Ucmp First Mid Course File

COURSE FILE
UNCONVENTIONAL
MACHINING PROCESSES
IV B.Tech I SEMESTER
(MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)
By
Prof. A C S Reddy
DEPARTMENT
OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SREYAS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
NAGOLE
HYDERABAD
2017
UNIT I
- Introduction
- Need for non-conventional machining methods
- Classification of modern machining processes
- Considerations in Process selection
- Materials
- Applications
- Ultrasonic machining
- Elements of the process
- Mechanics of metal removal process parameters
- Economic considerations
- Applications and limitations
- Recent developments.
Objective
To make the students familiar with the needs and the different types of unconventional
machining processes.
Lecture plan
S. Topics to be covered Time Ref Teaching

No Aids
1 Introduction to unconventional machining pro- 50 min 1,2,3,4 BB/OHP
cesses, their needs and classification
2 Brief introduction to the type of energy source em- 50 min 1,2,3 BB/OHP
ployed in AJM, USM , WJM
ployed in EDM, ECM, ECG
ployed in EDM, ECM, ECG
ployed in LBM, PAM,EBM
LECTURE 1 Lecturer: Prof. A C S REDDY
INTRODUCTION
SCHEDULED DATE: ACTUAL DATE :
1.1 NEED FOR NON-CONVENTIONAL

MACHINING
? To meet the demand for production and precision, researchers and equipment
builders are looking outside the bounds of conventional milling, drilling, turning,
and grinding.
? New cutting and machining processes continue to emerge along with methods for
modifying the conventional techniques.
? Non traditional machining processes, are employed where traditional machining

processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons such
as the complexity of the job profile, high hardness of the material, demand for
smooth surface finish, closer dimensional tolerance and higher accuracy.
? The major characteristics of conventional machining are
1. Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation

2. Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces energy
domain can be a mechanical
3. Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature and at machin-
ing Conditions
1
SREYAS Dept. of Mech. Engg.
1.2 DEFINITION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL
MACHINING
? Non-conventional manufacturing processes are defined as a group of processes
that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal,
electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a
sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing processes.
? Material removal may occur with or without chip formation. For example in
AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case of Electrochemical machining
material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.
1.3 CHARECTERISTICS OF NON-CONVENTIONAL

MACHINING PROCESSES
? Very hard and brittle materials can be machined
? Flexible or slender work piece be machined, due to absence of physical contact

of tool and work (less cutting force)
? Complex part geometries can be produced
? Provides very good quality surface finish and dimensional accuracy
? Production of stress free components are possible
? Tool wear is less due to the absence of contact between tool and workpiece.
? Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using tools that

are harder than the materials themselves.
? New and novel materials because of their greatly improved chemical, mechanical
and thermal properties are sometimes impossible to machine using traditional
machining processes.
? Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining hard materials

like ceramics and composites or machining under very tight tolerances as in micro
machined components.
? The need to a avoid surface damage that often accompanies the stresses created
by conventional machining. Example: aerospace and electronics industries.
? They are classified under the domain of non traditional processes.1

2
2
PPT on UCMP
ACSR 2 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF NON-TRADITIONAL
MACHINING PROCESSES
? The non-conventional machining can be classified based on principle of working
and source of energy used to generate machining action: mechanical, thermal,
chemical and electrochemical.
? Mechanical: Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives

or fluids (or both)
? Thermal: The thermal energy is applied to a very small portion of the work
surface, causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization of the
material. The thermal energy is generated by conversion of electrical energy.
Electrochemical: Mechanism is reverse of electroplating.
? Chemical: Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack

by certain acids or other etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively
remove material from portions of the workpart, while other portions of the surface
are protected by a mask.
? The metal removal rates by ECM and PAM are respectively that of conventional
whereas others are only small fractions of it.
? Power requirement of ECM and PAM is also very high ECM has very low tool
wear rate The capital cost of ECM is very high whereas capital costs for AJM
and PAM are comparatively low.
? EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes.
? The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than for other
processes.


1.5 GENERAL CHARECTERISTICS OF ADVANCED
MACHINING PROCESSES
Table 1: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes
S. Process Process Characteristics Process parameters

No and MRR or cut-
ting speed
1 Chemical ma- Shallow removal on large flat or curved surfaces; 0.0025-0.1
chining (CM) blanking of thin sheets; low tooling and equip- mm/min.
ment cost; suitable for low-production runs.
2 Electrochemical Complex shapes with deep cavities; highest rate V: 5-25 DC; A: 1.5-
machining of material removal among other nontraditional 8 A/mm2 ; 2.5-12
(ECM) processes; expensive tooling and equipment; mm/min, depend-
high power consumption; medium-to-high pro- ing on current den-
duction quantity. sity.
3 Electrochemical Cutting off and sharpening hard materials, such A: 1-3 A/mm2 ;
grinding as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as honing typically 25 mm3 /s
(ECG) process; higher removal rate than grinding. per 1000A.
4 Electrical- Shaping and cutting complex parts made of V: 50-380; A: 0.1-
discharge hard materials; some surface damage may re- 500; typically 300
machining sult; also used as a grinding and cutting process; mm3 /min.
(EDM) expensive tooling and equipment.
5 Wire elec- Contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces; ex- Varies with mate-
tric discharge pensive equipment. rial and thickness.
machining
6 Laser-beam Cutting and hole making on thin materials; very 0.50-7.5 mm/min.
machining small holes and slots; heat-affected zone; re-
(LBM) quires a vacuum; expensive equipment.
7 Electro-beam Cutting and hole making on thin materials; very 1-2 mm3 /min.
machining small holes and slots; heat-affected zone; re-
(EBM) quires a vacuum; expensive equipment.
8 Water-jet ma- Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials; suit- Varies considerably
chining(WJM) able for contour cutting of flexible materials; no with material.
thermal damage; noisy.
9 Abrasive Single-layer or multi-layer cutting of metallic Up to 7.5 m/min.
water-jet and nonmetallic materials.
machining
(AWJM)
10 Abrasive-jet Cutting, slotting, deburring, etching and clean- Varies considerably
machining ing of metallic and nonmetallic materials; tends with material.
(AJM) to round off sharp edges; can be hazardous.
https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/unconventional-machining-processes/

Figure 1: Material removal rate in different non-conventional machining processes

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF U C M

PROCESSES
2.1 ADVANTAGES OF UN-CONVENTIONAL

MACHINING PROCESS
Unconventional machining is useful when dealing with particularly hard materials
(such as tungsten carbide or titanium).
Wear of tool is very less and no shape change effect of tool over the work piece.
Aoids direct contact between the tool and the workpiece, that wear and damage
is nonexistent.
Delicate , brittle material can be machined without damage.
Tool repair/ resharpening cost and time very less in comparison to conventional
machining process.
2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF UN-CONVENTIONAL

