SeismicFaciesAnalysis

A seismic facies is a three-dimensional unit of reflections whose

characteristics differ in some respects from adjacent reflections. Seismic
facies distinctions are often used, in addition to unconformities, to define
seismic sequence units. Thus the terms "seismic sequence" and "seismic
facies unit" are sometimes used interchangeably. However, we should try to
distinguish between them. As previously mentioned, a seismic sequence is a
package of reflections resulting from sediments deposited within a time-
stratigraphic depositional unit, whereas a seismic facies describes the
character and configuration of seismic reflections resulting from the
depositional environment. A seismic facies is thus the sonic response to a
lithofacies.

Factors that distinguish one seismic facies from another include reflection
configuration, continuity, and amplitude, as well as the geometry of the
reflection package (sequence unit). One type of internal configuration
particularly useful in environmental reconstruction involves progradation
(outbuilding) and can be divided into two classes, oblique and sigmoid
( Figure 4 , Sigmoid and oblique progradational types).

Figure 4

Oblique progradational units are characterized by toplap or angularity at the

upper boundary of the sequence. This type of configuration implies high-
energy depositional conditions, for example, at the front of a prograding delta.
A fairly clean sand can thus be anticipated at the top of oblique patterns.
Sigmoid progradational units are distinguished by flattened S-shaped
reflections indicative of upbuilding as well as outbuilding of the sedimentary
prism. Here, deposition usually takes place in quiet, deep water and sediments
are usually fine grained. A prograding carbonate shelf typically generates this
type of reflection pattern.

Reflection amplitude and reflection continuity are also particularly useful in

environmental diagnosis. High amplitude reflections with good lateral
continuity characterize sediments deposited in quiet water conditions, e.g.,
interbedded marine limestones and shale. ( Figure 5 , The strength and
excellent continuity of reflection B suggest the contact between a shale and a
limestone, both deposited under low-energy conditions.)

Figure 5

High amplitude reflections with poor continuity imply continental deposition,

e.g., inter-bedded channel sands and shales ( Figure 6 , In the absence of
tectonic complications, poor continuity suggests nonmarine sediments).
 Figure 6

Shales and siltstones typical of deeper water settings tend to be thin bedded
and produce relatively closely spaced reflections with good continuity (part a
of Figure 7 , Seismic examples of fine-grained sediments showing contrasting
reflection characteristics.
 Figure 7

). Reflection amplitude tends to be moderate to poor depending on lithology

and bed spacing. However, acoustic impedance contrasts can be so low in
fine-grained deepwater sediments that they appear almost reflection free
(part b of Figure 7 ) Hummocky reflections can be produced in high energy,
shallow water conditions, e.g., by shallow marine sand bodies ( Figure 8 ,
Hummocky form often characteristic of deposition in active shallow water).

Figure 8

The three-dimensional shape of sequence units often provides an indication of

depositional setting, as shown by the shape of the basin-slope and basin-fill
units in Figure 9 .

Figure 9

(Basin slope and basin-fill seismic facies types )

Facies analysis can be further aided by the use of special seismic techniques,
such as 3-D and color displays. There can be no more obvious indication of a
depositional environment than that presented by the meandering stream
pattern on the 3-D horizontal time slice in Figure 10 (Horizontal time slice
showing the meandering channel geometry and oxbow lakes of an alluvial
flood plain ).
 Figure 10

Color displays of reflection amplitude, acoustic impedance, frequency, and

velocity can often reveal facies changes and environmental relationships that
are not evident on conventional seismic sections.

For full descriptions of the many reflection characteristics and their

environmental significance, the reader is referred to the above-mentioned
works (Payton 1977 and Sheriff 1980).

Facies analysis relies on two types of information, direct and indirect.

List these sources of information:

Direct Indirect

a. _________ d. _________

b. _________ e. _________

c. _________ f. _________
What are the three basic types of depositional dipmeter patterns?

1. ________________________________

2. ________________________________

3. ________________________________

Sandstone Reservoir Facies

MAJOR SANDSTONE RESERVOIR FACIES
The key parameters exhibited by important sandstone reservoir facies and
some of the associated facies are listed in the following pages. Also, relevant
diagnostic evidence in the form of cores, logs, and seismic is summarized
for cases where it is deemed particularly relevant.

AlluvialFans

Generally, the style of deposition on alluvial fans prevents them from acting as
good reservoirs. To date, there are only a few, clear-cut examples of fields
producing from terrestrial fan facies. They are often, however, extremely
important to recognize and delineate in the subsurface because of their
indication of both tectonic setting and source area composition. Given this,
and the fact that fans commonly grade into fan delta and alluvial plain
environments (whose sediments have far greater potential to be good
reservoirs), alluvial fans can serve as associated facies of crucial significance.

SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

fanglomerate (some very large fragments)

channel sand, conglomerate

thin shale layers

rapid vertical and lateral changes

commonly red beds

Sedimentary Structures
crude to unbedded (fanglomerate)

imbricated and oriented pebbles

crossbedding in channels (various scales)

 crude horizontal stratification

current lineations

Paleontology
rare vertebrate bones, plant debris

more common spores, pollen, often oxidized

Geometry
fan-shaped in plan view

wedge-shaped in radial profile

convex-upward in transverse profile

Associated Facies
fault-generated mountain fronts

mountain stream valley

alluvial plains (braided river)

playas and eolian facies

DiagnosticEvidence

Cores

The general coarseness, poor sorting, clast angularity, and immaturity of

alluvial fan sediments are the conspicuous features that dominate most core
samples of the upper fan. Finer-grained, cross-stratified or flat-bedded channel
sandstones can also be prevalent, particularly from lower-fan sediments.
Figure 1 (Devonian alluvial fan successions in the Hornelen Basin, Norway )
shows the internal details of three alluvial fan coarsening-upward sequences
from the Devonian of Norway.
 Figure 1

Logs

Figure 2 (Idealized gamma ray and dipmeter logs for an alluvial fan sequence,
showing both fanglomerate and channel development.
 Figure 2

Note three major patterns: lowest green dips represent shale breaks and
correspond to spikes on gamma ray curve; random "bag o' nails" dips in
fanglomerate; and dip clusters that show an upward-increasing blue pattern in
channel sands ) shows an idealized gamma-ray/dipmeter profile through a fan.
The log is characterized by a monotonous gamma ray curve generated by
fanglomerate and coarse braided channel sand. Several shale layers are
indicated simultaneously by spikes of high radioactivity on the gamma ray log
and low dips (green motif) on the dipmeter log. These shales separate three
channels, whose tadpole patterns show a clustering of high-angle dips caused
by crossbedding.

Seismic

Vertical seismic sections through alluvial fan complexes typically show

discontinuous internal reflectors. ( Figure 3 , Seismic section and
interpretation through probable alluvial fan developed over structurally
deformed basement.
 Figure 3

Note relatively poor internal seismic character of the deposit.) This should be
expected, given the great lateral and vertical variation in lithology.

BraidedStreams

Many present-day alluvial fans pass laterally into the alluvial plain of a braided
river, that is, one characterized by an interlacing veinlike network of low-
sinuosity channels with constantly shifting midchannel bars ( Figure 1 , Block
diagram model of a braided stream system in a semi-arid environment).
 Figure 1

Streams and rivers tend to braid when three main factors conspire: (1) high
(though possibly seasonal) discharge, (2) relatively steep slopes and (3) large
amounts of coarse bedded sediment.

SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

highly variable

up to 90% coarse, pebbly sandstone

Sedimentary Structures
soft sediment deformation

ripples

planar bedding

tabular and trough crossbedding

 crude bedding, oriented pebbles

Paleontology
some plant and animal debris, highly oxidized

rootlet horizons

burrows

Geometry
sheetlike, may cover thousands of square miles and be
hundreds of feet thick
Associated Facies
proximal: alluvial fan

distal: meandering stream alluvium, sabkha, eolian dunes,

playa (desert lake), possible transition to marine delta

DiagnosticEvidence

Cores

Core samples taken from a braided alluvial section can reveal either a
homogeneous section of coarse, crossbedded and gravelly sandstones or a
diverse range of grain sizes and sedimentary structures. Again, well-preserved
individual sequences begin with a sharp erosional base that marks the
channel floor, possibly overlain by an upwardly fining progression of grain
sizes and sedimentary structures. ( Figure 2 Idealized "outcrop" showing
succession of grain sizes and sedimentary structures in a single channel
sequence of braided alluvial system.)
 Figure 2

Logs

Figure 3 (Log of braided alluvial sequence showing characteristic monotonous

log response.
 Figure 3

Note that the gamma log is neither as clean as that for eolian deposits, not as
shaly as meander channel flood plane alluvial sequences. Azimuth frequency
plots reflect linear trend of this river type ) displays the idealized log response
of a braided stream deposit. Some crude fining-upward portions of the curve
can be discerned, but grain-size variation is most often too small to produce a
convincing bell-shaped channel profile, and blocky profiles usually result.

In terms of its dipmeter signature, this facies mainly shows the multiple
stacking of channels. Within each channel, azimuths and dip amounts are
clustered into separable groupings. Channel switching is characteristic but
azimuth changes usually remain within a 90 arc. The probable long
dimension of the sand body as a whole can often be found by bisecting the arc
when it is plotted on an azimuth frequency diagram.

Seismic

Due to relative lithologic homogeneity, braided stream deposits do not often

show internal reflections. Shales are too thin and localized to generate any
significant responses. Figure 4 (Possible braided stream/alluvial fan deposit in
seismic designated by dashed line) is a probable example of the overall
lenslike geometry and poor internal seismic character of such a deposit.
 Figure 4
MeanderingStreamChannels

With greater distance from the sediment source area, a meandering river
becomes typical ( Figure 1 , idealized block diagram showing meandering river
system over region of low slope and continual subsidence).

Figure 1

Alluvial flood plains cut by a single meander channel occur in regions

characterized by relatively low gradients, higher suspended load component,
fine- to medium-grained sediment, and more continuous (nonseasonal)
discharge. Sand bodies are created as point bar sands resulting from channel
migration.
SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

overall, approximately 1:1 sand/shale ratio

point bar: flood-plain siltstone/shale, medium to fine sand,

well-sorted and channel pebble lag

abandoned channel: oxbow lake siltstone/shale channel lag

flood-plain shale, coal

Sedimentary Structures
scour and fill

surface exposure features; mud cracks, raindrop impressions

ripples

planar bedding

trough, tabular crossbedding oriented pebbles, current

lineations

Paleontology
potentially diverse: vertebrates, plant remains, nonmarine
mollusks, gastopod shells, spores, pollen, burrows, footprints
Geometry
point bars: stacked to relatively isolated lenticular sand bodies

channels: continuous and discontinuous "shoestrings,"

sometimes encased in less permeable sands/silts or flood-plain
shales

Associated Facies
most common: deltaic, shoreline/marine shelf, lakes, braided
streams
DiagnosticEvidence

Cores

Core sampling of point bar sands should show the overall fining-upward
sequence of sedimentary types and structures illustrated in Figure 2 (Idealized
"outcrop" showing upward succession of grain size and sedimentary
structures in preserved point bar).
 Figure 2

Such sequences are often truncated by overlying channels and the entire suite
may not be seen.

