Chinese Mythology

Chinese mythology
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"Nine Dragons" handscroll section, by Chen Rong, 1244 AD, Chinese Song dynasty, Museum of
Fine Arts, Boston, USA.
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Chinese mythology refers to those myths found in the historical geographic area of China: these
include myths in Chinese and other languages, as transmitted by Han Chinese and other ethnic
groups, which have their own languages and myths. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese
mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion.[1] Chinese mythology includes
creation myths and legends, such as myths concerning the founding of Chinese culture and the
Chinese state. Chinese mythology was long believed to be, at least in part, a factual recording of
history. Thus, many stories regarding characters and events of the distant past have a double
tradition: one which presents a more historicized and one which presents a more mythological
version.[2]
Historians have written evidence of Chinese mythological symbolism from the 12th century BC
in the Oracle bone script. Legends were passed down for over a thousand years before being
written in books such as Classic of Mountains and Seas () and the Taiping Yulan. Other
myths were passed down through oral traditions, such as theater and song before being recorded
as novels such as Epic of Darkness. Historical documents and philosophical canons such as Book
of Rites, Records of the Grand Historian, Book of Documents, and Lshi Chunqiu all contain
Chinese myths.
Contents
1 Major sources and concepts
o 1.1 Presiding deities
2 Time periods
o 2.1 Three August Ones and Five Emperors
o 2.2 Great Flood
o 2.3 Xia dynasty
o 2.4 Shang dynasty
3 Creation and the pantheon
4 Dragon
5 Religion and mythology
6 Important deities and mythological figures
7 Cosmology
o 7.1 Directional
o 7.2 Mythical places
o 7.3 Concepts
8 Mythical creatures
o 8.1 Abstract
o 8.2 Birds
o 8.3 Dragons
o 8.4 Fishlike
o 8.5 Humanoid
o 8.6 Mammalian
o 8.7 Simian
o 8.8 Snakelike and reptilian
9 Mythical plants
10 Mythical substances
11 Literature
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 External links
Major sources and concepts

Some myths survive in theatrical or literary formats as plays or novels. Books in the shenmo
genre of vernacular fiction revolve around gods and monsters. Important mythological fiction,
seen as definitive records of these myths, include:
Verse poetry associated with the ancient state of Chu such as "Lisao", "Jiu Ge", and
"Heavenly Questions", contained in the Chuci anthology, traditionally attributed to the
authorship of Qu Yuan of Chu
Fengshen Bang (Investiture of the Gods), a mythological fiction dealing with the
founding of the Zhou dynasty
Journey to the West attributed to Wu Cheng'en, published in the 1590s; a fictionalized
account of the pilgrimage of Xuanzang to India to obtain Buddhist religious texts in
which the main character encounters ghosts, monsters, and demons, as well as the
Flaming Mountains
Baishe Zhuan, a romantic tale set in Hangzhou involving a female snake who attained
human form and fell in love with a man
Presiding deities
Nwa and Fuxi represented as half-snake, half-human creatures.
The concept of a principal or presiding deity has fluctuated over time in Chinese mythology.
Examples include:
Shangdi, also sometimes Hungtin Dd (), appeared as early as the Shang

dynasty. In later eras, he was more commonly referred to as Hungtin Shngd (
). The use of Hungtin Dd refers to the Jade Emperor and Tian.
Yu Di (the Jade Emperor) appeared in literature after the establishment of Taoism in
China; his appearance as Yu Huang dates back to beyond the times of Yellow Emperor,
Nwa, or Fuxi.
Tian (Heaven) appeared in literature c. 700 BC, possibly earlier as dating depends on the
date of the Shujing (Book of Documents). There are no creation-oriented narratives for
Tian. The qualities of Tian and Shangdi appear to have merged in later literature and are
now worshiped as one entity ("", Hungtin Shngd) in, for example, the
Beijing's Temple of Heaven. The extent of the distinction between Tian and Shangdi is
debated. The sinologist Herrlee Creel claims that an analysis of the Shang oracle bones
reveals Shangdi to have preceded Tian as a deity, and that Zhou dynasty authors replaced
the term "Shangdi" with "Tian" to cement the claims of their influence.
Nwa (also referred to as N Kwa) appeared in literature no earlier than c. 350 BC. Her
companion, Fuxi, (also called Fu Hsi) was her brother and husband. They are sometimes
worshiped as the ultimate ancestor of all humankind, and are often represented as half-
snake, half-humans. It is sometimes believed that Nwa molded humans from clay for
companionship. She repaired the sky after Gong Gong damaged the pillar supporting the
heavens.
Pangu, written about by Taoist author Xu Zheng c. 200 AD, was claimed to be the first
sentient being and creator, making the heavens and the earth.[3]
Time periods
Three August Ones and Five Emperors
Main article: Three August Ones and Five Emperors
During or following the age of Nwa and Fuxi came the age of the Three August Ones and Five
Emperors. These legendary rulers ruled between c. 2850 BC to 2205 BC, before the Xia dynasty.
The list of names comprising the Three August Ones and Five Emperors vary widely among
sources. The most widely circulated and popular version is:
The Three August Ones (Hung)

o Fuxi: companion of Nwa
o Yellow Emperor ("Huang Emperor"): often regarded as the first sovereign of the
Chinese nation
o Shennong ("Divine Farmer"): reputedly taught the ancients agriculture and
medicine
The Five Emperors (D)
o Shaohao: leader of the Dongyi (Eastern Barbarians); his pyramidal tomb is in
present-day Shandong
o Zhuanxu: grandson of the Huang Emperor.
o Emperor Ku: great-grandson of the Huang Emperor and nephew of Zhuanxu.
o Yao: son of Ku; Yao's elder brother succeeded Ku, but he abdicated when found
to be an ineffective ruler.
o Shun: successor of Yao, who passed over his own son and made Shun his
successor because of Shun's ability and morality.
These rulers are generally regarded as morally upright and benevolent, examples to be emulated
by latter day kings and emperors. Historically, when Qin Shi Huang united China in 221 BC, he
felt that his achievements had surpassed those of all the rulers who had gone before him. He
combined the ancient titles of Hung () and D () to create a new title, Hungd (),
which is usually translated as Emperor.
Great Flood
Main articles: Great Flood (China) and Yu the Great

Shun passed on his place as emperor to Yu the Great. The Yellow River, prone to flooding,
erupted in a huge flood in the time of Yao. Yu's father, Gun, was put in charge of flood control
by Yao, but failed to alleviate the problem after nine years. He was executed by Shun, and Yu
took his father's place, leading the people to build canals and levees. After thirteen years of toil,
flooding problems were ameliorated under Yu's command. Shun enfeoffed Yu as ruler of the
geographic region of origin of the Xia, in present-day Henan.
Xia dynasty
Main article: Xia dynasty
Upon Yu's death, his position as leader was passed not to his deputy, but rather to his son Qi.
Sources differ regarding the process by which Qi rose to this position. Most versions agree that
Yu designated his deputy, Gaotao, to be his successor. When Gaotao died before him, Yu then
selected Gaotao's son, Bo Yi as his successor. One version holds that all those who had
submitted to Yu admired Qi more than Bo Yi, leading Yu to pass his power to Qi instead.
Another version holds that Bo Yi ceremoniously offered the position to Qi, who accepted,
against convention, because he had the support of other leaders. Yet another version claims that
Qi killed Bo Yi and usurped his position as leader.
The version currently most accepted in China has Yu name Bo Yi as successor because of the
fame Bo Yi had achieved teaching people to drive animals with fire during hunts. Bo Yi had the
support of the people, which Yu could not easily stand against. However, the title Yu had given
Bo Yi came without power; Yu gave his own son all the power in managing the country. After a
few years, Bo Yi lost popularity, and Yu's son Qi became favored. Yu then named Qi as
successor. Bo Yi did not go willingly and challenged Qi for the leadership. A civil war ensued.
Qi, with strong support from the people, defeated Bo Yi's forces, killed Bo Yi, and solidified his
own rule.
Qi's succession broke the previous convention of meritorious succession, and began what is
traditionally regarded as the first dynasty of Chinese history. The dynasty is called "Xia" after
Yu's center of power.
The Xia dynasty is semi-mythological. The Records of the Grand Historian and the Bamboo
Annals record the names of 17 kings of the Xia dynasty. However, there is no conclusive
archaeological evidence of its capital or its existence as a state of significant size. Some
archaeological evidence for a significant urban civilization before the Shang Dynasty exists.
Shang dynasty
Main article: Shang dynasty
Jie, the last king of the Xia dynasty, was supposedly a bloodthirsty despot. Tribal leader Tang of
Shang revolted against Xia rule and eventually overthrew Jie, establishing the Shang dynasty,
based in Anyang. Book 5 of the philosopher Mozi described the end of the Xia dynasty and the
beginning of the Shang. During the reign of King Jie of Xia, there was a great climatic change.
Legends hold that the paths of the sun and moon changed, the seasons became confused, and the
five grains dried up. Ghouls cried in the country and cranes shrieked for ten nights. Heaven
ordered Shang Tang to receive the heavenly commission from the Xia dynasty, which had failed
morally and which Heaven was determined to end. Shang Tang was commanded to destroy Xia
with the promise of Heaven's help. In the dark, Heaven destroyed the fortress' pool, and Shang
Tang then gained victory easily.[4]
The Shang dynasty ruled from c. 1766 BC to c. 1050 BC. It came to an end when the last
despotic ruler, Zhou of Shang, was overthrown by the new Zhou dynasty. The end of the Shang
dynasty and the establishment of the Zhou is the subject of the influential mythological fiction
Investiture of the Gods. Book 5 of Mozi also described the shift. During the reign of Shang Zhou,
Heaven could not endure Zhou's morality and neglect of timely sacrifices. It rained mud for ten
days and nights, the nine cauldrons (presumably used in either astronomy or to measure earth
movements) shifted positions, pontianaks appeared, and ghosts cried at night. There were women
who became men while it rained flesh and thorny brambles, covering the national highways. A
red bird brought a message: "Heaven decrees King Wen of Zhou to punish Yin and possess its
empire". The Yellow River formed charts and the earth brought forth mythical horses. When
King Wu became king, three gods appeared to him in a dream, telling him that they had drowned
Shang Zhou in wine and that King Wu was to attack him. On the way back from victory, the
heavens gave him the emblem of a yellow bird.
Unlike the preceding Xia dynasty, there is clear archaeological evidence of a government center
at Yinxu in Anyang, and of an urban civilization in the Shang dynasty. However, the chronology
of the first three dynasties remains an area of active research and controversy.
Creation and the pantheon