MACHINING PROCESS
? High cost
? complex set-up
? skilled operator required
Conventional machining involves the direct contact of tool and work -piece, whereas
unconventional machining does not require the direct contact of tool and work piece.
7
Conventional machining has many disadvantages like tool wear which are not present
in non-conventional machining. Disadvantages: Unconventional machine tools are typ-
ically much more expensive than conventional machine tools. These machine tools
involve a complex set-up and require specialized operators. These costs may not be
justified when working with softer materials.
2.3 APPLICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL

MACHINING PROCESSES
Area of application of various non conventional processes
Chemical machining (CM)

Chemical milling is usually applied where larger quantities of material is to be
removed from large plates or panels in the aircraft industry, space industry or
cutting in depths of up to 12 mm.
The process is used to make large aluminium alloy, etc. plates and sheet-metal
parts lighter.
Chemical blanking is used for manufacturing various scales, dials, rulers, etc.
in the instrument-making industry and fine mechanical engineering industry as
well as for manufacturing a variety of thin component parts in the mechanical
engineering industry.
The photo-chemical blanking is applied for manufacturing printed circuit boards

for the electronic industry, electrical wiring, electronic chip sets and very thin
component parts (depths of up to 0.0025 mm) for the aero-space industry, op-
tics, microelectronics, instrument -making industry, printing industry, crafts
engraving metal or other material articles.
Electrochemical machining (ECM)

This is used in wide machining applications for high-alloyed rigid steels and ma-
terials and also for manufacturing complex cutting shapes turbine propellers,
tools stamps, moulds, dies.
The technique is suitable for drilling small holes and cutting into hard materials
Electrochemical grinding (ECG)

The technique is applied in machining carbide tools and alloy tools, carbide steel
parts, etc. alloys featuring high strength characteristics. Used for grinding,
milling and drilling small holes. Not suitable for manufacturing dies

Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
The technique is applied for manufacturing tools and dies for machining cav-
ities and contour shaping and cutting. Used to cut and machine very hard and
hardened conductor materials. Used to manufacture complex dies, for example
for extrusion of aluminium component parts, etc.
Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM)

WEDM is Used for contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces The depth of the
cutting plates is adjustable to up to 300mm. Mostly used for grinding hard
carbide alloys of titanium, tungsten etc and for machining fragile and brittle
small-size components, surgical tools, optical devices etc.
Laser-beam machining (LBM)

It is used for cutting, drilling, marking and for surface machining and welding op-
erations involving various materials: metals, ceramics, plastics, leather, textiles,
composite materials (in the aircraft industry, etc.).
Electron-beam (plasma) machining (EBM)

It is is used in similar applications to those described for LBM but performed in
a vacuum surrounding medium: precise cutting and welding of various materials.
Water-jet machining (WJM)

This technique is used for dynamic cutting and machining various materials:
plastic, rubber, foodstuffs, paper, leather, insulation materials, composite mate-
rials of up to 25mm thickness. Finds application in the food industry and the
production of plastics
Abrasive jet (gas) machining (AJM)

Applied for machining small holes, cleaning surfaces from removing sand or scale
in foundry applications, stamped forgings and also for non-metal and fragile
materials, as well as for deburring operations. Dielectric fluid in EDM

PROCESS SELECTION
3.1 CONSIDERATIONS IN PROCESS SELECTION

To make effective utilization of advanced machining methods, it is important to
know the precise character of the machining issue. It is to be comprehended that:
these methods cannot replace the conventional machining processes and

a particular machining method found suitable under the given conditions
may not be equally efficient under different conditions.
A careful assortment of the procedure for a given machining issue is fundamental.
Before selecting the process to be employed, the following aspects must be stud-
ied:
Physical parameters.
Properties of the work material and the shape to be machined.
Process capability.
Economic considerations.
When comparing the physical parameters of modern machining processes, it may

be noticed that both EDM and USM require approximately the same power,
whereas ECM consumes roughly forty times more power than EDM. ECM con-
sumes much greater power, it is an excellent method for drilling long slender
holes with length/dia ratio > 20. It can be seen that for the machining of elec-
trically non-conducting materials, both ECM and EDM are unsuitable, whereas
the mechanical methods can achieve the desired results.
10
3.2 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
The economics of the various processes are analysed on the basis of following
factors and given in Table 2.
Capital cost
Tooling cost
Consumed power cost
Metal removal rate efficiency
Tool wear.
The capital cost of ECM is very high when compared with traditional mechanical
contour grinding and other non-conventional machining processes whereas capital
costs for AJM and PAM are comparatively low.
EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes. Power con-
sumption is very low for PAM and LBM processes whereas it is greater in case
of ECM.
The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than for other
processes.
In conclusion, the suitability of application of any of the processes is dependent

upon various factors and must be considered all or some of them before applying
non-conventional processes.
Table 2: Economic Considerations in UCMP
Process Captial cost Total cost Power cost Material Tool wear
removal
rate effi-
ciency
USM L L L H M
AJM VL L L H L
ECM VH M M L VL
CHM M L H M VL
EDM M H L H H
EBM H L L VH VL
LBM L L VL VH VL
PAM VL L VL VL VL

Comparison of conventional and non-conventional machining processes
4.1 CONVENTIONAL MACHINING VS.

UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS
Conventional machining usually involves changing the shape of a work piece using
an implement made of a harder material. Using conventional methods to machine
hard metals and alloys means increased demand of time and energy and therefore
increases in costs; in some cases conventional machining may not be feasible.
Conventional machining also costs in terms of tool wear and in loss of quality
in the product owing to induced residual stresses during manufacture. With
ever increasing demand for manufactured goods of hard alloys and metals, such
as Inconel 718 or titanium, more interest has gravitated to non-conventional
machining methods.
Conventional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical (motion)

energy.
Non-conventional machining utilizes other forms of energy.
The three main forms of energy used in non-conventional machining processes

are as follows:
Thermal energy
Chemical energy
Electrical energy
The below table gives the comparison between conventional and non-conventional ma-
chining processes
12
S.No Conventional Manufacturing Pro- Non-Conventional Manufacturing Processes

cesses
1. Generally macroscopic chip forma- Chips are of microscopic size. example in AJM, chips
tion by shear deformation. are of microscopic size and in case of Electrochemi-
cal machining material removal occurs due to electro-
chemical dissolution at atomic level
2. There may be a physical tool 2.There may not be a physical tool present. For ex-
present. for example a cutting tool ample in laser jet machining, machining is carried out
in a Lathe Machine by laser beam. However in Electrochemical Machining
there is a physical tool that is very much required for
machining.
3. Cutting tool is harder than work No physical tool present in most processes. For exam-
piece at room temperature as well ple in laser jet machining, machining is carried out by
as under machining conditions laser beam.
4. Material removal takes place due to Do not use mechanical energy to provide material re-
application of cutting forces en- moval but uses different energy domains to provide
ergy domain can be classified as me- machining. For example, USM, AJM, WJM uses me-
chanical chanical energy, whereas in ECM electrochemical dis-
solution constitutes material removal.
5. It involves the direct contact of tool Whereas unconventional machining does not require
and workpiece the direct contact of tool and work piece.
6. Lower accuracy and surface finish. Higher accuracy and surface finish.
7. Suitable for every type of material Not Suitable for every type of material economically
economically
8. Tool life is less Tool life is more
9. Higher waste of material due to high Lower waste of material due to low or no wear.
wear.
10. Noisy operation mostly cause sound Quieter operation mostly no sound pollutions are pro-
pollutions duced.
11. Lower capital cost Higher capital cost
12. Easy set-up of equipment. Complex set-up equipment.
13. Skilled or un-skilled operator may Skilled operator required.
required
14. Generally they are manual to oper- . Generally they are fully automated process.
ate.
15. Cant be used to produce prototype Can be used to produce prototype parts very effi-
parts ciently And economically.