Logs

Figure 3 (Well log showing two upward-fining point-bar sand bodies.

 Figure 3

Note the characteristic bell-shaped curve for channels. There is little, however,
to distinguish these filled channels as alluvial.) presents several logs that
show the variations and relationships in meandering stream, alluvial floodplain
sediments. Two point-bar sequences are in evidence.

Both are surrounded by overbank flood-plain shales. Note how the gamma ray
curve shows the abrupt change from shale to sand at the base of each
channel, as well as the fining-upward, bell-shaped curve as point-bar sand
grades into flood-plain shale at the top of each channel sequence.

The dipmeter log for such a section will be a bit complex, but will show three
main depositional surfaces ( Figure 4 , Idealized dip log showing both the
filled-in red motif (left) and the upward-increasing blue motif, which indicates
individual crossbed sets.
 Figure 4

Note that the blue pattern (right) depends upon a narrow dip correlation
interval (usually less than 10 ft.), so that both toeset and foreset dips can be
recorded by the logging tool): structural dip (green motif), major accretion
slopes (red motif), and crossbedding (blue motif).

Seismic

In the subsurface, channels generally create abrupt changes in lithology. Their

seismic "visibility" should, therefore, be pronounced. At the same time, where
the sharp erosional base and sides of the average channel make for good
velocity contrast, the upper part of the average channel grades into flood-
plain deposits, and thus will not generate high-quality reflections. As a result,
the typical lens shape of most channels should be only relatively clear on high
resolution seismic lines, as shown in Figure 5 .
 Figure 5

(Seismic expression of a river-cut channel. Note the abrupt termination of flat-

lying reflections against the channel flanks and the change in seismic
character between these reflections and those within the channel. Note also
the steeper slope of the right flank of the channel, possibly indicating that this
was the cut bank.)

EolianDunes

The bed forms into which sand settles when transported by wind are mainly
asymmetric ripples and dunes whose overall geometry is much like that of
their subaqueous counterparts. Most dunes preserved in the sedimentary
record appear to be the transverse type ( Figure 1 , Cross section of barchan
or transverse dune showing the various bedforms and slipface surface).
 Figure 1

The dynamics of eolian and aqueous movement are basically similar: they
both involve granular solids being moved by and within "fluids." This is
probably the main reason why the eolian environment is particularly difficult
to distinguish in the subsurface.

SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

clean, well-sorted quartz sandstones (orthoquartzite)

scattered, local interdune shale, evaporite, or lag lenses

layers of heavy mineral concentrations

pure carbonate sand, much more rare

Sedimentary Structures
primarily large- to giant-scale crossbedding with high angle
foresets (20-35)

surface exposure features (rain drops, rootlets, tracks and

trails, etc.) in interdune lithologies

Paleontology
rare vertebrate remains

oxidized spores, pollen

Geometry
usually sheetlike, upper surface often planed by transgressive
seas
Associated Facies
potentially variable: alluvial fans, braided streams, sabkha,
playa in interior arid basins; barrier island, lagoonal and shallow
shelf facies in coastal settings, often complexly interbedded
with water-laid deposits
DiagnosticEvidence

Cores

Samples of eolianite sections are commonly composed almost entirely of

clean, well-sorted quartz sandstone (often called orthoquartzite or
quartzarenite) ( Figure 2 , Idealized vertical sequence of eolian dune and
interdune sediments).

Figure 2

Detailed sedimentological analysis has not proven its unqualified worth in

strictly distinguishing dunes from some transitional marine facies. Since eolian
sand is often reworked from older deposits, such study may reveal mostly
"inherited" features. Thick sets of monotonously consistent crossbedding are
the prominent sedimentary structures found in most cores. Traces of oxidized
"impurities" between sand grains whether ferric iron, spores, or heavy
minerals can be significantly diagnostic.
Logs

Figure 3 (Log motifs for eolian sands.

Figure 3

Note well-developed blue pattern of upward-increasing dips along the toeset-

foreset transition in individual dune units ) shows a suite of logs typical of the
eolian Rotliegendes (Permian) group, a productive reservoir in the North Sea.
Despite an overall blocky appearance, the gamma ray curve can be divided
into approximately 50-ft increments, all bordered by narrow spikes of higher
radioactivity. Thus, the general profile can be more accurately described as
"saw-toothed." Each of the small kicks (which are more obvious on the density
log curve) is asymmetric, with a gentle upward decrease in gamma ray API
units. They are caused by the finergrained, mica-containing layers of each
new dune that abruptly truncate the foresets of the underlying dune unit. The
50-ft interval is also strongly evident on the dipmeter. Each increment begins
at the base with low-angle dips (toeset beds), which then increase upward
until reaching a maximum of about 25 to 35 (foreset beds). This maximum is
the most conspicuous part of the dipmeter log and indicates both the large
size and consistent orientation of the crossbedding. Dip azimuths are very
constant, directly indicating the downwind direction. This, in turn, reveals the
local elongation of the sand body transverse (perpendicular) to wind direction.
Seismic

In general, subsurface dune deposits are not detectable as such by existing

seismic methods. Sheetlike geometry, association with unconformities, and
absence of good internal reflectors are, as mentioned, also typical of the
overall response generated by braided stream sediments which may over- or
underlie eolianites and thus further mask them. Seismic data, therefore, are
perhaps most useful in delineating the depositional limits, rather than the
actual lithology, of a potential dune reservoir.