Chinese mythology holds that the Jade Emperor was charged with running of the three realms:
heaven, hell, and the realm of the living. The Jade Emperor adjudicated and meted out rewards
and remedies to saints, the living, and the deceased according to a merit system loosely called the
Jade Principles Golden Script (, Y l jn pin). When proposed judgments were
objected to, usually by other saints, the administration would occasionally resort to the counsels
of advisory elders.
Dragon
Dragon-gods, from Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by E. T. C. Werner
Main articles: Chinese dragon and Dragon King
The Chinese dragon is one of the most important mythical creatures in Chinese mythology,
considered to be the most powerful and divine creature as well as controller of all waters. They
were believed to be able to create clouds with their breath. The dragon symbolized great power
and was very supportive of heroes and gods.
One of the most famous dragons in Chinese mythology is Yinglong, said to be the god of rain.
Many people in different places pray to Yinglong in order to receive rain. Chinese people
sometimes use the term "Descendants of the Dragon" as a sign of their ethnic identity.
Religion and mythology

Further information: Religion in China and Chinese folk religion
There has been extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism,
and Buddhism. Elements of pre-Han dynasty mythology such as those in Shan Hai Jing were
adapted into these belief systems as they developed (in the case of Taoism), or were assimilated
into Chinese culture (in the case of Buddhism). Elements from the teachings and beliefs of these
systems became incorporated into Chinese mythology. For example, the Taoist belief of a
spiritual paradise became incorporated into mythology as the place where immortals and deities
dwelt.
Important deities and mythological figures

Wen Chang, Chinese God of literature, carved in ivory, c. 15501644, Ming dynasty.
Ali-zu, an originally Siraya deity that was incorporated into Han pantheons, is
worshipped amongst people in Southern Taiwan.
Deities with Buddhist appellations
o Dizang: ruler of the ten hells
o Four Heavenly Kings: four Buddhist guardian gods
o Gautama Buddha (, Shji mu n)
o Guanyin (also Kuanyin): bodhisattva associated with compassion
o Laughing Buddha
Baosheng Dadi: god of medicine
Cangjie: had four eyes, invented Chinese characters
Chang'e: goddess of the Moon
Chiyou: tyrant who fought against the then-future Yellow Emperor
City god
Da Yu (Yu the Great): founder of the Xia dynasty and famed for his introduction of flood
control and for his upright moral character
Daoji: folk hero known for wild and eccentric behavior; maintained a compassionate
nature
Dragon King
Eight Immortals
o Cao Guojiu
o Han Xiangzi
o Han Zhongli
o He Xiangu
o Lan Caihe
o L Dongbin
o Li Tieguai
o Zhang Guolao
Erlang Shen: possessed a third eye in the middle of his forehead that saw the truth
Four Emperors (, S y): heavenly kings of Taoist religion
o Yu Huang (Jade Emperor)
o Beiji Dadi
o Tianhuang Dadi
o Empress of Earth
Fangfeng: giant who helped fight flood, executed by Yu the Great
Feng Meng: apprentice to Hou Yi, and his eventual murderer
Gao Yao
Gong Gong: water god/sea monster resembling a serpent or dragon
Guan Yu: god of brotherhoods, martial power, and war
Hnb ()
Houyi: archery deity; married to Chang'e, goddess of the Moon
Hung Shing
Kua Fu: a giant who wanted to capture the sun
Kui Xing: god of examinations and an associate of the god of literature, Wen Chang
Lei Gong: god of thunder
Lung Mo: Chinese woman deified after raising five infant dragons
Mazu: goddess of the sea
Meng Po: responsible for reincarnated souls forgetting previous lives
Nezha: Taoist protection deity
Nwa: creator of humans
Pangu: a deity that separated heaven and earth
Sun Wukong (also the Monkey King)
Tam Kung: sea deity with the ability to forecast weather
The Cowherd and Weaver Girl
Three August Ones and Five Emperors: a collection of legendary rulers
Three Pure Ones: the Taoist trinity
o Daode Tianzun
o Lingbao Tianzun
o Yuanshi Tianzun
Tu Di Gong: god of wealth and merit
Tu Er Shen: managed the love and sex between homosexual men
Wenchang Wang: god of culture and literature
Wong Tai Sin: possessed healing power
Wu Gang: endlessly cut down a self-healing bay laurel on the moon
Xi Wangmu: Queen Mother of the West
Xiang River goddesses (Xiangfei)
o hung ()
o N yng ().
Xihe, goddess of the sun
Xingtian: headless giant decapitated by the Yellow Emperor as punishment for
challenging him; his face is on his torso as he has no head
Yanluowang: God of death
Yuqiang: Yellow Emperor's descendent, god of north sea and wind
Zao Jun: kitchen god
Zhao Gongming (also Cai Shen): god of prosperity
Zhong Kui: vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings
Zhurong: god of fire
Spirit of the well, from Myths and Legends of China, 1922 by E. T. C. Werner
Zoomorphic guardian spirits of Day and Night, Han dynasty (202 BC 220 AD) Chinese
paintings on ceramic tile
Cosmology
Directional
The Four Symbols of the Chinese constellation

o Azure Dragon: east
o Black Tortoise: north
o White Tiger: west
o Vermillion Bird: south
Mythical places
See also: List of mythical Chinese mountains
Mount Buzhou: mythical mountain

Diyu: hell
Feather Mountain: a place of exile during or just after the world flood
Fusang: a mythical island interpreted to be Japan
Jade Mountain, a mythological mountain
Kunlun Mountain: a mythical mountain, dwelling of various divinities, and fabulous
plants and animals
Longmen: dragon gate where a carp can transform into a dragon
Mount Penglai: paradise; a fabled fairy isle on the China Sea
Queqiao (; Quqio): bridge formed by birds across the Milky Way
Tiantang: heaven
Xuanpu (; Xunp): a mythical fairyland on Kunlun Mountain
Yaochi (; Yoch): abode of immortals where the Queen Mother of the West lives.
Youdu: the capital city of Di Yu
Concepts
Cords of the Sky

Pillars of the Earth
Sky Ladder
Mythical creatures
Abstract
Zhulong: the torch dragon, a solar deity

The Four Fiends (, S xing):
o Hundun: chaos
o Taotie: gluttony
o Tow (): ignorance; provided confusion and apathy and made mortals free
of the curiosity and reason needed to reach enlightenment
o Qingq (): deviousness
Zhy (): creature of pure yin said to devour evil humans
Birds
Sanzuwu (; snzw): three-legged crow that represented the sun birds shot down
by Houyi
Qing Niao (; qngnio): mythical bird and messenger of Xi Wangmu
Fenghuang (; fnghung): Chinese mythical bird, sometimes translated as "phoenix"
Bi Fang ()
Crane: linked with immortality, may be transformed xian
Jin (; jian1): mythical bird supposed to have only one eye and one wing; : a pair
of such birds dependent on each other, inseparable, hence representing husband and wife
Jiguang (; jgung)
Jingwei: mythical bird which tried to fill up the ocean with twigs and pebbles
Jiufeng: nine-headed bird used to scare children
Peng: giant mythical bird
Shang-Yang (): a rainbird
S Shung (; su4shuang3): mythical bird like a crane; also described as a water bird
Vermilion Bird: icon of the south, sometimes confused with the Fenghuang
Zhen: poisonous bird
Dragons
Main article: Chinese dragon
Chi: hornless dragon or mountain demon

Dilong: the earth dragon
Dragon King: king of the dragons
Fucanglong: the treasure dragon
Jiaolong: dragon of floods and the sea
Shenlong: the rain dragon
Teng: the flying dragon
Tianlong: the celestial dragon
Yinglong: the water dragon, powerful servant of Yellow Emperor
Zhulong: the luminous red celestial "torch dragon" (only part-dragon)
Fishlike
Main article: Fish in Chinese mythology
Mermaid ()
Kun (also Peng): giant monstrous fish-form of the Peng bird.
Humanoid
Kui: one-legged mountain demon or dragon who invented music and dance; also Shun's
musical master
Jiangshi: a reanimated corpse
Ox-Head and Horse-Face: devils in animal forms[5] and guardians of the underworld
Xio (; xiao1): mountain spirit or demon
Yaoguai: demons
Mammalian
Further information: Dog in Chinese mythology, Bovidae in Chinese mythology, and Horse in
Chinese mythology
Jiuwei Hu (): Nine-tailed fox

Nian: lives under the sea or in mountains; attacks children
Longma: winged horse similar to the Qilin
Luduan: can detect the truth
Xiezhi (also Xie Cai): creature of justice said to be able to distinguish lies from truths; it
had a long, straight horn used to gore liars
Qilin: chimeric animal with several variations. The first giraffe sent as a gift to a Chinese
emperor was believed to be the Qilin; an early Chinese painting depicts this giraffe
replete with the fish scales of the Qilin. Qilin was believed to show perfect good will,
gentleness, and benevolence to all righteous creatures.
Pixiu: resembled a winged lion
Rui Shi (, Ru Sh): guardian lions
Huli jing: fox spirits
Xni (): a rhinoceros; became mythologized when rhinoceroses became extinct in
China. Depictions later changed to a more bovine appearance, with a short, curved horn
on its head used to communicate with the sky
o Bai Ze: legendary creature said to have been encountered by the Yellow Emperor
and to have given him a compendium listing all the demons in the world
Simian
Further information: Simians (Chinese poetry) and Monkeys in Chinese culture
Chinese Monkey: warded off evil spirits; highly respected and loved
Xiao (mythology), described as a long-armed ape or a four-winged bird
Snakelike and reptilian
Further information: Chinese dragon and Snakes in Chinese mythology
Ao: a giant marine turtle or tortoise