ULTRASONIC MACHINING
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic machining is changing the manufacturing industries with its superla-
tive performance.
It is also known as Ultrasonic impact grinding is an operation that involves

a vibrating tool fluctuating the ultrasonic frequencies in order to remove the
material from the work piece.
The main reason why this machining process is used in the manufacturing area
is because it evolves less heat in the process.
All the operations done with the ultrasonic machining method are cost effective
and best in results.
5.2 WHAT IS ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)?

Ultrasonic machining is a nontraditional process. In this process abrasives con-
tained in the slurry are driven against the work by a tool oscillating at low
amplitude (25100 microns) and high frequency (1530 kHz).
Ultrasonic refers to waves of high frequency above the audible range of 20 kHz.
Initially it was developed in 1945 for finishing of electro spark machine parts.
The USM process consists of tool made of ductile and tough material.
Tool oscillates with high frequency, and the continuous abrasive slurry is fed
between the tool and workpiece.
14
The impact of the hard abrasive particles fractures the workpiece thus removing
the small particles from the work surface. Ultrasonic machining is different from
the conventional grinding process as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Difference between conventional machining and USM
PARAMETERCONVENTIONAL USM
GRINDING
Motion The motion of the grinding The motion of the abrasive parti-
wheel is tangential to the cles is normal to the workpiece.
workpiece.
Basic pro- Material removal is by pure Material removal occurs by shear
cess shear deformation. deformation, a brittle fracture
through impact (hammering),
cavitation and chemical reaction.
Abrasive Abrasive grits are bonded to Abrasives are supplied externally
grits the wheel. in the form of a slurry.
Tool motion An abrasive wheel is rotated The tool is vibrated using mag-
by an electric motor. netostriction effect which pro-
duces ultrasonic waves of high fre-
quency.
Ultrasonic machining is an abrasive process which can create any material into
hard and brittle form with the help of its vibrating tool and the indirect passage
of abrasive particles towards the work piece.
It is a low material removal rate machining process. The process involves an

abrasive slurry that runs between the tool and the work piece. Due to this,
the tool and the work piece never interact with each other. The process rarely
exceeds two pounds.
This method is the best choice for working with hard materials such as ceramic
matrix composites, ruby, piezo-ceramics, glass, ceramics, Quartz, ferrite, dia-
monds, technical ceramics, alumina, PCD, sapphire, CVD silicon carbide and
similar ones.
5.3 PRINCIPLE
It works on the same principle of ultrasonic welding.
This machining uses ultrasonic waves to produce high frequency force of low
amplitude, which act as driving force of abrasive.
Ultrasonic machine generates high frequency vibrating wave of 20000 to 30000

Hz and amplitude about 25-50 micron.

This high frequency vibration transfer to abrasive particle contains in abrasive
slurry.
This leads indentation of abrasive particle to brittle work piece and removes metal
from the contact surface.
Figure 2: Principle of Ultrasonic Machining
The machining time of the ultrasonic grinding depends on the frequency of the
vibration, material properties and grain size.
Ample static force is also required to hold the job against the machining tool .
continues flow of abrasives suspension is also mandatory.

MECHANICS OF METAL REMOVAL IN ULTRASONIC MACHING
6.1 MECHANICS OF METAL REMOVAL IN UL-

TRASONIC MACHING
Removal of material during USM takes place mainly due to cavity on the work
piece.
Figure 3: Development of fracture in the workpiece due to hitting by an abrasive by

hammering
Abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape having diameter d.
The material removal is assumed to be either by throwing or hammering the grit

over the workpiece.
Material removal analysis models
17
? If the size of the particle is very small or the gap between the tool and work
is large enough, then the particle throwing model is considered.
? If the gap is very less or size of the grit is high, then grit hammering model
is considered.
In the both cases, a particle after hitting the work surface generates a crater of
depth h and radius r.
It is assumed that the volume of the particle removed is approximately propor-

tional to the diameter of indentation (2r).
The volume of material removed V is

1 4
V = X X r3 (1)
2 3
It can be shown that
d 2 d 2
r2 = h
2 2
2 2 1/2
r h X d r = (h d)
1 4
Vg = X X r3 = K1 r3 = K1 (h d)3/2 (2)
2 3
where K1 is constant of proportionality
Number of grit impacts (N) on the workpiece per cycle is inversely sectional
area of the grit
1 1
i.e N 2 = K2
4
d d2
N = K2 (1/d2 ) (3)
where K2 is constant of proportionality
Hence, volume of material removed per cycle is
Vc = K1 . K2 . h3/2 . d3/2 (1/d2 )

= K1 . K2 . h3/2 . d1/2
= K1 . K2 . h3/2 . d1/2

= K1 . K2 . h3/2 . 1/ d
p
= K1 . K2 . h3 /d
The volume of removal is frequency f.

p
Vc = K1 .K2 X h3 /d f (4)

All abrasive particles under the tool is not effective and K3 be the probability of
an abrasive particle under the tool being effective.
Hence
p
Vc = K1 K2 K3 . h3 /d f (5)
6.2 Grain Throwing Model)

In this model the tool hits and throws the grit particle onto the work surface
while machining operation.
Assuming sinusoidal vibration , the displacement (Y) of the tool is given by

Eq.(6) in which t is time period and a/2 is amplitude of oscillation.
Y = (a/2) sin( 2. . f . t) (6)
where a/2 = amplitude and f = frequency

The velocity of the tool is
a
Y = 2 . f cos (2 . f . t ) = 2 a f cos (2 f t ) (7)
2
The maximum velocity of tool is when cos(2 f t ) = 1 Hence
Ymax = a f (8)
let us assume that the grits also leave the tool with the same maximum velocity,i.e.Ymax .
The K E of a grit is given by

1 2 1 1
KE = m Ymax = m ( a f )2 = m 2 a2 f 2 (9)
2 2 2
A grit penetrates to the depth equal to h into the workpiece. It is assumed that
full K E of the grit is absorbed by the workpiece before it comes to rest.