LacustrineDeposits

Unlike the previous environments we have looked at, lakes usually do not
define a single facies, but a collection, and might better be considered to
represent a facies group ( Figure 1 , Block diagram illustrating the major
facies and subfacies of Lake Unita, northeastern Utah, as it is interpreted to
have looked in the Eocene.

Figure 1

Alluvial, marginal-lacustrine, and open-lacustrine depositional environments

existed simultaneously). Lakes that have occupied intracratonic basins can, to
some extent, be considered as small inland seas in terms of their major facies.
They may be bordered by coastal alluvial plains with swamps, lagoons, and
barrier islands (tidal flats are notably absent). They may also be the site for
deltas, which form at major river mouths, and from which turbidity
(subaqueous gravity slide) currents transport sediment into the basin center,
creating subaqueous fan deposits. This means that lithology is often
completely undiagnostic for this environment.

The far more subdued water turbulence of the lacustrine environment

waves, longshore and subsurface currents as well as its different
geochemistry, sometimes effects significant, partially diagnostic differences
from marine counterparts. Lacustrine sediments, for example, are often much
more finely bedded (laminated) and contain better preserved plant debris
than those in most marine settings (lagoons being a major exception).
Certainly, paleontology is the most prognostic indicator, but experience
dictates that reworking and redeposition of nonmarine fossils in marine facies
is common.

In general, the consistent indication of aqueous deposition and nonmarine

fossils, as well as the "negative evidence" offered by the lack of marine biota,
together indicate the probability that the facies under consideration is
lacustrine. More broadly, tectonic settings can also afford a strong clue. Small
continental basins, as well as rift graben-type basins associated with
continental breakup, are strong candidates for having at one time or another
played host to large lakes.

Deltas

The delta environment contains diverse settings for sandstone deposition (

Figure 1 , Sand deposits of a delta system).
 Figure 1

In the upper delta plain, point-bar or braided-stream channel sands may be

deposited. When streams contain high sediment bedload or when marine
processes dominate (high-energy deltas), these alluvial channel sand deposits
may extend over the entire delta plain to the shoreline. In river-dominated
deltas of low marine energy, alluvial channel deposits of the upper delta plain
give way, through stream bifurcation, to a network of essentially straight
distributary channel deposits on the lower delta plain. Surrounding these
channels are fine-grained bay-fill sediments, often containing coarsening-
upward sandy sequences deposited by crevasse subdeltas.

The subaqueous delta contains distributary front bar sands that may be
reworked into barrier islands by marine processes in abandoned portions of
low-energy, river-dominated deltas. In high-energy deltas, winnowing of fine-
grained material by waves, currents, and tides creates a variety of sand
deposits along the shoreline, in the form of barrier islands, tidal channels, and
tidal sand sheets.

The characteristics and diagnostic evidence of braided stream and point bar
sands deposited in the delta environment are essentially the same. Crevasse
subdelta sands generally form minor petroleum reservoirs. We shall touch on
the two major deltaic sandstone facies: distributary channel sands and
distributary mouth bar sands.
FaciesCharacteristicsofDistributaryChannelSands

Lithology

fine- to medium-grained sandstone, moderate- to well-sorted

fining-upward grain-size profiles

Sedimentary Structures
contorted bedding

ripple formations

planar bedding

trough, tabular crossbedding

scour base

Paleontology
burrows

organic plant debris

faunal remains usually absent

Geometry
linear, straight to sinuous

10 in to 30 in thick

1 km to 5 km wide

Associated Facies
fluvial meander point bar or braided stream

interdistributary bay, crevasse subdelta

distributary mouth bar

DiagnosticEvidenceforDistributaryChannelSands

Cores and cutting samples should show a suite of lithologies and structures
similar to that shown in Figure 2 (Idealized lithogenetic sequence of vertically
stacked point bars from upper delta plain area).
 Figure 2

An upward-fining sequence of medium- to fine-grained, moderately to well-

sorted sandstone is typical. Sedimentary structures vary from large-scale
cross strata in lower portions of units to interbedded ripple cross laminations
and planar lamination in upper parts. Fragments of plant and coaly material
are common.

Logs

SP/gamma ray curves typically display blocky to upward-fining "bell" shapes

with abrupt bases. Curves are often jagged, reflecting shale laminations
within the sand, and dip-meters in distributary channel sands tend to display
red "slope" patterns of increasing dip with depth ( Figure 3 , Sp and dipmeter
logs of a distributary channel sand reservoir, offshore Louisiana, with a
schematic cross section showing location of logs within the channel.
 Figure 3

Note red pattern dip azimuths point toward channel axis). These shapes
reflect deposition on lateral accretion surfaces and dip azimuths usually point
toward the channel axis and, thus, are normal to channel strike.