Bashe: a snake reputed to swallow elephants
Xiangliu: nine-headed snake monster
White Serpent
Mythical plants
Fusang: a world tree, home of sun(s)
Lingzhi mushroom: legendary fungus of immortality
Peaches of Immortality: legendary peaches of immortality
Yao Grass: grass with magical properties
Mythical substances
Xirang: the flood-fighting expanding earth
Literature
Imperial historical documents and confucian canons such as Records of the Grand
Historian, Lshi Chunqiu, Book of Rites], and Classic History
In Search of the Supernatural: 4th century compilation of stories and hearsay concerning
spirits, ghosts, and supernatural phenomena
Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, by Pu Songling, with many stories of fox spirits
Zhiguai (): literary genre that deals with strange (mostly supernatural) events and
stories
Zi Bu Yu: a collection of supernatural stories compiled during the Qing dynasty
Agriculture (Chinese mythology)

(Redirected from Agriculture in Chinese mythology)
Shennong ploughing fields, Han Dynasty mural.
Agriculture is an important theme in Chinese mythology. There are many myths about the
invention of agriculture that have been told or written about in China (Yang 2005:70). Chinese
mythology refers to those myths found in the historical geographic area of China.[a] This includes
myths in Chinese and other languages, as transmitted by Han Chinese as well as other ethnic
groups (of which fifty-six are officially recognized by current administration of China). (Yang
2005:4) Many of the myths about agriculture involve its invention by such deities or culture
heroes such as Shennong, Houji, Hou Tu, and Shujun: of these Shennong is the most famous,
according to Lihui Yang (2005:70). There are also many other myths. Myths related to
agriculture include how humans learned the use of fire, cooking, animal husbandry and the use
of draft animals, inventions of various agricultural tools and implements, the domestication of
various species of plants such as ginger and radishes, the evaluation and uses of various types of
soil, irrigation by digging wells, and the invention of farmers markets. Other myths include
events which made agriculture possible by destroying an excessive number of suns in the sky or
ending the Great Flood.
Contents
1 Myth versus history
2 Shennong
3 Houji
4 Houtu
5 Shujun
6 Great Flood
7 Wugu
8 Seeds from dog
9 Related
10 Religion
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
o 13.1 Citations
o 13.2 Works cited
Myth versus history

In the study of historical Chinese culture, many of the stories that have been told regarding
characters and events which have been written or told of the distant past have a double tradition:
one which tradition which presents a more historicized and one which presents a more
mythological version.(Yang 2005:12-13) This is also true in many of the accounts related to the
acquisition of agricultural civilization in China.
Shennong
Main article: Shennong
Shennong is generally credited with having invented basic agriculture, including the plow;
although he seems to have originated as a god of the burning wind, which is perhaps a reference
to slash-and-burn agriculture, according to Anthony Christie. (1968:90)
Houji
Main article: Houji
Houji was also known as Ji Qi, especially in more historically-oriented contexts. Posthumously,
he was better known as Houji, from hou, meaning "prince/deity/spirit", and ji, meaning
"agriculture", according to K. C. Wu (1982:234).
Houtu
Main article: Houtu
A deity of the Earth who figures in various myths (Yang 2005:135-138).
Shujun
Main article: Shujun
Shujun is a Chinese god of farming and cultivation, also known as Yijun and Shangjun.
Alternatively he is a legendary culture hero of ancient times, who was in the family tree of
ancient Chinese emperors descended from the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi). Shujun is specially
credited with inventing the use of a draft animal of the bovine family to pull a plow to turn the
soil prior to planting.
Great Flood
Main article: Great Flood (China)
Myths about a huge flood which lasted for many years before finally being controlled often
include a motif of the acquisition of the agricultural civilization.
Wugu
Main article: Five Cereals (China)
Traditionally there were five granular and storable staple food crops in China. Known as the
"Five Grains", specific lists vary, but generally they include various seeds from the cereal, bean,
and sometimes other families.
Seeds from dog

Further information: Dog in Chinese mythology
According to some mythological accounts, the ancestral seed grains of modern crops were found
stuck to the hair of a dog. There are many variants of this myth.
Related
There are various myths related to agriculture. Humans are said to have been taught the use of
fire by Suiren (Yang 2005: 71). Suiren, also known as the Drill Man, used a fire-drill to start
fires, and thus to allowing food to be cooked (Christie 1968: 84). Also: animal husbandry and the
use of draft animals, inventions of various agricultural tools and implements, the domestication
of various species of plants such as rice and ginger and radishes, the evaluation and uses of
various types of soil, and irrigation by digging wells. Other myths include events which made
agriculture possible by destroying an excessive number of suns in the sky or ending the Great
Flood. Also there were all sorts of deities or beings in charge of bringing rain, drought, and
various cyclical phenomena such as day and night or the various seasons in their proper order,
which are vital aspects of successful agriculture. Other myths include the invention of farmers
markets and the invention of fermentation.
Religion
A modern Great Temple of Yandi and Shennong (May 20, 2009).
Many of the myths regarding agriculture in China are related to popular religion and ritual.
Dog in Chinese mythology

The immortal Zhang shooting at the Tiangou

Dogs are an important motif in Chinese mythology. These motifs include a particular dog which
accompanies a hero, the dog as one of the twelve totem creatures for which years are named, a
dog giving first provision of grain which allowed current agriculture, and claims of having a
magical dog as an original ancestor in the case of certain ethnic groups.
Contents
2 Names in cross-cultural comparison
3 Zodiacal dog
4 Panhu
o 4.1 Variations
o 4.2 Culturally-relative interpretations
5 Erlang's dog
6 Tiangou
7 Obtaining grain
8 Ritual
o 8.1 Paper dogs
9 "Foo Dogs"
10 Real and legendary dogs
11 Other canids in Chinese mythology
12 See also
13 References
o 13.1 Works cited
Myth versus history

Chinese mythology is those myths found in the geographic area called China, which of course
has evolved and changed throughout its history. These include myths in Chinese and other
languages, as transmitted by Han Chinese as well as other ethnic groups (of which fifty-six are
officially recognized by the current administration of China). (Yang 2005:4)
mythological version.(Yang 2005: 12-13) This is also true of some accounts related to
mythological dogs in China.
Historical accounts and anecdotes about dogs from ancient China and onwards exist in extant
literary works, for example in the Shiji, by Sima Qian. Archeological study study provides
substantial backing and supplemental knowledge in this regard.
Names in cross-cultural comparison

Further information: Category:Mythological dogs
Wolfram Eberhard points out that compared to other cultures it is "striking " that Chinese
literature rarely has given names for dogs. (Eberhard 2003: 82) This means that in the context of
Chinese mythology, often a dog will play an important role, but that it will not be given a proper
name, but rather being referred to as "dog".
As Chinese grammar does not require the use of definite or indefinite articles or marking for
singular or plural number, there may be ambiguity regarding whether the reference to dog means
"Dog" (proper name), "dogs", "a dog", "the dog", "some dogs", or "the dogs".
Zodiacal dog
The Dog statue is one of the 12 Chinese Zodiacal creatures portrayed in the Kowloon Walled
City Park in Kowloon City, Hong Kong.
Further information: Dog (zodiac), Dog, and Earthly Branches
For thousands of years, a twelve-year cycle named after various real or mythological animals has
been used in Southeast Asia. This twelve-year cycle, sometimes referred to as the "Chinese
zodiac," associates each year in turn with a certain creature, in a fixed order of twelve animals,
after which it returns to the first in the order, the Rat. The eleventh in the cycle is the Dog.
One account is that the order of the beings-of-the-year is due to their order in a racing contest
involving swimming across a river, in the so-called Great Race. The reason for the Dog finishing
the race second from last despite generally being a talented swimmer is explained as being due to
its playful nature: the Dog played and frolicked along the way, thus delaying completing the
course and reaching the finishing line.
As of 2012, the next Year of the Dog in the Chinese calendar is February 16, 2018 to February 4,
2019 (Year of the Yang Earth Dog). The personalities of people born in Dog years are popularly
supposed to share certain attributes associated with Dogs, such as loyalty or exuberance;
however, this would be modified according to other considerations of Chinese astrology, such as
the influences of the month, day and hour of birth, according to the traditional system of Earthly
Branches, in which the zodiacal animals are also associated with the months and times of the day
(and night), in twelve two-hour increments.
The Hour of the Dog is 7 to 9 p.m., and the Dog is associated with the ninth lunar month.
Panhu
Main article: Panhu
There are various myths and legends in which various ethnic groups claimed or were claimed to
have had a divine dog as a forebear, one of these is the story of Panhu. The legendary Chinese
sovereign Di Ku has been said to have a dog named Panhu. Panhu helped him win a war by
killing the enemy general and bringing him his head and ended up with marriage to the emperor's
daughter as a reward.
The dog carried his bride to the mountainous region of the south, where they produced numerous
progeny. Because of their self-identification as descendents from these original ancestors, Panhu
has been worshiped by the Yao people and the She people, often as King Pan, and the eating of
dog meat tabooed.(Yang 2005: 52-53) This ancestral myth is also has been found among the
Miao people and Li people.(Yang 2005: 100 and 180)
An early documentary source for the Pan-hu origin myth is by the Jin dynasty (265-420) author
Gan Bao, who records this origin myth for a southern (that is, south of the Yangzi River) ethnic
group which he refers to as "Man" () (Mair October, 1998: 3-5 and note 3, 31-32).
Variations
There are various variations of the Panhu mythology. According to one version, the Emperor had
promised his daughter in marriage as a reward to the one who brought back the enemy general's
head, but due to the perceived difficulties of a dog marriage with a human bride (especially an
imperial princess), the dog proposed to magically turn into a human being, by means of a process
in which he would be sequestered beneath a bell for 280 days.
However, the curious emperor, unable to restrain himself, lifted up the rim of the bell on the
279th day: the spell was thus broken before the transformation was completed, and, although the
rest of the body had been transformed to human, the head had not (Christie 1968: 121-122).
Culturally-relative interpretations
Victor Mair (October, 1998) brings up the point that the idea of being descended from dogs may
have a pejorative connotation or connotations. Whether this would be the case or not would be
relative to assumed cultural evaluations of dogs versus humans.
Erlang's dog
Further information: Erlang Shen
One of the stock heroic supernatural beings with mighty martial prowess in Chinese culture is
Erlang, a character in Journey to the West. Erlang has been said to have a dog. In the epic novel,
Journey to the West Erlang's dog helps him in his fight against the evolved-monkey hero, Sun
Wukong, critically biting him on the leg.
Later on in the story (Chapter 63), Sun Wukong with Erlang (now both on the same side) and
their companions-in-fight battle against a Nine-headed Insect monster, when, again, Erlang's
small hound comes to the rescue and defeats by biting off the monster's retractable head, which
popped in and out of its torso: the monster then flees, dripping blood, off into the unknown.
The author of the Journey to the West comments that this is the origin of the "nine-headed blood-
dripping bird", and that this trait was passed on to its descendant. Anthony C. Yu, editor and
translator of Journey to the West associates this bird with the ts'ang kng of Chinese mythology
(1980: Volume III, 441, note 5 on chapter 63).
Tiangou
Main article: Tiangou
The Tiangou ("Heavenly Dog") has been said to resemble a black dog or meteor, which is
thought to eat the sun or moon during an eclipse, unless frightened away.
Obtaining grain
Further information: Agriculture (Chinese mythology)
According to the myths of various ethnic groups, a dog provided humans with the first grain
seeds enabling the seasonal cycle of planting, harvesting, and replanting staple agricultural
products by saving some of the seed grains to replant, thus explaining the origin of domesticated
cereal crops. This myth is common to the Buyi, Gelao, Hani, Miao, Shui, Tibetan, Tujia, and
Zhuang peoples. (Yang 2005: 53)
A version of this myth collected from ethnic Tibetan people in Sichuan tells that in ancient times
grain was tall and bountiful, but that rather than being duly grateful for the plenty that people
even used it for personal hygiene after defecation, which so angered the God of Heaven that he
came down to earth to repossess it all.
However, a dog grasped his pant leg, piteously crying, and so moving God of Heaven to leave a
few seeds from each type of grain with the dog, thus providing the seed stock of today's crops.
Thus it is said that because humans owe their possession of grain seed stocks to a dog, people
should share some of their food with dogs.(Yang 2005: 53-54)
Another myth, of the Miao people, recounts the time of the distantly remote era when dogs had
nine tails, until a dog went to steal grains from heaven, and lost eight of its tails to the weapons
of the heavenly guards while making its escape, but bringing back grain seeds stuck onto its
surviving tail. According to this, when Miao people hold their harvest celebration festival, the
dogs are the first to be fed.(Yang 2005: 54) The Zhuang and Gelao peoples have a similar myth
explaining why it is that the ripe heads of grain stalks are curly, bushy, and bent just so as is
the tail of a dog.(Yang 2005: 54)
Ritual
Paper dogs
In northern China, dog images made by cutting paper were thrown in the water as part of the
ritual of the Double Fifth (Duanwu Festival) holiday, celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth lunar
month, as an apotropaic magic act meant to drive away evil spirits. Paper dogs were also
provided for protecting the dead. (Eberhard, 2003: 80)
"Foo Dogs"
Chinese stone statue of "lions", showing pronounced dog-like features

