + +12 5

| {z } | {z }
n+12 m times n+m times

= 5 +12 5 +12 + +12 5 +12 5 +12 5 +12 + +12 5

| {z } | {z }
n times m times
= (n) +12 (m)

Now, we will show that is surjective. Letm Z12 . Since h5i = Z12 , we know there exists n Z
with 0 n 11 such that n 5 = 5 +12 5 +12 + +12 5 = m, i.e. (n) = m. This shows that is
| {z }
n times
surjective, and since the domain and codomain of are nite sets of equal cardinality, this implies
that is injective as well. Hence, is an isomorphism.

8.6 Carry out the procedure of Cayley's Theorem to obtain a subgroup of S6 which is isomorphic
to D3 .
Solution. We can number the elements of D3 in the order e, r, r2 , s, rs, r2 s
(i.e. e is numbered with
1,r with 2, etc.) (there is nothing special about this particular numbering, any one will do). Let
Lr : D3 D3 denote the left multiplication by r map (i.e. Lr (x) = rx for any x D3 ). We can

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compute

Lr (e) = r
Lr (r) = r2
Lr (r2 ) = e
Lr (s) = rs
Lr (rs) = r2 s
Lr (r2 s) = s

Under the numbering we dened above, this corresponds to the permutation (1 2 3)(4 5 6). We can
do the same process with the other elements of D3 to dene a function : D3 S6 by

(e) = id
(r) = (1 2 3)(4 5 6)
(r2 ) = (1 3 2)(4 6 5)
(s) = (1 4)(2 6)(3 5)
(rs) = (1 5)(2 4)(3 6)
(r2 s) = (1 6)(2 5)(3 4).

This gives an isomorphism between D3 and the subgroup

{id, (1 2 3)(4 5 6), (1 3 2)(4 6 5), (1 4)(2 6)(3 5), (1 5)(2 4)(3 6), (1 6)(2 5)(3 4)}

of S6 .

Remark. What is really going on here is the following: Cayley's theorem gives an isomorphism
: D3 H , where H is a subgroup of SD3 . Using the function f : D3 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
2 2
dened by f (e) = 1, f (r) = 2, f (r ) = 3, f (s) = 4, f (rs) = 5, f (r s) = 6 (f corresponds to the
numbering of the elements of D3 that we chose), we can dene an isomorphism f : SD3 S6 by
f () = f f 1 (Exercise: prove that f is an isomorphism). Under the isomorphism f , H
corresponds to a subgroup of S6 , namely f (H), and this is the subgroup we found above (and our
f
function is the composition D3 H f (H)).

8.7 Show that Cayley's Theorem, when applied to R, produces the subgroup of SR which contains
all translations of the real line.

Solution. Cayley's Theorem applied to R gives an isomorphism : R H , where H is the subset

{Lx |x R} of SR , and is dened by (x) = Lx . A translation of the real line is a function
f : R R such that there is a xed x R such that f (y) = x + y for all y R. These are precisely
the functions of the form Lx for some x R, so H is precisely the subgroup of translations of R.