FaciesCharacteristicsofDistributaryMouthBarSands

Lithology

in proximal bar: clean, well-sorted coarse- to medium-grained

sandstone

in distal bar: coarsening-upward sequence of fine sand, silt,

and clay

Sedimentary Structures
in proximal bar: small-scale cross laminae and current ripples

in distal bar: small-scale cross laminae, small scour and fill,

and graded sand units

Paleontology
 abundant microfossils in prodelta clays at base of sequence
with minor bioturbation

microfossils and bioturbations decrease upward

small burrows and shell remains in distal bar

laminations of organic debris in upper sand body (proximal

bar)

Geometry
elongate in seaward direction with high river influence;
arcuate to cuspate-shaped, with increased wave and marine
current action

up to 130 in thick and 10 in wide

Associated Facies
prodelta marine shale

delta plain and interdistributary bay silts and clays

distributary channel sands

crevasse subdelta silts

DiagnosticEvidenceforDistributaryMouthBarSands

Cores should typically show lithologies and sedimentary structures illustrated

in Figure 4 (Lithologic column of distributary mouth bar deposit ) i.e., distal
shales and silts coarsening upward to coarse-to-medium, well-sorted sand in
upper bar.
 Figure 4

Sedimentary structures are primarily ripple laminations in fine- to medium-

grained sandstones.

Logs

The electric log in Figure 5 (Gamma-ray/SP and dipmeter log of distributary

mouth bar sequences, subsurface Gulf of Mexico.
 Figure 5

Note blue current dip motifs pointing in direction of current flow ) shows the
SP/gamma ray curve of distributary mouth bars displays an overall funnel-
shaped, coarsening-upward profile. An abrupt break is usually seen at the top
of the curves, reflecting the sharp change from clean, well-sorted sand of the
uppermost bar to a capping by fine-grained sediments.

On dipmeters, distributary mouth bars are often characterized by patterns of

upward-increasing dips (blue patterns) ( Figure 5 ). This pattern reflects
deposition by progressively stronger currents as a bar is built up into shallower
water. Dip azimuths generally point in the direction of current flow (seaward) ,
but variations may be considerable.

Seismic

Oblique progradation is the type of reflection configuration typically

associated with fluvial delta systems. Sediment input in this environment is
high compared to sea level rise/basin subsidence, resulting in significantly
more lateral progradation than vertical aggradation. The oblique configuration
is distinguished by reflections that terminate by toplap at or near the upper
surface, and by downlap at the base ( Figure 6 , Oblique-progradational
seismic reflection pattern typical of deltaic systems).
 Figure 6

An actual map view of an ancient deltaic channel or bar sand may be revealed
by a horizontal slice through a block of 3-D seismic data. Figure 7 (Horizontal
slice through block of 3-d seismic data from Gulf of Mexico, showing lenticular-
shaped distributary channel sand.
 Figure 7

Superimposed structural contours show brightest (darkest) portion of channel,

where gas is indicated, is structurally high) is such a horizontal section from
the Gulf of Mexico displaying variations in reflection amplitude along a
structurally interpreted horizon (Brown 1985). We can clearly see a bifurcating
distributary channel delineated by a zone of high amplitudes (darkest tone)
cutting from northeast to southwest across the section.

FanDeltas

Fan deltas are alluvial fans that prograde out into a standing body of water
from an adjacent highland (Holmes 1965). As such, they generally develop on
the flanks of basins next to fault-bounded, elevated source areas (Figure 1 ,
Typical fan-delta tectonic setting on flank of rift valley).
 Figure 1

When fan deltas form adjacent to contemporaneous faults, thick wedges of

coarse-grained deposits accumulate.

Fan deltas have only recently been recognized as important oil and gas
reservoirs (Ethridge and Wescott 1984). Rapid facies changes and association
with tectonically active basin margins create favorable stratigraphic and
structural trapping conditions. Furthermore, potential reservoir beds are often
in close juxtaposition with marine hydrocarbon source rocks.

The cross sections in Figure 2 (Idealized vertical sequence),

 Figure 2

Figure 3 (paleogeographic reconstruction),

 Figure 3

and Figure 4 (cross section of shelf-type fan deltas based on data from U.S.

Figure 4

midcontinent Pennsylvanian-Permian granite wash studies. Based on studies

by McGowen, 1970) illustrate the distribution of facies within a shelf-type fan
delta. This type of fan delta forms on the broad shelves that typically border
intracratonic and plate-divergent basins and often develops extensive
progradational sequences.

We see that the proximal and medial parts of the fan, collectively called the
fan plain, occupy the exposed portion of the fan-delta system. The distal fan
and prodelta environments constitute the subaqueous portion of the fan
system.

SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

fan plain: poorly sorted, coarse-grained, sands and gravels;

often highly arkosic

distal fan: well-sorted, coarsening-upward sequences of sand

and gravel, grading offshore into prodelta shales and possible
marine limestones

Sedimentary Structures

crude to unbedded (fanglomerate) in proximal fan

large-scale, tabular, and trough crossbedding in braided

channels in medial fan with occasional horizontal stratification

parallel-laminated to massive delta-front sands

Paleontology

rare vertebrate bones, plant debris in fan plain

shell fragments in delta-front sands

microfossils (marine or fresh water) in prodelta shales

Geometry

overall fan-shaped in plan view

wedge-shaped in radial profile

convex-upward in transverse profile

subaqueous distal facies elongate in seaward direction in

fluvial-dominated fans; arcuate to cuspate-shaped, with
increased wave and marine current action

Associated Facies

fault-generated mountain fronts, proximally

 marine or lacustrine shales and limestones, distally

DiagnosticEvidence

Cores and cuttings should show a high ratio of coarse- to fine-grained

sediment, often highly arkosic, and an overall coarsening-upward succession
in vertical sequence ( Figure 5 and Figure 6 ,

Figure 5

Hypothetical vertical sequence in shelf-type fan delta based on studies of fans

and fan deltas along the southern Alaska coast).
 Figure 6

Logs

Figure 7 (SP and resistivity log of the fan-delta Ivishak formation,

 Figure 7

main reservoir in the Prudhoe Bay field, Alaska ) a log of the reservoir Ivishak
formation, Prudhoe Bay field, Alaska, illustrates the overall coarsening-upward
Sp profile of a fan delta sequence. The base of the sequence consists of very
fine-grained sandstones and mudstones of the offshore that coarsen upward
into fine-grained, well-sorted sandstones deposited in a beach-bar shoreline
complex. Overlying the shoreline sands are coarse-grained sandstones
deposited in braided streams of the distal fan plain that are capped by
conglomerates of the proximal alluvial fan. In this example, a sequence of
braided stream channel sand ("upper sandstone sequence") from a following
cycle overlies the proximal conglomerate facies.