Main article: Chinese guardian lions
Further information: Lion, Shisa, and Komainu
Numerous statuary of Chinese guardian lions exist, which are often called "Fu Dogs" "Foo
Dogs", "Fu Lions", "Fo Lions", and "Lion Dogs". Modern lions are not native in the area of
China, except perhaps the extreme west; however, their existence was well known, and
associated symbolism and ideas about lions were familiar; however, in China, artistic
representations of lions tended to be dog-like. Indeed, "[t]he 'lion' which we see depicted in
Chinese paintings and in sculpture bears little resemblance to the real animal, which, however,
plays a big part in Chinese folklore."(Eberhard, 2003: 164) The reasons for referencing "guardian
lions" as "dogs" in Western cultures may be obscure, however the phenomenon is well known.
Real and legendary dogs

Later Han dynasty, a standing statue of a dog from Sichuan.
Despite any fantastic myths from China about dogs, real dogs have been familiar throughout
China since prehistorical times (unlike certain exotic animals, such as lions or other creatures,
whose real attributes may often only have been known indirectly).
Dogs also feature in various historical and legendary accounts or stories, found in the extensive
literary records of China, although in some cases the lines between myth and ancient history are
uncertain. However, in many myths, legends, or other accounts of dogs in Chinese literature, the
dog or dogs are presented in ways that in have no appearance of the fanciful or fantastic (as
opposed to the way other creatures may typically be handled in mythology, such as in the case of
turtles, snakes, dragons, or often even horses).
Other canids in Chinese mythology

Other members of the canidae family also figure in Chinese mythology, including wolves and
foxes. The portrayal of these is usually quite different than in the case of dogs.
Tales and literature on foxes is especially extensive, with foxes often having magical qualities,
such as being able to shift back and forth to human shape, live for incredible life spans, and to
grow supernumerary tails (nine being common).
Horse in Chinese mythology

Picture of a silhouette horse and the common Chinese character for "horse"
Chinese character Shang oracle ma3 horse
Character ma3, "horse", and so on.
Horses are an important motif in Chinese mythology. There are many myths about the horse or
horses, or horse-like beings, including the pony. Chinese mythology refers to those myths found
in the historical geographic area of China.[1] This includes myths in Chinese and other languages,
as transmitted by Han Chinese as well as other ethnic groups (of which fifty-six are officially
recognized by the current administration of China, according to Lihui Yang, 2005:4). There are
various motifs of horses in Chinese mythology. In some cases the focus is on a horse or horses as
the protagonist of the action, in other cases they appear in a supporting role, sometimes as the
locomotive power propelling a chariot and its occupant(s). According to a cyclical Chinese
calendar system, the time period of 31 January 2014 - 18 February 2015 falls under the category
of the (yang) Wood Horse.
Contents
2 Background
3 Zodiacal horse
o 3.1 List of Horse years, with accompanying signs
4 Origins of sericulture
5 Various horses and composite creatures
o 5.1 Longma
o 5.2 Buddhist White Horse
o 5.3 Journey to the West
o 5.4 Horse-faces
o 5.5 Tianma
6 Chariot
o 6.1 King Mu's trip
7 Chinese unicorn (Qilin)
8 See also
o 8.1 General
o 8.2 More specific
9 References
o 9.1 Footnotes
o 9.2 Works cited
Myth versus history
Chinese pottery horse, detail
mythological version (Yang 2005:12-13). This is also true of some accounts related to
mythological horses in China.
Background
Horses are real creatures, of the family Equidaequick-paced, hoofed quadrupeds, existing now
and historically, in China, among other places. Many breeds have been used or developed for
food, transportation, and for military power for thousands of years, in the area of China, and
elsewhere, as well as sometimes being loved or cherished, as pets companions, or inspirations for
art. One role of the horse, in China, has been important in society and culture: a role sometimes
existing in the realm of myth and legend. The donkey is also an equid, generally smaller in
stature: they are also typically less-esteemed in general Chinese culture. However, certain holy
persons (and some eccentrics) were well known for choosing to ride on donkey, for example
Immortal Zhang Guolao had a magic donkey (Eberhard: 82, sub "Donkey").
Zodiacal horse
Main article: Horse (zodiac)
The "Chinese zodiac" consists of a twelve-year cycle, each year being associated with a certain
creature. The seventh in the cycle is the Horse. One account is that the order of the beings-of-the-
year is due to their order in completing a contest of racing across a river, in the so-called Great
Race: the race being to determine which creatures, in which order, would be the namesakes of
the twelve-year cycle. The race was run, and swum, the finishing line being across a great river.
The Rat and the Ox crossed easily enough (the Rat hitchhiking on the Ox's back). Those
powerful swimmers, Tiger and Dragon had little problem; nor did Rabbit, with a little help from
the Dragon. The Horse, an excellent runner; but, not as good of a swimmer, would have been
nextbut, the Snake having crossed the river by stowing away on Horse's hoof, doing a sudden
dismount, gained the finish line, just in front of the startled Horse. Thus, it is said, despite the
animal's general swiftness, the Horse finished the race only in the rank of the seventh position.
List of Horse years, with accompanying signs
25 January 1906 - 12 February 1907: Fire Horse

11 February 1918 - 31 January 1919: Earth Horse
30 January 1930 - 16 February 1931: Metal Horse
15 February 1942 - 4 February 1943: Water Horse
3 February 1954 - 23 February 1955: Wood Horse
21 January 1966 - 8 February 1967: Fire Horse
27 January 1990 - 14 February 1991: Metal Horse
12 February 2002 - 31 January 2003: Water Horse
31 January 2014 - 18 February 2015: (yang) Wood Horse
17 February 2026 - 5 February 2027: Fire Horse
Origins of sericulture
Silkworm head. Late instar.
Horse head model from Han Dynasty China.

Main article: Sericulture
The horse is connected in some mythologies with the origin of humans raising silk from the
cocoon of the Bombyx mori insect, as an alternative to the Leizu mythos. In this case, apparently
hinging in part on a perceived similarity between the appearances of horses' heads and the heads
of silkworms, the responsible goddess for the innovation of sericulture has been worshiped as the
Horse-headed Lady (Yang, 164).
The story is told of a time in China, a long time ago, when men were liable to be conscripted into
military service, and sent to serve far away and often not return home for years, if ever. A girl's
father was forced into the army and sent off, far away. Missing her father very much, she then
promised the family horse that she would marry him, if he went and found her father, and
brought him back home. Surprisingly enough, the horse ran off, and eventually returned with the
father, who, horrified at the idea of his daughter marrying a horse, killed it. The skin was then
hung up in the courtyard to dry for tanning. However, one day, when the daughter was out
playing, the wind blew, the horsehide flew, wrapped around the daughter, and off they
disappeared. After days of searching for his daughter in the horsehide, eventually her father
found that she had been transformed into a silkworm in a mulberry tree. This was the origin, it
was told, of the Horse-Head Lady, goddess, and patroness of sericulture (Yang, 164).
Various horses and composite creatures

Often in mythology the horse appears in a biologically non-exact way: often creatures in stories
do not match a rigorous scientific, or even common sense descriptions of actual animals. Indeed,
many wonderful qualities may be declared or suggested: at times the horse in the mythology of
China appears somewhat piecemeal, sharing features compositely with various other more-or-
less fantastic beings. Historically, actual exotic animals, such as the Ferghana horse, were often
described in semi-mythic terms, such as "blood-sweating" or "celestial/heavenly" horses.
Longma
Representation of composite Horse-Dragon