Then the work done (Wg ) by a grit according to triangular variation of force (F)
with the depth of penetration) is given by
Wg = (1/2)F H (10)
Work done by the grit (Wg ) should be equal to the KE of the particle.
1
(1/2)F H = m 2 a2 f 2
2
1 4
= ( r3 ) 2 a2 f 2
2 3
1 4 d3
F H =2 . ( ) 2 a2 f 2
2 3 8
d3
F hth =( ) 2 a2 f 2
6
d3
hth =( 3 ) a2 f 2
6F
hth = ( 3 a2 f 2 d3 a )/6F (11)
F can be written in terms of workpiece property that can be known beforehand.

Mean stress acting on the workpiece surface (w ) is given by
w = F/A = F/(hth d) (12)
F = w hth d (13)
From equation 11 and 13 we get
hth =( 3 a2 f 2 d3 a )/(6w hth d)

hth 2 =( 2 a2 f 2 d2 a )/(6w )
p
hth = af d (a )/(6w ) (14)
From Eqs.(5) and (14), the volume of the material removed can be written as

r
h3
volume removed, V = K1 K2 K3 .f
v d
3
a
u r
u
u af d .
t (6w )
= K1 K2 K3 f
d
3/2
a
r
af d .
(6w )
= K1 K2 K3 f
d1/2
3/4
2 2 2 2 a
a f d .
6w
= K1 K2 K3 f
d1/2
3/4
2 2 2 2 a
a f d .
6w
= K1 K2 K3 1/2
f
d
3/4
a
2 a2 d2 .
6w
= K1 K2 K3 1/2
f f 6/4
d
3/4
a
2 a2 d2 .
6w
= K1 K2 K3 1/2
f 5/2
d
2 2 3/4
a a
= K1 K2 K3 d1/2 d6/4 d1/2 f 5/2
6w
2 2 3/4
a a
= K1 K2 K3 d f 5/2
6w
3/4
2 a2 a

5/2
V olume removed V = K1 K2 K3 d f (15)
6w

GRAIN HAMMERING MODEL
7.1 GRAIN HAMMERING MODEL
If the abrasive grit size is assumed to be considerably large, it is likely to be get

entrapped between the work surface and the vibrating tool.
Such particles would essentially hammered down on to the work surface by the
tool-hammering action.
This would lead to partial penetration of the entrapped grain with the tool (htl )
as well as with the work piece (hw ).
The value of penetration in tool(ht ) and in work(hw ) depends upen the hammer-
ing of tool and workpiece.
A force F acts on the abrasive pratical in slurry for partial time t only during
cycle time T.
1 RT
Mean force on the grit = Favg = F (t)dt
T 0
Here F(t) is the force at any instance of time
The tool force on grit starts from zero, reaches maximum and then decreases
again to zero when the tool leaves the contact with grit.
22
Impulse due to applied tool force is
Z T
F
F (t)dt = t
0 2
RT
2. 0 F (t)dt
F =
t
RT
2.(1/T ) 0 F (t)dt
=
t(1/T )
2.Fave
F = (16)
t/T
The total penetration due to hammering is
hh = hw + ht
The mean velocity of tool from mean position(O)to bottom position (B) is
distance
Vmean = = a/2(T /4)
time
Where a/2 = Amplitude of tool oscillation.
Time tool travel for grit penetration depth( tool+work) is distance / velocity i.e.,
hh hh (T /4) T 2 hh .T
t = a = a/2 = hh . 4 . a = 2 a
( )
2
T
( )
4

or
hh .T
t = (17)
2a
Substituting equation 17 in equation 16 we get

2.Fave 2.Fave 4.Fave a 4.a
F = hh .T
= hh .
= = Fave
2a
/T 2a
hh . hh
4a
F = Fave (18)
hh
Let N = Number of grains coming under the tool

Total projected are of penetration over the work = N X area of each penetration
= N X hw d
Total projected are of penetration over the work = N X area of each penetration
= N X hw d
3
Hence working Stress acting over the tool(t ) and work (w ) can be given as
F
t = (19)
N.dht
F
w = (20)
N.dhw
w
then =ht /hw = j (21)
t
where j= ratio of hardness of work piece material to the hardness of tool material.
Further
4.a
w =(Fave )/(N.dhw ) (22)
hh
4.a 1
=Fave /(K2 . 2 ).dhw (23)
hh d
4.Fave .a.d
= (24)
.hh K2 .hw
4.Fave .a.d
= (25)
.(hw + ht )K2 .hw
4.Fave .a.d
= (26)
.K2 .h2w (ht /hw + 1)
or
4.Fave .a.d
w = (27)
.K2 .h2w (j + 1)
or
4.Fave .a.d
h2w = (28)
w ..K2 .(j + 1)

s
4.Fave .a.d
hw = (29)
w ..K2 .(j + 1)
The volumetric material removal rate from the workpiece sue to hammering mechanism
Vh is
r
h3
Vh =K1 K2 K3 .f (30)
vd
uq 3
u 4.Fave .a.d
t w ..K 2 .(j+1)
=K1 K2 K3 .f (31)
d
h 4.Fave i3/4
=K1 K2 K3 d.f (32)
w ..K2 .(j + 1)
(33)
h 4.Fave i3/4
V h = K1 K 2 K3 d.f (34)
w ..K2 .(j + 1)
PROBLEM
Find the approximate time required to drill a hole of 6 mm diameter in a tungsten
carbide plate (fracture hardness = 6900 N/mm2 = 6.9109 N/m2 ) of thickness
equal to one and half times the hole diameter. The mean abrasive grain diameter
is 0.015 mm. The feed force is equal to 3.5 N. The amplitude of tool oscillation
is 25 m and the frequency is equal to 25 kHz. The tool material used is copper
having fracture hardness equal to 1500 N/mm2 . The slurry contains one part
abrasive to one part of water. Take the values of different constants as K1 = 0.3,
K2 = 1.8 mm2 , K3 = 0.6 and abrasive density = 3.8 g/cm3 . Also calculate the
ratio of volume removed from the work piece by hammering mechanism to the
volume removed by throwing mechanism.

SOLUTION
Given Data:
Hole dia. = 6103 m

P late thickness = 1.5hole diam.
= 9103 m
M ean abrasive grain size (d) = 1.5105 m
F eedf orce(F ) = 3.5N
Amplitudeof tooloscillation(a/2) = 25106 m
F requencyof oscillation(f ) = 25000cps,
F racturehardnessof workpiecematerialw (Hw ) = 6.9109 N/m2 ,
F racturehardnessof toolmaterial(Htl = 1.5109 N/m2 ,
Abrasivegraindensity() = 3.8103 kg/m3 ,
Hw
j= = 4.6, K1
Ht
= 0.3, K2 = 1.8mm2
= 1.8106 m2 ,
K3 = 0.6,
C = 1.
STEP 1
Calculate the value of h which is different for throwing model (hth ) and for hammering
model (hw ).
a
ht h = af d (35)
6w
s
3.8X103
= X(50X106 )X(2.5X104 )X(1.5X105 (36)
6X(6.9X109 )
= 1.78X105 mm (37)
s
4Fave a d
hw = (38)
k2 w (j + 1)
s
4X3.5X(2X25X106 )X1.5X105
= (39)
X(1.8X106)X(6.9X109 )X(1 + 4.6)
= 2.192X104 mm (40)
Step 2:
After computing the values of hth and hw , calculate Vth and Vth . Find total volume of
material removed per unit time(Vs ) by adding Vth and Vh .