Seismic

In a study of seismic reflection patterns from offshore Brazilian basins, Brown

and Fisher (1977) presented patterns characteristic of fan delta/shelf facies.
They found the reflection patterns developed in response to proximal, medial
fan facies to be poorly defined and parallel-layered to reflection free ( Figure 8
, Seismic facies patterns characteristic of fan delta/shelf reflections,
generalized from offshore Brazil seismic section).
 Figure 8

Reflection continuity is very poor to absent, and the external geometry of the
reflection units is wedge-shaped, thickening toward the source area or toward
bounding basement faults. The distal fan and prodelta facies contain some
poorly defined, inclined to horizontal, slightly divergent, layered reflectors
increasing in number basinward and grading into well-developed shelf
reflections.

CoastalBarrierIslands

Coastal barrier sand bodies are generally narrow, wave-built, sandy islands or
peninsulas that form parallel to shore ( Figure 1 ,
 Figure 1

Figure 2 and Figure 3 ,

 Figure 2

Idealized block diagram and cross sections showing principal environments

and facies of a regressive barrier island system).

Figure 3

As topographic features, they can be perennially emergent or exposed only

during periods of low tide. They most frequently occur as a linear trend of
individual islands separated by tidal inlet channels. The main sand body of a
barrier island is created almost entirely by relatively high-energy, shallow
marine processes. In many instances, subaerial reworking by onshore winds
leads to the formation of a capping dune field.

The offshore-to-beach profile of Figure 4 (Typical fan-delta tectonic setting on

flank of rift valley ) shows the progression of specific depositional zones.
 Figure 4

The offshore or shelf zone grades landward into the lower and then upper
shore face zones, which form the seaward portion of the barrier island. Above
the mean low water level is the beach/ dune zone.

SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

lower shoreface: fine- to medium-grained sand

upper shoreface: medium- to coarse-grained, well-sorted sand

beach: medium- to coarse-grained, well-sorted sand,

occasionally with conglomerate

Sedimentary Structures
lower shoreface: small-scale cross lamination and parallel
stratification, often hummocky; abundant bioturbation

upper shoreface: high-angle trough cross stratification, planar

tabular bedding

beach: low-angle, planar stratification, dipping seaward;

possible high-angle cross stratification dipping landward

Paleontology
 macrofossils (bivalves and gastropods) and shell fragments

trace fossils: straight burrows of low-level suspension feeders

in subaqueous barrier

rootlet horizons (uppermost beach)

Geometry
thickness: 10 in (low-energy coasts) to 30 in (high-energy
coasts)

elongate: 20 kin to 100 km in length on microtidal (0-2 in)

coasts

stunted ("drumstick"-shaped) 3 km to 20 km in length on

mesotidal (2-4 m) coasts)

barriers generally absent on macrotidal (>4 in) coasts

isolated, shoestring bodies when formed by rapid

transgressing seas

overlapping series of bars when formed by regressing seas

Associated Facies
marine shelf shales

lagoonal silts and shales

tidal channel, tidal delta/inlet and washover fan sands

DiagnosticEvidence

Cores

As illustrated by Figure 5 (Theoretical vertical sequence of a barrier island

system based on studies of modern deposits on Oregon coast ),
 Figure 5

cores and cuttings should reflect the following basic characteristics of a

regressive barrier island sand sequence:

a progressive and fairly regular upward increase in grain size

from silt/clay to coarse sand and possibly conglomerate, with
maximum grain size usually occurring in the upper shoreface.

a simultaneous upward improvement in sorting, from fair to

good in the lower shoreface, to excellent within the upper shore
face and beach.

a general upward increase in both the abundance and scale of

cross stratification, indicative of higher energy levels.

a general upward decrease in the disturbance of primary

stratification due to bioturbation.

Logs

SP and gamma ray logs through barrier island sands commonly display the
smooth funnel shape that reflects a regular upward increase in grain size,
sorting, and permeability. Greater amounts of fine-grained material depress
and round off this curve, while barrier island sands that are almost entirely
free of clay and silt generate a blockier profile. Figure 6 (Generalized electric
log patterns across a barrier island system,

Figure 6

showing changes in log shape depending on location and relative richness of

sand versus shale) shows how log curves ideally vary according to changes in
the amount of fine and coarse material and to location within the barrier
system.

As shown in Figure 7 (Gamma ray log and dipmeter motifs for barrier island
sand bodies), dipmeter patterns for barrier bar sands usually display an
upward-increasing blue motif reflecting the concave profile of the seaward
depositional slope.
 Figure 7

Dips within the barrier sand body may, when plotted on a rose diagram, reveal
a bimodal pattern. The lower angle dips, which define the main blue motif,
represent seaward-inclined beds formed by wave swash, while higher dips
with opposite azimuths reflect landward-dipping foresets, presumably from
ridge and runnel deposition.