Further information: Longma
"Longma" means dragon-horse, or horse-dragon. Among other accounts, a longma was said to
have revealed the Yellow River Map, an early example of a mathematical magic square. Indeed,
the presence of a longma was used as a sign of connection with the manifestation of one of the
legendary sage-rulers of legend, particularly one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. As
described below, the monk Xuanzang, was legendarily held to have retrieved Buddhist scriptures
from India with the help of a famous bailongma, or "white dragon-horse". The Baimasi, or
"White Horse Temple" is a name in China for old and famous Buddhist temples.
Buddhist White Horse
The Baima, or white horse, is associated with the introduction of the Buddhist teachings to
China. Commemorative structures include the Luoyang White Horse Temple, in dedication for
the arrival of two Buddhist monks from the Yuezhi territory then of northern Afghanistan and
parts of north-western India, on two white horses; and, the Dunhuang White Horese
Temple/Pagoda, in dedication to the Buddhist monk Kumrajva and his white horse Tianliu,
whom together are reputed to have carried Buddhist scriptures from the ancient Central Asian
Silk Road city of Kucha to Dunhuang, China, in the 4th century of the Common Era. Another
example is Xuanzang's white Buddhist-scripture-carrying dragon/horse, famous from the popular
novel Journey to the West.
Journey to the West
Further information: Journey to the West
Xuanzang with dragon-horse
One of the main characters in the classic novel Journey to the West mostly appears in the form of
a white horse, but is really a converted dragon (Yu (1980, 1977)): passim) Yulong, the third son
of a Dragon King (Ao Run, of the West Sea): in order to redeem himself from his past unfilial
sins, Boddhisatva Guan Yin gracefully allows him to serve as a mount for the monk Xuanzang
during his mission to fetch scriptures from "the West". Monkey (Sun Wukong) is employed in
Heaven as a supervisor of the celestial stables. He also battles Horse-face guardians, during his
epic harrowing of hell. Throughout the novel, the dragon-horse serves a role as part of a fairly
elaborate metaphor (or conceit), in which the white horse symbolizes mental will, or mindful
willpower.
Horse-faces
Horse-Face, with Ox-Head, herding damned souls.
Further information: Ox-Head and Horse-Face
Horse-Face, or horse-faces, were underworld guardians/minions, located in Diyu, also known as

"Hell". Generally, the Horse-Face and Ox-Head worked together as "muscle" to carry out the
decrees of the bosses of Diyu, generally from their capital city, Youdu. Their assigned duties
included induction of souls into the underworld, bringing them before the judges of hell, and
consigning them according to judgment. In Journey to the West, they are defeated by Monkey
(Sun Wukong).
Tianma
Gansu Flying Horse, Han Dynasty bronze.

Further information: Tianma
Literally meaning, "horse of heaven" or "heavenly horses", mythically Tianma was a fabled
winged horse or a fabled type of winged horse with composite attributes, such as dragonesque
features; and, sometimes the Tianma was linked to certain astral or stellar phenomena, or
constellations. The horses could also be real, now somewhat ordinary domestic or semi-domestic
horses, but in the medieval period of history somewhat extraordinary (and legendary) for their
stature and prowess. Sometimes the "heavenly horses" were linked with the "blood-sweating"
probably due to an endemic parasite, Parafilaria multipapillosa, a parasitic nematode of horses
(Schafer, 295 note 19). These horses of Central Asia were legendary for their size and prowess.
Historically, the flying, blood-sweating, dragon-boned, celestial horses are connected with the
Han dynasty and the emperor Han Wudi, and notably celebrated in the poetry of the Tang
dynasty by the poet Li Bo (Beckwith, 112 and Schafer, 59-60).
Chariot
Chinese wooden chariot (shown without horse(s), which would have been hitched between the
two rails, facing forward to the left).
With some exceptions, the propulsive power of chariots was traditionally by horses (or, maybe,
ponies, in the earlier days). The wooden chariot has been claimed to have been first constructed
by Jiguang, son of Xizhong, son of Fanyu, son of Yinliang, son of Yuhao, son of Di Jun (Yang,
2005: p. 98) (who may or may not have been the same as Di Ku).
King Mu's trip
A famous chariot trip was that of King Mu of Zhou of whom was told the Tale of King Mu, Son
of Heaven, a marvelous chariot ride with divine steeds pulling the chariot on his visit to Kunlun
on his visit to the Queen Mother of the West, Xi Wangmu.
Chinese unicorn (Qilin)

Many translations from Chinese into English involve the translation of the Chinese qilin as
"unicorn". However, the "Chinese unicorn" is more of a type of deer, than it is a type of horse.
Taxonomically, the qilin would appear to be a one-horned ungulate; although, without
information on whether the qilin, or lin, had, for example, an odd or even number of toes, the
classification, in this regard, may remain moot, from a modern biological perspective.
Nevertheless, and contextually, the Chinese characters used in sources strongly suggest that the
"Chinese unicorn" was in no way considered to be a "horse".
Shanhaijing (117) also mentioned Bo-horse (Chinese: ; pinyin: bm), a chimera horse with
ox tail, single horn, white body, and its sound like person calling. The creature is lived at Honest-
head Mountain. Guo Pu in his jiangfu said that Bo-horse able to walk on water. Another similar
creature also mentioned in Shanhaijing (80) to live in Mount Winding-Centre as Bo (Chinese:
; pinyin: b), but with black tail, tiger's teeth and claws, and also devour leopards and tigers.[2]
See also
General
Chinese folklore
Chinese folk religion
Chinese literature
Chinese mythology
List of Chinese terrestrial ungulates
More specific
Bole (mythology): also known as Bo Le, a legendary horse fancier and charioteer
(Hawkes, 322)
Horse burial in Chinese culture: archeological information
Kanthaka, legendary Buddhist white horse
Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven: whose 8 (Schafer, 59-60) mighty chariot horses enabled
his trip to the West to visit the Queen Mother (Wangmu)
War of the Heavenly Horses: in which history intersects with the legendary Central Asian
horses
When a white horse is not a horse: a question in Chinese philosophy
White Horse Temple: thought to be the oldest Buddhist temple in China
Zaofu: another legendary person who worked with horses
Zhang Qian: a real life explorer, on a tianma mission
Imperial examination in Chinese mythology

Zhong Kui, as used for depiction on the screen of a shadow play. Qing dynasty.
The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in Imperial China designed to
select the best potential candidates to serve as administrative officials, for the purpose of
recruiting them for the state's bureaucracy. With the avowed purpose of testing and selecting
candidates for merit, the examination system markedly influenced various aspects of society and
culture in Imperial China, including Chinese mythology.
The imperial civil service examinations were designed as objective measures to evaluate the
educational attainment and merit of the examinees, as part of the process by which to make
selections and appointments to various offices within the structure of the government of the
Chinese empire, or, sometimes, during periods of Chinese national disunion, of offices within the
various states. During more recent historical times, successful candidates could receive the jinshi
(chin-shih), and other degrees, generally followed by assignment to specific offices, with higher
level degrees tending to lead to higher ranking placements in the imperial government service.
The examination system developed largely in response to religious and philosophical ideas about
ideal social order. Also, traditional Chinese religion and philosophy responded to concerns about
the examination system. Both processes were intimately bound together with a literary system
and other traditions which had a relative continuity of several thousand years. The actual
examination process developed together with various related philosophical, religious, and
narrative concepts to produce a distinct mythological motif.
Contents
1 Sacred origins
2 Origin myth: Shun's succession
3 Triennial examination tradition
4 Music Bureau
5 Zhou selection of the worthy and the capable
o 5.1 Myth versus history
6 Confucian rationalism
7 Zhong Kui
8 Naming taboo
9 Symbology
10 See also
11 References
12 Notes
Sacred origins
A common mythological motif provides a religious type of sacredness to later social institutions
by projecting their origins back to a time when deities and culture heroes were credited with
having divinely or miraculously created them, thus giving them an aura of greater-than-human
qualities, and a justification for their existence and structural qualities with an implication that
these are things which mere mortals should not question (as well as avoiding giving credit for
their institution to a preceding rival dynasty). This applies particularly to the Chinese system of
examinations to recruit government officials and to the related institutions of governmentally
sponsored and controlled education.
Origin myth: Shun's succession

The first instance tantamount to an idea of imperial examination is mentioned in the Shang shu
("Yao dian" ), long before a whole bureaucracy of testing was developed.[1] The text
describes Emperor Yao's intent of examining abilities of his successor. Yao, one of the Three
Sovereigns and Five Emperors (trad. dates of rule ca 2852-2070 BC), saw commencement of the
Great Flood. As he grew old in age, the Emperor Yao perceived that he would not live long
enough to see the end of the flood. Therefore, he began to seek a successor, someone worthy
enough and capable enough to rescue the people from this great calamity. Yao did not turn to the
patriarchal system of choosing one of his sons. Yao wished to find the most talented and worthy
person in the kingdom. Yao offered his throne to Four Mountains, but Four Mountains declined.
Instead, they recommended Shun. At the time, Shun is said to have been at home displaying filial
piety. Despite this evidence of his virtue, and the recommendation of Four Mountains, Yao
decided that in order to recruit a replacement for the highest of the civil service offices, that of
emperor himself, it would only be prudent to instigate a series of tests. The tests included
marrying Shun to his two daughters, Fairy Radiance (Ehuang) and Maiden Bloom (Nying), to
see whether Shun could maintain family harmony at home, and ended by sending him down
from the mountains to the plains below where Shun had to face fierce winds, thunder, and rain
during the course of some test of unexplained mystery. Candidate Shun successfully passed this
series of imperial examinations[2] and was recruited as emperor, serving, it is said, as co-emperor,
until the death of Yao.[3] Shun and Yao both became mythological cultural heroes, due, in part, to
their fight against the flood, and helping the people to lead better lives. The story of how Yao
chose Shun by seeking and testing for the most virtuous and meritorious person in the whole
empire became a mainstay of Confucian discourse, with Yao and Shun being glorified as
epitomes of virtue. A likewise pattern, glorifying merit on the expense of the family ties, is
described in succession of Shun by Yu the Great.[4] Also, in later mythology and folk religion,
the stories of the examinations of the dead in Heaven or Hell show certain parallels, in the way
Chinese folk religion typically depicts the non-mundane world and the world of humans to
mirror each other.
Triennial examination tradition