Calculate the volume of material removed due to throwing action:
r
h3
Vth = K1 K2 K3 th .f (41)
dr
(1.78X105 )3
= 0.3X1.8X0.6 .2.5X104 (42)
1.5X102
= 4.97X103 mm3 /s (43)
Volume of material removed from the workpiece due to hammering action:
r
h3w
V h = K1 K2 K3 .f (44)
dr
(2.192X104 )3
= 0.3X1.8X1.6 4
X2.5X104 (45)
1.5X10
= 214.6X103 mm3 /s (46)
Step 3
volume of hole to be drilled

T ime required f or drilling hole = (47)
volumetric M RR = Vh + Vth
/4X62 X9
= (48)
0.219
= 19.366 min (49)
step 4
Vth
F ind the ratio of (50)
Vh
Vth 0.21460
= (51)
Vh 0.00497
= 43.48 (52)
(53)
Note:
Therefore the material removed in hammering is much more than throwing(approximately
43 times), hence, for approximate calculations, Vth can be ignored compared to Vth .

Factors affecting MRR in USM
8.1 FACTORS AFFECTING MRR
Tool Oscillation or Vibration
Amplitude of the tool oscillation has the greatest effect of all the process
variables.
MRR increases with a rise in the tool vibration amplitude.
Vibration amplitude determines the velocity of the abrasive particles at the
interface between the tool and workpiece.
A greater vibration amplitude may lead to the occurrence of splashing, which
causes a reduction of the number of active abrasive grains and results in a
decrease in the MRR.
Abrasive Grains
Both the grain size and the vibration amplitude have a similar effect on the
removal rate.
MRR rises as the grain size increase until the size reaches the vibration
amplitude at which MRR decreases.

Workpiece Impact Hardness
MRR is affected by the ratio of tool hardness to workpiece hardness. In this

regard, the higher the ratio, the lower will be MRR. For this reason soft and
tough materials are recommended for USM tools.
Tool Shape
28
Increase in tool area - decreases the machining rate; due to inadequate
distribution of abrasive slurry over the entire area.
Rise in static pressure - enhances MRR up to a limiting condition, beyond which

no further increase occurs
The MRR obtained with silicon carbide is about 15 % lower when machining
glass, 33% lower for tool steel, and about 35 % lower for sintered carbide
8.2 PROCESS PARAMETERS AND THEIR

EFFECTS
The various process parameters which govern the ultrasonic machining process
are
Amplitude of vibration (ao ) 15 50 m

Frequency of vibration (f) 19 25 kHz
Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions
Feed pressure (p)
Abrasive size 15 m 150 m
Abrasive material Al2 O3 , SiC, B4 C, Boronsilicarbide, Diamond
Flow strength of work material
Flow strength of the tool material
Contact area of the tool A
Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry C

ao =Amplitude, F(f)= Frequency, dg = dia of grit, c = concentration of abrasive in

slurry, w t = Flow strength of work and tool respectively
Figure 4: Effect of machining parameters on MRR

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF U S M
9.1 ADVANTAGES OF USM

Ultrasonic machining is ideal for certain kinds of materials and applications. Brit-
tle materials, particularly ceramics and glass, are typical candidates for ultrasonic
machining.
It can be used to drill circular or non-circular holes on very hard materials like
stones, carbides, ceramics and other brittle materials.
Non-conducting materials like glass, ceramics and semi precious stones can also
be machined.
Ultrasonic machining is capable of machining complex, highly detailed shapes

and can be machined to very close tolerances (0.01 mm routinely) with properly
designed machines and generators.
Complex geometric shapes and 3-D contours can be machined with relative ease
in brittle materials. Multiple holes even hundreds can be drilled simultaneously
into very hard materials with great accuracy.
USM machined surfaces exhibit a good surface integrity and the compressive
stress induced in the top layer enhances the fatigue strength of the workpiece.
Unlike other non-traditional processes such as laser beam, and electrical discharge
machining, etc., ultrasonic machining does not thermally damage the workpiece
or appear to introduce significant levels of residual stress, which is important for
the survival of brittle materials in service.
Aspect ratios as high as 25-to-1 are possible, depending on the material type and
feature size.
31
The quality of an ultrasonic cut provides reduced stress and a lower likelihood
of fractures that might lead to device or application failure over the life of the
product.
9.2 DISADVANTAGES
It can be proved slower than the conventional machining processes.
Material removal rates are quite low, usually less than 50 mm3 /min.
Creating deep holes is difficult because of the restricted movement of the suspen-
sion.
It is arduous to select the perfect tool geometry for creating hole of certain
dimension. The holes created may be of larger sizes because of side cutting.
The abrasive slurry also machines the tool itself, thus causing high rate of tool
wear , which in turn makes it very difficult to hold close tolerances.
The slurry may wear the wall of the machined hole as it passes back towards the
surface, which limits the accuracy, particularly for small holes.
The machining area and the depth of cut are quite restricted
9.3 APPLICATIONS
Hard and brittle materials can be machined like tungsten carbide, diamond and
glass. These are difficult to machine in conventional machining process.
Wire drawing dies of tungsten carbide can be drilled by this process.
The modified version of USM i.e., Rotary USM where the tool rotates, ensures
high metal removal rates, lower tool pressures for delicate parts,improved deep
hole drilling.
During USM sinking, material removal is difficult for depth 5 to 7 mm.
Under such conditions, the removal of abrasives at the interface becomes difficult
and hence the material removal process is impossible. Moreover, manufacturing
of such a tool is generally complex and costly.
Circular as well as non-circular holes can be done with straight or curved axes.
It has been proved successful in machining geranium, silicon quartz and synthetic
ruby etc.