Seismic

A typically seismic response should generate a high amplitude reflection from

the sharp upper contact between the coarser beach/dune or upper shore face
sands and the overlying marine or lagoonal shales. A sharp but diminishing
reflection is generated from the sides of the sand body, caused by the
downward-fining in grain size and a weaker response marking the transition to
the fine-grained base of the sand body.

In a profile showing three pulses of barrier island regression (part a of Figure 8

, Seismic profile showing three pulses of barrier-bar regression), note the high
amplitude reflection caused by the contrast between the upper barrier sands
and overlying lagoon/marsh material.
 Figure 8

The general depositional slope and the direction of progradation are to the
right, as modeled in the accompanying cross section (part b of Figure 8 , Block
diagram showing how transgressive-regressive sand bodies are composed of
a stair-step multitude of individual bars).

ContinentalShelfSands

Shelf sands form as linear ridges usually oriented oblique to the shoreline, or
as sheetlike deposits. They occur between the lower shoreface and shelf edge
of continental shelves ( Figure 1 , Occurrence of sand deposits on the
continental shelf) and in broad, relatively shallow epicontinental seas, such as
the North Sea.
 Figure 1

Tidal- and storm-generated currents have been shown to be the two most
significant agents responsible for shelf sand deposition.

SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

fine- to coarse-grained sand, moderately sorted, possible

pebble conglomerate at top of unit

generally coarsening-upward grain size profile

minor to abundant glauconite

occasional shale laminations and shale clasts

Sedimentary Structures
predominately moderate angle trough and planar
crossbedding

some planar laminated bedding

ripple stratification in lower units, often hummocky

bioturbated in lower units

possible scour at base of some high-energy deposits

Paleontology
marine shelf foraminiferal assemblages in associated
finegrained rocks
 macrofossil shell "hash" at scour base of some high-energy
ridges

Cruziana and Zoophycus ichnofacies

Geometry
commonly series of parallel ridges, asymmetrical in cross
section, up to 50 km long, 3 km wide, and 40 in thick

less commonly sheetlike, up to 20,000 sq kin in area and up to

12 in thick

Associated Facies
surrounded by marine shelf shales

possible lower-shoreface fine sands and silts laterally

shoreward of some shelf ridges

DiagnosticEvidence

Cores

The upward-coarsening lithofacies sequence, illustrated in Figure 2 (Idealized

lithologic sequence of the Viking formation, Joffre-Joarcam area, Canada ),
from the productive Cretaceous Viking formation of Alberta, Canada, is
characteristic of many shelf sand ridge deposits.
 Figure 2

The basal facies consists of a burrowed, silty gray shale. This facies is overlain
transitionally by ripple-bedded sandstone intercalated with silty shale and
containing abundant burrowing. Interchangeable with this ripple-bedded
sandstone facies is a bioturbated, shaly, fine-grained sandstone.

Next in vertical sequence is a trough crossbedded, fine- to very coarse-

grained, well- to moderately sorted sandstone. Shale clasts are common and
the sandstone contains abundant glauconite. Generally this facies has a sharp
lower contact and a gradational upper contact. A pebble conglomerate
occasionally forms the top of the sequence.

Overlying the sequence may be another interval of bioturbated or rippled

sandstone and shale, which, in turn, is overlain by crossbedded sandstone.

Logs

SP/gamma ray log profiles may show a variety of shapes: funnel (coarsening-
upward), blocky, serrated, and more rarely, bell-shaped (fining-upward). The
type of profile depends on the amount and occurrence of dispersed clay and
clay intervals, which, in turn, are dependent on the nature of shelf near-
bottom currents.
Therefore, log shapes of shelf sands tend to reflect flow regimes. In general, a
funnel-shaped, coarsening-upward profile (the most common of shelf sand log
profiles) suggests a storm/wave-dominated shelf. A blunt-base, blunt-top
signature is more characteristic of tidal-current sand bodies (Selley 1976).

Figure 3 (Gamma-ray neutron-density log of the Cretaceous Shannon

formation, oil reservoir of Hartzog Draw field,

Figure 3

Wyoming, showing coarsening-upward grain-size profile and corresponding

upward increase in porosity typical of a shelf sand ) from the Shannon
sandstone of Wyoming illustrates the coarsening-upward, funnel-shaped
profile common for storm-emplaced shelf sands. Figure 4 (Log of the
Cretaceous sub-Clarksville.
 Figure 4

a shelf sandstone in Iola field, Texas, with plots of texture and composition,
showing a fining-upward sequence probably resulting from rapid deposition by
waning storm currents) shows a log from the Cretaceous sub-Clarksville
sandstone of Texas. Here however, the log and grain-size plot show a fining-
upward sequence characteristic of rapid deposition by waning current flows,
probably from geostrophic storm currents.

Figure 5 (Gamma-ray log of shelf tidal current sand body from the North Sea,
 Figure 5

showing characteristic blocky shape with blunt base and top associated with
many tidal sands ) is a gamma-ray log from an undisclosed North Sea location
where the sand body was postulated to originate on a tide-dominated shelf.
The log profile has the characteristic blocky shape with blunt base and top
associated with many tidal sands.