Shun is also credited with a universal gathering of his nobles and subjecting them to imperial
examination every 3 years, in order to decide about promotions, demotions, or retaining of the
current status in the governance structure.[5]
Music Bureau
Further information: Music Bureau
During the later dynastic history of China, there existed a government Music Bureau (most
notably during a certain during part of the Han Dynasty, during the Tang dynasty, and perhaps
similarly in the Qin dynasty). In mythology, this involves one of the motifs which provide a
religious-type of sacrality to the institution. The Music Bureau, or Ministry of Music was
actually not a music academy in the modern sense: its function included the collection and
composition of music and poetry for royal court functions of entertainment and religious rites,
but its functionality was much more. The tradition behind the Shijing poetry anthology was that
the reason that poems (and presumably accompanying musical scores and choreography, now
lost) were collected, polished, and brought to court for presentation to the emperor was to inform
him of the thoughts, feelings, and conditions of the various peoples in different parts of the
empire. That tradition that Confucius himself served as the editor-in-chief of the Shijing provided
great prestige to this concept, together with several explicit comments commending the results in
the Confucian classics. The Han dynasty Music Bureau was also explicitly avowed to serve a
similar function. This was not the only educational function attributed to the Music Bureau: even
going back to the early mythological tradition, the original Ministry of Music was founded by the
demi-god Emperor Shun, in order to teach propriety and harmony to his heirs apparent. Thus, a
certain moral function was built into the tradition from its origins.
In mythology, the original Ministry of Music was founded by the demi-god Emperor Shun, in
order to teach propriety and harmony to his heirs apparent. Thus, the mythological foundation
(sometimes considered to be the legendary historical foundation) of the Chinese educational
system) and the original archetype later cited by scholar-officials responsible in historical times
for public administration institutional design was told in the story of Shun, and how he arranged
his government, including a Music Ministry (Wu, 255-256).
Zhou selection of the worthy and the capable

The existence of the Zhou dynasty is a historically-proven fact, as are the literary phenomena
associated with this dynasty. However, much of the material about it also known to be
mythological, and some remains indeterminate. However the rites and records known from the
era do include a prototypical imperial examination system.
Myth versus history
Traditional Chinese-source scholarship regarding ancient China typically involves a dual

tradition: a historicizing tradition that results in scholarship such as K. C. Wu's, which removes
the unicorns from the writings of Confucius by implying that this was merely an artifact of his
final senile descent towards death, saying that when this prime example of a mythological beast
appeared in the works of Confucius, it caused him to "lay down his pen and write no more" and
that "[h]e died two years later" (Wu, 6); and to go on to similarly strip other mythological
elements out of the ancient writings in order to provide a history of the rise of the Zhou dynasty
which lacks much from the preserved accounts (that is, it preserves the historicalespecially
that confirmed by the oracle bones and other archeologyand rejects the embedded mythology);
and, also there is the mythologizing and popular culture versions such as that the Ji family that
founded the Zhou dynasty was the result of Jiang Yuan's supernatural conception of Houji or the
Fengshen Yanyi version that allows the rise of Zhou to revolve around the interactions of the
goddess Nwa, a fox spirit with nine tails that is a thousand years old, a nine-headed pheasant, a
jade pipa (a musical instrument capable of assuming human form), and so on. King Wen of Zhou
("king", wang, was a title posthumously conferred) was also known as the Literate Duke of
Zhou, and he is credited in the dual tradition as the founder of many Chinese institutions,
including the Biyong academy with a teaching staff of 3 elders plus 5 various others and a system
of universal recruitment into service based upon merit which involved examinations,
posthumously regarded as "imperial" (Wu, 256).
Confucian rationalism
Zhong Kui the Demon Queller with Five Bats
From a certain viewpoint, the examination system represented the most rationalistic aspect of the
Confucian system. The system of testing was designed according to the principle of a society
ruled by men of merit, and to achieve this by objectively measuring various candidates
knowledge and intelligence. However, in actual operation, the system also aspects of religious
and irrational beliefs more complex than this (Yang, C. K., 265-266). The idea of Fate is a
mythological motif which had a significant role in the cultural context of the examination system
involving cosmic forces which predestine certain results of human affairs: particularly that
individual success or failure is subject to the will of Heaven, and that the results of taking the
imperial examinations could be influenced by the intervention of various deities (Yang C. K,
265-268).
Zhong Kui
Zhong Kui, also spelled Chung-kuei, was a deity associated with the examination system, who
achieved a major posthumous promotion during the Tang dynasty. The story is that a certain
scholar took the tests, and, despite his most excellent performance, which should have won him
first place, he was unfairly deprived of the first place prize by a corrupt official: in response, the
scholar killed himself, the act of suicide condemning him to be a ghost. Many people afraid of
traveling on roads and paths that may be haunted by evil spirits have worshiped Zhong Kui as an
efficacious protective deity (Christie, 60, and picture, 58).
Naming taboo
Some individuals were discriminated against because of their names, due to a naming taboo. For
example, because the Tang dynasty poet Li He's father's name sounded like the jin, in jinshi, he
was discouraged from taking the tests (Hinton, 286). The claim was that if Li He was called a
jinshi, it would be against the rule of etiquette that a son not be called by his father's name.
Symbology
Eggplant fruit, or aubergine.

Chinese Mandarin, 18th century wooden image.
The symbology of the imperial examinations and that of imperial appointment to high office are
much the same, as would be expected from the close relationship which they share with each
other, especially in late imperial times. Wolfram Eberhard (article under title "Official", 214-
216) lists a number in his Dictionary of Chinese Symbols, including eggplant (or aubergine) (
, qizi), because the fruit together with its calyx looks like a man wearing a type of cap (,
gun, which is homonymous with gun, meaning "an official") -- the caps or hats were awarded
to promoted officials and so symbolic of official office (Eberhard, under "Aubergine"). Also,
beans, or dried bean curd ("bean curd" referring to tofu) also were used in illustrations and other
symbology to represent officialdom due to the similarity in sound between du gn (, dried
bean curd) and d gun (, high official, as Eberhard discusses under "Bean"). Also,
Eberhard defines the combined images of the maple (, fng) and a monkey (, hu), or a
monkey and a horse (, m) as related to official government service. Also, there is the scholar (
, sh).
Fish in Chinese mythology

Carp jumping the dragon gate
Fish are an important motif in Chinese mythology. There are various myths involving fish. The
word for "fish", yu is a homophone for "abundance" and "affluence". (Eberhard, 1983: 106).
Chinese mythology refers to those myths found in the historical geographic area of China. The
geographic area of "China" is of course a concept which has evolved of changed through history.
Fish in Chinese mythology include myths in Chinese and other languages, as transmitted by Han
Chinese as well as other ethnic groups (of which fifty-six are officially recognized by the current
administration of China). (Yang 2005:4) The Chinese dragon is the head of the fish clan.
Contents
1 Character
o 1.1 Evolution
2 Carp
3 Related
o 3.1 Fisherman
3.1.1 Fuxi
3.1.2 Taigong
o 3.2 Fish basket
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
Character
The Chinese character for fish: traditional Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: y.
Pronounced with a different accent in modern Chinese, (y) means "abundance". Due to the
homophony, "fish" mythically becomes equated with "abundance".
Evolution
The character for fish () evolved from an ancient pictograph. It is the traditional 195th (out of
216) traditional radical. Over time, the pictographic representations tended to become
increasingly stylized, until evolving to the modern standard form:
script type example
Oracle script
Bronzeware script
Great seal script
Seal script
Carp
Further information: Asian carp In Chinese culture
Carp (traditional Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: l) can be transformations of

dragons, or carp can sometimes change into dragons. According to tradition, a carp that could
leap the falls of the Yellow River at Dragon Gate, would be transformed into a dragon: this motif
symbolizes success in the civil service examinations. (Eberhard, 1983:57-58) Dragon Gate, at the
border of Shanxi and Shaanxi, is where the river flows through a cleft in the Longmen
mountains, supposedly made by Yu the Great. According to one account, all the carp competed
at a yearly competition to leap the Longmen falls, those who succeeded were immediately
transformed into dragons, and flew off into the sky. (Christie, 1968: 65 and 74) Pictures of Carp
attempting to leap the Longmen falls have been enduringly popular in China.
Related
Related to fish, some Chinese mythological motifs involve fishermen or fish baskets or a fish
trap.
Fisherman
Fuxi
According to Chinese myth, the culture hero Fuxi invented fishing, after the Great Flood
(Eberhard, 1983:107). A story tells that first Fuxi fished with his hands, but after observing a
spider catching insects in its web, he invented the rattan net and used it to catch fish, which skill
he passed on to his descendents (Yang, 2005: 120).
Taigong
Main article: Jiang Ziya
Jiang Ziya, the great general and strategist and military mastermind who was key to establishing
the Zhou Dynasty, was said to have spent years in his old age fishing, but with a straight hook, or
no bait, or with his hook dangling above the water: but, he was fishing for a Lord, not a fish.
After Jiang Ziya became the general, he was known as "Taigong", or "the Grand Duke". The
degree to which this qualifies as a myth is open to question, but it is certainly a well-known
motif.
Fish basket
According to Chinese myth, Fuxi also invented the fish basket, or trap, by weaving bamboo into
a cage which had a funnel opening, that was easy for the fish to enter because the big opening
was on the outside, but inside it tapered to narrow and exit opening, so it was easy for the fish to
get in, but hard to get out. (Eberhard, 1983:108). In other cases the fish basket served more as a
net, in which a fish could be scooped from the water and transported to the market. In one
manifestation, Guanyin is pictured as holding a fish basket. This imagery is sometimes
considered to have a sexual connotation.
Gallery

Mongolian bamboo fish basket. Tools and utensils in the Yunnan Nationalities Museum,
Kunming, Yunnan, China.
Dai bamboo fish basket. Tools and utensils in the Yunnan Nationalities Museum,
Kunming, Yunnan, China.
Guanyin of the fish basket - attributed to Zhao Meng Fu Yuan dynasty.