Figure 5: Rotary USM Configurations
Figure 6: USM die sinking and Contouring

Rotary ultrasonic machining uses an abrasive surfaced tool that is rotated and
vibrated simultaneously can be used for drilling holes and performing ultrasonic
profile milling in ceramics and brittle engineered materials that are difficult to
machine with traditional processes.
Ultrasonic machining can be used to form and redress graphite electrodes for
electrical discharge machining.
It is particularly useful in micro drilling holes of up to 0.1 mm.
Ultrasonic Polishing by vibrating tool at ultrasonic frequency with a relatively

low amplitude removing high spots of size as low as 0.012mm.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS OF U S M
10.1 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS USM

The USM process has the advantage of machining hard and brittle materials to complex
shapes with good accuracy and reasonable surface finish. Considerable economy results
from the USM of hard alloy press tools, dies and wire drawing equipment. The power
consumption of USM is 0.1 W-h / mm3 for glass and about 5 W-h / mm3 for hard
alloys.
10.2 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN USM

Although the application of ultrasonic energy to produce or to enhance a wide
variety of processes have been explored since about the middle of the 20th century,
only a reduced number of ultrasonic processes have been established at industrial
level.
During the last ten years the use of ultrasonic machining processing has revived
particularly in industrial sectors where the ultrasonic technology may represent
a clean and efficient tool to improve classical existing processes or an innovation
alternative for the development of new processes.
The food industry, environment, pharmaceuticals and chemicals manufacture,

machinery, mining, etc the use of power ultrasound is becoming an emerging
technology for process development. In the area of ultrasonic processing in fluid
media and more specifically in gases, the development of the stepped plate trans-
ducers and other power generators with extensive radiating surface has strongly
contributed to the implementation at semi-industrial and industrial stage of sev-
eral commercial applications, in sectors such as food and beverage industry ,
35
machinery and process for manufacturing (textile washing, paint manufacture,
etc).
Ultrasonic vibrations (the harmonic red line) are being introduced to the drilling
and turning processes.
Mullard Research Laboratories have developed a process that combines electro-

chemical reaction with ultrasonic abrasion. A 60W ultrasonic drill and abrasive
suspended in an alkaline electrolyte can be machined nine times faster than by
ultrasonic alone.

UNIT I short Answer Questions
ULTRA SONIC MACHINING

Question What is ultrasonic machining?
Answer USM is a mechanical material removal process in which the material is removed
by repetitive impact of abrasive particles carried in liquid medium on to the work
surface, by a shaped tool, vibrating at ultrasonic frequency.
Question What are the advantages of USM?
Answer 1. High accuracy and good surface finish

2. No heat generation during machining
3. Capability of drilling circular and non-circular holes in very hard materials.
4. No thermal effects on mechanical work piece.
5. Non-conductive materials can be machined.
Question What are the Disadvantages of USM?
Answer 1. Tool wear

2. Frequent turning is required
3. Low material removal rate.
4. Not economical for soft materials.
5. Not suitable for heavy stock removal.
Question What are the applications of USM?
Answer
37
Almost all the material can be machined except some soft materials.
Diamond, Tungsten, Tungsten carbide, and synthetic ruby can be successfully

machined.
USM can be used for drilling, grinding, profiling, coining, threading and even for
welding.
For preparing wire drawing dies and tool room items.
Used in jewellery for shaping jewels
Drilling of screw threads and curved holes in brittle materials.
Question What are the components of USM?
Answer
Ultrasonic transducer
Concentrator
Tool
Abrasive slurry
Abrasive feed mechanism
Tool feed mechanism
Question What is ultrasonic transducer?
Answer The device used for converting any type of energy into ultrasonic wavers or vi-
bration is called ultrasonic transducer.
Question Write short noted on piezoelectric crystals?
Answer Piezoelectric crystals are used foe inducing ultrasonic vibrations since they posses
the capability of changing their dimensions to the given electrical energy or in
other sense they have the capability converting electrical energy into mechanical
vibrations.
Question What is magnetostrictive effect?
Answer It is the one in which the material changes its dimension is in response to a
magnetic field.
Question What are the magnetostrivtive materials employed in USM?
Answer Nickel, Iron cobalt called as permendum, iron aluminum called as alter.
Question What is the purpose of concentrator used in USM?

Answer The main purpose of the concentrator is to increase the amplitude of the vibration
obtained from the transducer.
Question What is abrasive Slurry?
Answer The abrasive slurry is nothing but a mixture of abrasive grains and the carrier
fluid, generally water.
Question What are the different types of concentrators?
Answer 1. Conical Type

2. Exponential type
3. Stepped type.
Question What are the characteristics of carrier fluid?
1. Good wetting characteristic

2. High thermal conductivity
3. Non-toxic and non-corrosive.
4. Should have low viscosity.
Question What are the elements of Carrier Fluid?
Answer 1. Act as a coolant.

2. Act as an acoustic bond between the work piece and the tool.
3. Helps efficient transfer of energy.
4. Act as medium to carry the abrasive machined materials and worm abrasives
Question What are the types of feed mechanisms used in USM?
Answer 1. Spring type

2. Counter weight type

UNIT II
Syllabus
- Abrasive jet machining
- Water jet machining and Abrasive water jet machining
- Basic principles and Process variables
- Mechanics of metal removal
- Applications and limitations
- Electro-chemical process and its fundamentals
- Electrochemical grinding , Electro chemical honing and deburring process
- MRR in ECM, tool design, Surface finish and accuracy
- Economic aspects of ECM Simple problems for estimation of metal removal rate.
Objective
To make the students familiar with the principles, process parameters, applications,
and recent trends of AJM, WJM and AWJM.
Abrasive jet machining
1.1 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

Principle
The abrasive jet machining is a machining process works on the basic principle
of abrasive erosion.
High velocity abrasive particles strike on a hard or brittle surface of the work
piece and removes the metal from the striking surface.
The metal removing process takes place due to brittle fracture of metal particles
as well as micro cutting due to striking of abrasive particles.
INTRODUCTION
In abrasive jet machining process, a focused steam of abrasive particles (of size
10 to 40 microns) carried by high pressure gas or air at a velocity of about 150
to 300 m/sec is made to impinge on the work surface through a nozzle, and the
work material is removed by erosion due to the high velocity abrasive particles.
The inside diameter (ID) of the nozzle through which abrasive particles flow is
about 0.18 to 0.80 mm and the stand-off distance (i.e. distance between nozzle
tip and workpiece) is kept about 0.3 to 20.0 mm.
The process can be easily controlled and the metal removal rate depends on the
flow rate and size of the abrasive particles.
This process is best suited for machining super alloys and refractory type of
materials, and also for machining thin section*s of hard materials. The cutting
action is cool as the carrier gas also serves as coolant.
1
Figure 7: Schematic view of Abrasive Jet Machining Process
When an abrasive particle (like Al2O3 or SiC) having sharp edges hits a brittle
and fragile material with a high speed, it makes dent into the material and
removes a small particle by a tiny brittle fracture.
The wear particle is carried away through the air or gas jet.
The operating elements in AJM are
abrasive
carrier gas and
Nozzle
The distance between the nozzle tip and the work surface has great influence on
the diameter of cut, its shape and size and also rate of material removal.
The following Figure 10 shows the variation in the diameter of cut with change
in the stand off distance (SOD).
It is evident that the SOD changes the abrasive particles spreads (i.e. covers
wider area) on the work surface and consequently increases the diameter of the
cut.
The nozzle tip distance (NTD) or the stand off distance is a critical parameter
in AJM.