Seismic

Shelf sands usually coarsen upward from a shale base to a coarse sand or
conglomeratic top that is abruptly overlain by marine shale. Laterally these
bodies are fringed with tight silt that grades into marine shale. The seismic
model in Figure 6 (Seismic model of a thin shelf sandstone, Cardium
formation, Alberta, Canada ) reflects these overall lithologic changes by
showing a strong event at the upper sharp contact and a lower-amplitude
event at the gradational base.
 Figure 6

As the reservoir becomes transitional into silt, updip to the right, there is a
gradual decrease in amplitude and the exact boundary between porous
reservoir rock and tight silt is difficult to determine seismically.

DeepSeaSands

Deep sea research of present-day ocean bottoms, along with petroleum

exploration in ancient basins, has shown that a particular type of deep water
sedimentary facies is characterized by thick sequences of laterally extensive
interbedded sands and shales. These deposits have been variously called
deep sea sands, deep water fans, turbidites, submarine fans, and turbidite
fans. Although fan-type deposits make up the bulk of the sediment, feeder
channel sands and slump deposits can be important subfacies ( Figure 1 ,
Model of a submarine fan). And, though turbidite currents are believed to be
the primary depositional process, processes like debris flow and grain flow can
be significant in the proximal fan area.
 Figure 1

SummaryofFaciesCharacteristics

Lithology

pebbly conglomerate and massive sand in channels

upward-fining, vertically graded turbidites that constitute

overall coarsening-upward sequences of sand, silt, and shale in
mid- to lower-fan and inter-channel areas

Sedimentary Structures
scoured erosion surfaces

dish structures and pillars in channel sands

laminated sands, cross-laminated sands, and laminated, often

convoluted, silts and fine sands in turbidites

Paleontology
macrofossils (in situ) rare
 micro fossils common in finer-grained sediments

Geometry
fans are mound shaped, concave downward in strike profile

fans are lenslike, concave upward in dip profile

individual channels long and narrow or coalesced into sheets

Associated Facies
marine pelagic shales

slope shales

DiagnosticEvidence

Cores

A diverse range of sediment from boulder beds to fine silt and clay is
characteristic of deep sea fans. Figure 2

Figure 2
and Figure 3 (Hypothetical stratigraphic sequence of a prograding submarine
fan: C.T., classical turbidite; M.S., massive sandstone; P.S., pebbly sandstone;
D.F., debris flow; S.L., slumps; C.G.L., conglomerate.

Figure 3

Arrows show thickening-upward and thinning-upward sequences) shows the

overall stratigraphic sequence typically developed by a prograding fan. The
lower portion of the sequence consists of often incomplete turbidite
sequences (CT). The upper portion of the sequence is dominated by cut-and-
fill channel sediments composed of massive sand (MS), pebbly sand (PS), and
conglomerate (CGL). The main feeder channel in the upper fan may be filled
with debris flow (DF) sediment characterized by massive, poorly sorted sand
with clasts of coarse gravel.

Figure 4 (Idealized turbidite sequence showing Bouma subdivisions Ta

throught Te with hemipelagic subdivisions for the Te unit) shows the ideal
lithologies and sedimentary structures anticipated in cores of the turbidite
units.
 Figure 4

With increased distance away from the source the coarser, lower units of the
sequence become missing from nondeposition. Thus, in the lower fan, only the
upper, finegrained portions of the sequence are deposited. Glauconite and
carbonaceous detritus are often found mixed together if sediment is derived
from both marine and deltaic sources.

Logs

Figure 5 (Blocky to fining-upward gamma-ray and dipmeter motif of

submarine feeder channels) shows the typical blocky or fining-upward
SP/gamma ray profiles of feeder channels of the upper fan with random,
scattered dips displayed by the dipmeter.
 Figure 5

Figure 6 (Gamma-ray profiles of proximal fan sands showing fining-upward

channel sands,
 Figure 6

and dipmeter showing red "slope" motifs dipping into the center of the
channels) shows the thinner fining-upward SP/gamma ray profiles developed
in channels of the proximal (mid) fan area. Dipmeters may display red "slope"
motifs dipping into the center of the channels in a direction perpendicular to
channel axes. Thin blue current patterns are often absent because
crossbedding is usually not well developed in deep sea sands.

Figure 7 (Gamma log profiles of distal fan sands showing coarsening-upward

progradational sequences,
 Figure 7

and dipmeter showing blue dip patterns pointing in the direction of fan
progradation) shows the upward-coarsening SP/gamma ray profiles of the
distal (lower) fan progradational sequences. These larger sequences in turn
are made up of individual upward-fining turbidite units. Combined with the
presence of marine pelagic shale intervals, the resulting SP/gamma ray profile
of a distal fan displays a "nervous" back-and-forth character. Blue dip patterns
that may be evident point in the direction of fan progradation.

Seismic

Perhaps the most direct seismic indicator of submarine fans is a mound-

shaped seismic sequence with an internal hummocky or chaotic reflection
pattern.

Figure 8 (Seismic section across the Frigg field, a giant gas field in the North
Sea.
 Figure 8

The pronounced mound with hummocky reflections from 1.8 to 2.0 sec is a
submarine fan, and the "flat spot" around 2.0 sec is a gas-liquid contact ) is a
seismic section across the Frigg field, a giant gas accumulation in the North
Sea, which produces from a submarine fan. Note the pronounced mound with
hummocky reflections from 1.8 to 2.0 seconds, centered under shotpoint 150.
The high amplitude reflection at 2.0 seconds is a "flat spot" representing a
seismic reflection off the gas-liquid contact.

The presence of canyons or troughs on a seismic section may indicate the

presence of a submarine fan located basinward of these features. Submarine
fans also may be present beneath or basinward of features displaying
clinoform (sigmoid or oblique) patterns.