Baskets in Haikou: the flat baskets at center are for holding small fish or shrimp.
Top 10 Astonishing Ancient Chinese Mythology

By Saugat Adhikari
China, the land of mystery and enchantment, is filled with many images: religious gods and
goddesses, mythical rules, historical beings, dragons, unicorns, what and what not. China passed
through conflicting period of time, different religions and many opposing philosophies that
appear and interact in many of the Chinese myths. When we go through some of the well-known
Chinese tales, we find no clear distinction between what is real and what is mythical, what is
earth and what is heaven, what is history and what early storytelling used to be. There is no clear
distinction between what is present and what is past. China is a mosaic of diverge philosophies
and traditions. And we must consider this reality about China while we try to talk about Ancient
Chinese Mythology. Despite having many themes and variations throughout the history of China,
most of the Chinese myths possess one common and central elementthe survival of ordinary
people against great adversities. Without any further ado, I would like to present you 10 ancient
Chinese Mythologies.
10. The Pilgrimage Mythology

Contents [show]
The Pilgrimage Mythology primarily talks about Kwan Yin, the Goddess of mercy and
compassion. In most of the myths, she is portrayed as a lady holding an infant and dressed in
white, with the seat of lotus. She was said to have murdered by her own father. As she arrived in
hell, she used to recite holly books. In effect, the Hell king could not make the dead souls suffer.
Angry with Kwan Yin, the god send her back to the world for living where she gained spiritual
insights from Buddha and later on blessed with immortality. The temple of Kwan Yin, located at
the summit of Wondrous Peak, was ever filled with a host of pilgrims to get her attention. The
Pilgrimage Mythology also talks about how Buddhism was introduced and flourished in China.
The mythology has it that the Monkey converts to Buddhism, but continues to use the Taoist
knowledge and skills to combat evil.
9. Myth about the Monkey

A government official named Wu Cheng-en, in his popular novel called Journey to the West,
tells this myth about the Monkey King named Sun Wukong. Sun Wukong is the most famous
monkey in China. The monkey was said to have born out of a stone egg that came from a magic
rock on the Mountain of Fruit and Flowers. According to the mythology, Sun used to be very
naughty, eager to take over the world and it even cost Buddha a lot of efforts to tame him. The
Monkey King is characterized by his greedy, but joyful, curious, and extremely popular nature.
Later in his life, he became a loyal companion to the monk Xaunzang on his adventurous journey
from China to India and back again.
8. The Unicorns Prophecy

The myth of The Unicorns Prophecy sprang up around the Confuciuss life. This story
introduces the unicorn, the Chi-lin, which is considered a sacred animal to the Chinese. It does
not actually similar to the unicorn in European myths, but is a mix of many creatures, including
the deer, ox, dragon, and horse. The nature of Chin-Lin has been depicted in myths as a peaceful
and timid animal. The Chi-Lin left the innocent alone, but if angered, jabbed evil people with its
horn. It is said that some dependable soldiers and fairy judges fabricated the emblem of the Chi-
lin on their clothing to remind themselves how dutiful they were. During the fourteenth century,
a real giraffe was sent to the imperial court and many observers claimed it was the reincarnation
of the mythical Chi-Lin.
7. The Moon Goddess

Chang-O (or Change)the Chinese Goddess of the Moon, is the subject of several legends in
Chinese mythology. The Moon Goddess mythology primarily incorporates elements like Houyi
the archer, an elixir of life, a benevolent emperor, and the Moon. One very popular and
interesting story about Chang-O takes you in the very distant past where the ten sons of the Jade
Emperor were transformed into ten suns. The ten suns rose in the heaven and scorched the earth,
causing it difficult for the people to live. The archer Yi shot down nine of them and left only one
sun. Yi then was rewarded with the elixir of immortality. One day, when Yi was out for hunting,
his apprentice Fengmeng broke into his house and forcefully tried to get the elixir from Yis
wife, Change. But Change refused to give elixir to Fengmeng and drank it all herself. As she
consumed the elixir, she became weightless and flew upwards towards the heavens and stay at
the moon as a refugee.
6. The Grand Archer Yi
In many ancient Chinese mythologies, we can see gods helping the people. But the Grand Archer
Yi is the one of the few mortals who helped the gods. He is characterized by having great skills
of archery. Hou-Yi is believed to have lived between 2436-2255 B.C.E. Myths about him are
linked to the people of the Southwestern part of China. Yi was one of the most famed archers of
that time. It is believed that Yi saved the moon during an eclipse and rescued the country from
the variety of outbreaks. Hou Yi is also said to have shot down 9 of 10 suns that were burning up
the earth in the prehistoric times. There are many other stories about Yi that are popular among
common people.
5. Yu Rebuilds the Earth
The myth about Yu the Great is based on Chinese legend from 2205 to 2197 B.C.E. Like all
demigods of the ancient times, Yu the Great could change himself into different shapes
whenever necessary. He could transform himself into the bears, dragons and humans. Yu is
considered the first one to pass his status as ruler to his descendants and thus create a dynasty
called Xia. But due to lack of any archaeological evidences about Xia, it still remains to be a
mythical dynasty. One legend among many recounts Da Yus (Yu the Great) extraordinary birth
wherein a man called Gun was given charge of controlling a great flood. He stole a piece of
magic soil from heaven, to dam the water. Furious with him, the Shangdi (the Lord on High)
issued an order for his execution. After about 3 years, the miraculously preserved body of the
gun was slit open and a son brought forth. He was Da Yu and he was the one who, after years of
hard work, provided outlets to the sea through dredging, with the help of dragons. He is the one
who made the earth suitable for human habitation.
4. Water War
Gong Gong (aka Kanghui), a Chinese water god, is one of the frequently described characters in
ancient Chinese Mythology. He is depicted in stories as having red hair and the tail of a serpent.
Gong Gong was credited in various mythological contexts as being responsible for destructive
floods. He wrestled to get the control of the earth shortly after the creation of people. Before
Gong, Zurong the fire god ruled the world peacefully. But when Gong became the ruler, he
wanted to expand his influence by increasing the amount of water in the universein the seven
tenths of water to three-tenths dry land. So, he sent heavy rains and came close to destroying the
world in a fierce power struggle with the Zurong. To counteract the destructive forces of both
Gong and Zurong, Nuwa the creator of people appears in this myth. Gong is often seen as an
ancient destroyer god and is blamed for many other cosmic catastrophes. And in all accounts,
Gong Gong ends up being killed or sent into exile.
3. Fushi Teaches the people

The most ancient myths involve the Ten Legendary Kings, gods who guided people through their
prehistoric beginnings (around 3000-2197 B.C.E). They were demigods (half god and half
human), who lived among the people and taught them the rules of civilization. Fushi was the first
ruler of this magical period. Many scholars believe that his story is based on actual monarch who
lived sometime between 2953-2736 B.C.E. Despite having different variations of the stories,
Fushi has been depicted as a beloved figure in all of the mythology who taught survival skills to
the early humans. He taught people how to use fire, how to cook, how to write and many other
skills like hunting, fishing and fortune-telling. Some myths depict Fushi as having the body of
human while others depict him as having the head of a human and the body of a snake. In many
stories, he is regarded as the husband of Nuwa and they are the bearers of civilization.
2. Nuwa Creates People

Nuwa (aka Nugua), the goddess in humankind is one of the most popular characters in ancient
Chinese mythology. As per the mythologies, Nuwa created the mankind and repaired the pillar of
heaven and broken the corners of earth, which the Gong Gong had destroyed in a fit of anger. In
Chinese mythologies, Nugua is regarded as the patroness of matchmakers. As a wife of Fushi,
she helped establish the norms for marriage and regulated the conduct between sexes. Nuwa is
also said to have built a lovely palace that became the prototype for the later walled cities of
China. The materials of the palace were said to have prepared overnight by mountain spirits.
1. Panku (Pangu) Creates the World

The earliest Chinese mythologies contain many stories of many wondrous rulers of ancient
times; however there are no creation stories. The story of Panku (aks Pangu) is probably the
closest Chinese version of a creation myth. Pangu is the central figure in Chinese Daoist legends
of creation. Panguthe first man, is said to have created out of the cosmic egg, with two horns,
two tusks, and a hairy body. According to the ancient myths, Pangu is said to have shaped the
earth by chiseling out valleys and stacking up mountains. All this was accompanied from his
knowledge of yin yangthe inescapable principle of duality in all things.
Chinese Mythology
The people of China have a rich and complicated mythology that dates back nearly 4,000 years.
Throughout Chinese history, myth and reality have been intertwined. Historical figures have
been worshiped as gods, and ancient myths are sometimes treated as historical truths. In addition,
three great religious traditionsConfucianism, Taoism, and Buddhismhave played a role in
shaping the mythology. The result is a rich tapestry of characters and tales, both real and
imagined, and a unique pantheon organized very much like ancient Chinese society.
Roots of Chinese Mythology

China can trace its historical roots in a unbroken line for more than 4,000 years, and its
mythological roots extend even farther back in time. From about 2000 to 1500 B . C ., a people
known as the Xia dominated the northern regions of China. The Xia worshiped the snake, a
creature that appears in some of the oldest Chinese myths. Eventually, the snake changed into the
dragon, which became one of the most enduring symbols of Chinese culture and mythology
New Religious Ideas. From about 1500 to 1066 B . C ., China was ruled by the Shang dynasty.
The people at this time worshiped many deities, including natural forces and elements such as
rain, clouds, rivers, mountains, the sun, the moon, and the earth. Their greatest deity, Shang Di,
remains an important god in the Chinese pantheon.
pantheon all the gods of a particular culture

dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group
deity god or goddess
When a new dynasty, the Zhou, came to power in China in 1066 B . C ., significant changes took
place in religion. People still worshiped the old gods, but ancestor worship became increasingly
important. Confucianism and Taoism appeared near the end of the Zhou dynasty. These two
religious traditions had an enormous influence on the development of the most basic and lasting
principles of Chinese culture.
Confucius attracted many followers during his life, and his ideas continued to spread after his death.
Reverence for family and ancestors are important elements of Confucianism.
Changing Old Beliefs. In 213 B . C ., many of the original sources of Chinese mythology were
lost when Emperor Shi Huangdi of the Qin dynasty ordered the burning of all books on subjects
other than medicine, prophecy, and farming. This order was reversed in 191 B . C ., and much of
the literature was reconstructed. But works were rewritten to support ideas popular with the royal
court at the time, including that of a hierarchy in government. These changes affected religious
beliefs, producing a pantheon of deities that mirrored the political organization of the Chinese
empire. Gods and spirits had different ranks and areas of responsibility, just like Chinese
officials.
Shortly before A . D . 100, Buddhism arrived in China from India and added another important
influence to Chinese culture and mythology. Buddhist ideas gradually came to be merged with
Taoism and Confucianism in the minds of many Chinese. The three traditions often were seen as
different aspects of the same religion and as having basically the same goals. Buddhists and
Taoists honored each other's deities in their temples, and both incorporated principles of
Confucianism, such as ancestor worship, in their beliefs.
Confucianism
Confucianism is more of a philosophy than a true religion. It does not include gods and never
developed a mythology of its own. Confucianism is concerned primarily with human affairs
rather than with the spirit world or the afterlife. At the same time, however, it emphasizes the
importance of ritual and devotion to elders and ancestors.
Confucius. Confucianism sprang from the ideas of one manKongfuzi, or Confucius. Born in
551 B . C . to a poor family of aristocratic background, Confucius began a teaching career after
working as a minor government official. For Confucius, the goal of education and learning was
self-knowledge and self-improvement, which would lead one to right conduct. Although his
method of education was aimed at ensuring the smooth operation of a stable and well-ordered
state, his teachings became a guide to living wisely as well.
Confucius attracted many followers who spread his ideas after his death in 479 B . C . A number
of legends grew up about Confucius, including one in which dragons guarded his mother when
he was born. According to another story, a unicorn appeared at his birth and spit out a piece of
jade with a prophecy written on it, saying that the infant would become "an uncrowned
emperor." Considering the immense impact of Confucius on Chinese culture, the prophecy came
true.
prophecy foretelling of what is to come; also something that is predicted
hierarchy organization of a group into higher and lower levels
ritual ceremony that follows a set pattern
Confucian Principles. The basic aim of Confucianism is to live in harmony with the "Way (Tao)
of Heaven" by carrying out the duties and responsibilities appropriate to one's position in society.
Ancestor worship and reverence to family are fundamental elements of Confucianism. Rituals to
honor ancestors are extremely
A scholar at the Chinese royal court, Laozi supposedly wrote the Tao Te Ching, the main text of the
Chinese religion Taoism. Although there are many legends concerning Laozi, little factual information is
available regarding his life.
important and must be performed in precise ways. By carrying them out properly, an individual can
receive the aid and cooperation of deceased relatives. Misfortune, a sign of displeasure by the
deceased, indicates that the proper rituals have not been followed.
Despite its spiritual elements, Confucianism is not really concerned with the spirit world. It does
not teach about gods, heaven, and the afterlife. Confucius himself supposedly remarked, "I stand
in awe of the spirits, but I keep them at a distance." Confucianism is basically a philosophy that
focuses on the real world and provides guidelines for how people should live their lives.
Taoism
Taoism, also known as Daoism, arose about the same time as Confucianism. This religious
tradition had its roots in the nature worship of the earliest Chinese people. The word tao means
"way," and Taoist belief is based on the idea that there is a natural order or a "way of heaven"
that one can come to know by living in harmony with nature. Through an understanding of
natural laws, an individual can gain eternal life.
Laozi. The main Taoist work, the Tao Te Ching, was supposedly written by Laozi, a scholar at
the Chinese royal court in the 500s B . C . Little is known about Laozi. The main sources of
information, written hundreds of years after he lived, are legendary in nature. One of the most
popular stories about Laozi concerns a voyage to the west, during which he wrote the Tao Te
Ching. Other tales claim that Laozi met Confucius and that he lived more than 200 years.
Although the true story of Laozi will probably never be known, he is widely respected in China.
Confucianists consider him a great philosopher, while Taoists regard him as the embodiment of
the tao and honor him as a saint or god.
The Tao. While Confucianists emphasize the practice of ritual and ancestor worship, Taoists
seek knowledge through an understanding of the natural world. An important Taoist concept is
that of yin and yang, two opposing and interacting forces of nature. Yin is a feminine principle
and represents such ideas as dark, negative, cold, passive, softness, and earth. Yang, the
masculine principle, represents light, positive, heat, activity, hardness, and heaven. Yin and yang
exist in a delicate balance, and the harmony of the universe depends on maintaining that balance.
Originally a way of life, Taoism took on a more religious character after Buddhism arrived in
China. Taoism adopted the use of temples and rituals and promoted the belief that all things have
their own spirit. It also absorbed many mystical cults and created an elaborate pantheon as well
as a new mythology.
Taoist deities include nature spirits, ancient legendary heroes, humanized planets and stars,
humans who became immortal through Taoist practices, and animals such as dragons, tigers,
and snakes. All human activitieseven such things as drunkenness and robberyare
represented by deities as well. The highest deity, Yu Huang-ti (the Jade Emperor), is associated
with the ancient Chinese god Shang Di. Other central figures in Taoist mythology are the Eight
Immortals, humans who achieved immortality in different ways.
Buddhism
Buddhism arrived in China between 50 B . C . and A . D . 50, several hundred years after the rise
of Confucianism and Taoism. One of its basic principles is that all suffering comes from earthly
desire, and only by eliminating desire can one gain happiness.
The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, was an Indian prince who lived at about the
same time as Confucius and Laozi. Gautama gave up his princely life to seek truth and wisdom.
When these were revealed to him, he became the Buddha, or "enlightened one."
Buddhists believe that humans live many lives and are continually reincarnated, or reborn, to a
new form of existence after death. An individual's actions in previous livesknown as karma
determine what type of existence that person has after rebirth. The goal of Buddhism is to escape
the cycle of death and rebirth by achieving enlightenment and entering a timeless state known as
nirvana, in which one is free of all desire.
Because Buddhism holds out the promise of a better existence in the next life, it appealed very
much to Chinese peasants, who suffered great hardship and poverty Chinese Buddhism became
much more elaborate than Indian Buddhism, incorporating many Taoist and ancient Chinese
gods. Among the most popular Chinese Buddhist deities are Emituofo, ruler of the Western
Paradise, and Kuanyin, the goddess of mercy.
Common Themes in Chinese Mythology

Several common themes appear throughout much of Chinese mythology. Among the most
significant are the creation of the world out of chaos, the importance of nature, and reverence for
ancestors.
The Archer Yi and the Sun

When the world was still young, there were ten suns. Each took a turn being pulled through the
sky in the chariot of their mother, goddess of the sun. One day, however, the ten suns decided to
travel across the sky together. They greatly enjoyed their journey, but it brought disaster on the
earth, destroying crops and drying up streams. Dijun, the father of the suns, felt sorry for humans
and told his children to behave, but they would not listen. So Dijun sent Yi, a great archer, to
earth with a magic bow and arrows to frighten his children into behaving. When Yi realized that
neither threats nor persuasion would stop the suns, he shot his arrows into the sky and began
killing them. After he finished shooting, only one sun remainedthe one that travels through the
sky today.
cult group bound together by devotion to a particular person, belief, or god
immortal able to live forever
chaos great disorder or confusion
The main Chinese account of creation involves the god Pan Gu, the son of Yin and Yang, who
came into being in the darkness of chaos. After 18,000 years, Pan Gu had grown so much that he
caused the light parts of the chaos to rise and become the heavens, while the heavy parts sank
and became the earth. To keep the heavens and earth separated, Pan Gu stood up and forced
them apart. He grew 10 feet a day for another 18,000 years until the earth and heavens became
fixed in place. Pan Gu then laid down to rest and died. Various parts of his body became parts of
the universethe sun and moon, wind and clouds, and all elements on earth. The fleas on Pan
Gu's body became humans.
The importance of nature is stressed in legends such as that of the Five Sacred Mountains, which
represent the main points of the compass and the axis of the world. The most sacred mountain,
T'ai Shan, has Shang Di, the greatest earthly power, as its deity. Mount Kunlun, home of
immortals, became the focus of various cults. Many Chinese myths deal with natural disasters,
especially floods. Others deal with heavenly bodies such as the sun and moon. Animals,
including dragons, pigs, and monkeys, are also important figures in Chinese mythology.
Reverence for ancestors is another common theme in Chinese mythology. Long life is viewed as
a sign of the gods' favor, and for many centuries, the Chinese have sought the secret of long life
and immortality. In the past, Taoists believed that magic potions could be created that bestowed
eternal life on people who drank them and that beings known as hsien gained immortality in this
way. Both Taoism and Confucianism stress the importance of paying proper respect to elders,
especially parents and grandparents, and deceased ancestors are honored with various
ceremonies and rituals.

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Chinese mythology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chinese folk religion

Institutions and temples[show]

Major sources and concepts

Shangdi, also sometimes Hungtin Dd (), appeared as early as the Shang

Main article: Three August Ones and Five Emperors

The Three August Ones (Hung)

Main articles: Great Flood (China) and Yu the Great

Main article: Xia dynasty

Main article: Shang dynasty

Creation and the pantheon

Religion and mythology

Important deities and mythological figures

The Four Symbols of the Chinese constellation

See also: List of mythical Chinese mountains

Mount Buzhou: mythical mountain

Cords of the Sky

Zhulong: the torch dragon, a solar deity

Main article: Chinese dragon

Chi: hornless dragon or mountain demon

Jiuwei Hu (): Nine-tailed fox

Further information: Simians (Chinese poetry) and Monkeys in Chinese culture

Snakelike and reptilian

Further information: Chinese dragon and Snakes in Chinese mythology

Ao: a giant marine turtle or tortoise

Agriculture (Chinese mythology)

Myth versus history

A deity of the Earth who figures in various myths (Yang 2005:135-138).

Seeds from dog

Dog in Chinese mythology

The immortal Zhang shooting at the Tiangou

Myth versus history

Names in cross-cultural comparison

Chinese stone statue of "lions", showing pronounced dog-like features

Real and legendary dogs

Other canids in Chinese mythology

Horse in Chinese mythology

Chinese character Shang oracle ma3 horse

Character ma3, "horse", and so on.

Myth versus history

Chinese pottery horse, detail

Main article: Horse (zodiac)

List of Horse years, with accompanying signs

25 January 1906 - 12 February 1907: Fire Horse

Silkworm head. Late instar.

Horse head model from Han Dynasty China.

Various horses and composite creatures

Representation of composite Horse-Dragon

Buddhist White Horse

Journey to the West

Further information: Journey to the West

Xuanzang with dragon-horse

Horse-Face, or horse-faces, were underworld guardians/minions, located in Diyu, also known as

Gansu Flying Horse, Han Dynasty bronze.

King Mu's trip

Chinese unicorn (Qilin)

Imperial examination in Chinese mythology

Origin myth: Shun's succession

Triennial examination tradition

Zhou selection of the worthy and the capable

Myth versus history

Traditional Chinese-source scholarship regarding ancient China typically involves a dual

Eggplant fruit, or aubergine.