Figure 8: Stand off Distance in Abrasive Jet Machining
Figure 9: Microscopic view of Abrasive particle
Figure 10: Abrasive Jet Machining

The NTD not only affects the MRR from the work surface but also the shape
and size of the cavity produced.
As NTD increases, the velocity of the abrasive particles impinging on the work
surface increases due to their acceleration after they leave the nozzle. This in-
creases the MRR. With a further increase in the NTD, the velocity reduces due
to the drag of the atmosphere which initially checks the increase in MRR and
then decreases it.
Figure 11: Variation of MMR due to stand off distance

EQUIPMENT FOR A J M
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT IN AJM

AJM machines are usually self-contained bench-top units.
First it compresses the gas and then mixes it with the abrasive in a mixing
chamber.
The gas passes through a convergent-divergent nozzle before entering the mixing
chamber, and then exits through a convergent nozzle.
The gas propulsion system supplies clean and dry gas (air, nitrogen, or CO2 ) to
propel the abrasive particles.
Figure 12: Examples of cutting in Abrasive Jet Machining
The gas may be supplied through a cylinder / compressor.
The gas/air should be dry and also free from moisture and oil.
5
The gas should be non toxic, cheap and easily available and should not excessively
spread when discharged from nozzle into atmosphere.
The nozzle can be hand held or mounted in a fixture for automatic operations.
Nozzles must be highly resistant to abrasion and are typically made of tungsten
carbide.
For average material removal, tungsten carbide nozzles have a useful life of 12 to
30 hours.
The distance of the nozzle from the workpiece affects the size of the machined
area and the rate of material removal.
The basic unit is schematically shown in following Figure 14. It consists of gas
supply system (compressor), filter, pressure regulator, mixing chamber, nozzle
assembly and the work holding device.
In the mixing chamber, the abrasive is allowed to flow into the gas stream. The
mixing ratio is generally controlled by a vibrator.
The particle and gas mixture comes out of the nozzle inside the machining cham-
ber of the machine tool unit.
The feed motion can be given either to the work holding device or to the nozzle.
Figure 13: Abrasive Jet Machining
[Source: ttps://www.overleaf.com /10539877zvkgtqdsptwg#/39360462/]
Equipment Specifications
? Abrasives
Material: Al2O3, SiC, Glass beads, crushed glass, sodium bicarbonate

Shape: irregular/regular

Size: 10 to 50 microns
Mass flow: 2-20 grams/min
? Carrier Gas
Composition: Air, CO2, N2

Density: 1.3 kg/m3
Velocity: 500 to 700 m/s
Pressure: 2 to 10 bars (.2 to 1 N/mm2 )
Flow rate: 5 to 30 microns
? Abrasive Jet
Velocity: 100 to 300 m/s

Mixing ratio: Volume flow rate of abrasives/Volume flow rate of gas
Stand off distance : 1 to 2 mm for cutting and 12.5 to 75 mm for cleaning,
frosting etc.
Impingement angle: 60 to 90 deg.
? Nozzle
Material: WC/ Sapphire

Diameter: 0.2 to 0.8 mm
Life: 300 hours for sapphire, 20 to 30 hours for WC
? Orifice : 0.1 to 0.8 mm
? Focussing Tube : 0.8 to 2.4 mm

mm mm
? Traverse Speed : 100 to 5000
min min
? Depth of Cut : 1 mm to 250 mm
PROCESS VARIABLES
For successful utilization of AJM process, it is necessary to analyze the following process
criteria.
Process parameters of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) are factors that influence
its Metal Removal Rate (MRR).
In a machining process the metal removal rate is the volume of metal removed
from a given workpiece in unit time.
The important process parameters in abrasive jet machining are
1. Abrasive mass flow rate

2. Nozzle tip distance
3. Gas Pressure
4. Velocity of abrasive particles
5. Mixing ratio
6. Abrasive grain size
7. Material removal rate.
8. Geometry and surface finish of the workpiece.
9. Wear rate of the nozzle.
Abrasive mass flow rate

Mass flow rate of the abrasive particles is a major process parameter that influ-
ences the metal removal rate in abrasive jet machining.
In AJM, mass flow rate of the gas (or air) in abrasive jet is inversely proportional
to the mass flow rate of the abrasive particles.
Figure 14: Variation in material removal rate with a change in abrasive flow
rate[V.K.Jain 2013]
Due to this fact, when continuously increasing the abrasive mass flow rate, Metal
Removal Rate (MRR) first increases to an optimum value (because of increase in
number of abrasive particles hitting the workpiece) and then decreases.
However, if the mixing ratio is kept constant, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) uni-
formly increases with increase in abrasive mass flow rate.

Nozzle tip distance (or Stand off Distance-SOD)
Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) is the gap provided between the nozzle tip and the
workpiece.
Upto a certain limit, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) increases with increase in nozzle
tip distance. After that limit, MRR remains constant to some extent and then
decreases.
In addition to metal removal rate, nozzle tip distance influences the shape and
diameter of cut.
For optimal performance, a nozzle tip distance of 0.25 to 0.75 mm is provided.
Figure 15: Effect of stand off distance on material removal rate

Gas pressure
? Air or gas pressure has a direct impact on metal removal rate.
? In abrasive jet machining, metal removal rate is directly proportional to air or

gas pressure.
? The AJM unit normally operates at a pressure of 0.2-1.0 N/mm2 .
? The composition of gas and a high velocity has a significant impact on the MRR
even if the mixing ratio is not changed.
Velocity of abrasive particles

Whenever the velocity of abrasive particles is increased, the speed at which the abra-
sive particles hit the workpiece is increased. Because of this reason, in abrasive jet
machining, metal removal rate increases with increase in velocity of abrasive particles.
Mixing ratio
? Mixing ratio is a ratio that determines the quality of the air-abrasive mixture in
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).
? It is the ratio between the mass flow rate of abrasive particles and the mass flow
rate of air (or gas).
V olumef lowrateof abrasiveparticlesVa
? Mixing ratio (m) = When mixing ratio
V olumef lowrateof carriergasVs
is increased continuously, metal removal rate first increases to some extent and
then decreases.
Abrasive grain size

Size of the abrasive particle determines the speed at which metal is removed.
If smooth and fine surface finish is to be obtained, abrasive particle with small grain
size is used.
If metal has to be removed rapidly, abrasive particle with large grain size is used.

ABRASIVE PROPERTIES AND M R R
Desired properties of abrasives used in AJM

1. Abrasives should have sharp and irregular shape.
2. It should be fine enough to remain suspended in the carrier gas.
3. In addition to hardness, the important properties of an abrasive is friability.

Friability is the ability of abrasive grains to fracture into smaller pieces; this
property gives abrasives self sharpening characteristic. High friability indicates
low strength or low fracture resistance of the abrasives. High friable abrasives
fragment more rapidly than lower friable abrasives. Aluminium oxide has lower
friability than silicon carbide; hence it has less tendency to fracture.
4. Should be cheap and easily available.
5. It should have excellent flow characteristics.
6. Reuse of abrasives is not recommended because:
(a) Cutting capacity decreases after first use.

(b) Contamination clogs the small orifices in the nozzle.
MRR
The Metal Removal Rate (MRR) is the volume of metal removed from a given
workpiece in unit time.
The material removal rate(MRR) in Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) depends

upon its process parameters
11
Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) is the gap provided between the nozzle tip and the
workpiece.
The MRR upto a certain limit increases with increase in (NTD) nozzle tip dis-
tance. After that limit, MRR remains constant to some extent and then de-
creases.
Figure 16: Effect of process parameters on MRR

MECHINING CHARECTERISTICS OF AJM
MACHINING CHARECTERISTICS OF AJM

Following are the AJM process criteria:
1. Material removal rate
2. Geometry and surface finish of the workpiece
3. Wear rate of the nozzle
Process criteria are generally influenced by the process parameters.

The characteristics of the above process parameters on process criteria are as fol-
lows.
Effect of abrasive flow rate and grain size on MRR

It is clear from the figure that at a particular pressure MRR increases with increase
in abrasive flow rate and is influenced by the size of the abrasive particles. But after
reaching optimum value, MRR decreases with further increase in abrasive flow rate.
This is owing to the fact that mass flow rate of gas decreases with increase of abrasive
flow rate and hence mixing ratio increases causing a decrease in material removal rate
because of decreasing energy available for erosion.
Effect of exit gas velocity and abrasive particle density

The velocity of carrier gas conveying the abrasive particles changes considerably with
the change of abrasive particle density as indicated in figure. The exit velocity of
gas can be increased to critical velocity when the internal gas pressure is nearly twice
the pressure at exit of nozzle for the abrasive particle density is zero. If the density
13
Figure 17: Effect of abrasive flow rate and grain size on MRR.
Figure 18: Effect of exit gas velocity and abrasive particle density

of abrasive particles is gradually increased exit velocity will go on decreasing for the
same pressure condition. It is due to the fact that kinetic energy of gas is utilized for
transporting the abrasive particles.
Effect of mixing ratio on MRR

Increased mass flow rate of abrasive will result in a decreased velocity of fluid and
will thereby decreases the available energy for erosion and ultimately the MRR. It is
convenient to explain this fact by term mixing ratio. Which is defined as
V olume f low rate of abrasives per unit time
M ixing ratio = (54)
V olume f low rate of carrier gas per unit time
The effect of mixing ratio on the material removal rate is shown in Figure 19. The
Figure 19: Effect of mixing ratio on MRR.
material removal rate can be improved by increasing the abrasive flow rate provided
the mixing ratio is kept constant. The mixing ratio is unchanged only by simultaneous
increase of both gas and abrasive flow rate .
An optimum value of mixing ratio that gives maximum MRR is predicted by trial
and error. In place of mixing ratio, the mass ratio a may be easier to determine. Which
is defined as
V olume f low rate of abrasives ma
= = (55)
V olume f low rate of carrier gas ma + mg
Effect of nozzle pressure on MRR

(Figure 2.6)
The abrasive flow rate can be increased by increasing the flow rate of the carrier
gas. This is only possible by increasing the internal gas pressure as shown in the figure.
As the internal gas pressure increases abrasive mass flow rate increases and thus MRR
increases.
As a matter of fact, the material removal rate will increase with the increase in gas
pressure.

Figure 20: Effect of exit gas velocity and abrasive particle density
Kinetic energy of the abrasive particles is responsible for the removal of material
by erosion process. The abrasive must impinge on the work surface with minimum
velocity for machining glass by SIC particle is found to be around 150 m/s. (Figure
2.7)
Stand off distance

Stand off distance is defined as the distance between the face of the nozzle and the
work surface of the work. SOD has been found to have considerable effect on the
work material and accuracy. A large SOD results in flaring of jet which leads to poor
accuracy. It is clear from figure that MRR increase with nozzle tip distance or Stand off
distance up to certain distance and then decreases. Penetration rate also increases with
SOD and then decreases. Decrease in SOD improves accuracy, decreases kerfwidth, and
reduces taper in machined groove. However light operation like cleaning, frosting etc
are conducted with large SOD.(say 12.5 to 75mm)

Figure 21: Effect of stand-off distance on the width of the cut
Figure 22: Effect of stand-off distance on material removal rate and penetration rate


MATERIAL REMOVAL MODELS IN AJM
Material removal models in AJM

Following assumptions are made in deriving the Material removal models for AJM.
1. Abrasive are spherical in shape and rigid
2. Kinetic energy of particle is completely used to cut the material
3. Brittle material are considered to fail due to brittle fracture and fracture of
volume is considered to be hemispherical with diameter equal to chordal length
of indentation
4. For Ductile material volume of material removal is assumed to be equal to inden-

tation volume due to particulate impact.
Abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape having diameter dg From

the geometry (Figure 2.10)
Abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape having diameter dg .
From Figure
AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
dg dg
= ( )2 + r2
2 2
dg dg
( )2 = r2
2 2
r = 2 + dg
2
Neglecting d2 term, we can write

r 2 = dg
p
r = dg
19
Figure 23
For Brittle material

Volume of the material removed is the volume of the hemispherical crater due to
fracture. Volume of the material removed is given by
1 4 1 4 1 4
Vb = [ r3 ] = [ (r2 )3/2 ] = [ (dg )3/2 ]
2 3 2 3 2 3
Let us assume that grits also move with velocity (V) then we can write
1
Kinetic energy = KE = mv 2
2
M = mass of a single abrasive grit = volume of grit density of grit
4rg3
V olumeof singlegrit =
3
3
4 d2g
=
3
dg 3
=
6
Therefore, we can write kinetic energy of the single grit
1 1 (dg )3
KE = mv 2 = ( g )V 2
2 2 6
On impact, work material would be subjected to maximum force F, which would lead
to indentation of . Work done during such indentation is
F w Xdg XX
W D by the grit = = (56)
2 2

It is assumed that kinetic energy of the abrasives is fully used for material removal.
Kinetic energy of the particle = WD by the particle
F
Alsoweknowthef lowstrengthof material = w =
r2
F = w Xr2
F = w Xdg (57)
Using equation (4) in (3), we get
F = w Xdg (58)
1 (dg )3 F w Xdg XX
( g )V 2 = =
2 6 2 2
Simplifying, we get r
g
= V dg
6w
MRR in AJM material can be expressed as
volumeof thematerialremoved
M RR =
N umberof impactsmadebyabrasivespersecond
M assf lowrateof abrasives
Vb =
M assof theabrasivegrit
2 Ma
Vb = [ (dg )3/2 ]X (dg )3
3 g
6
Upon simplifying we get
Ma
M RR =
(g )1/4 (w )3/4

PROBLEMS ON AJM-MRR
Problem-1
Estimate the MRR in AJM of a brittle material with flow strength of 4 GPA. The
abrasive flow rate is 2 gm/min, velocity is 200 m/s, density of abrasive is 3 gm/sec.
Data Given:
Flow strength of work material = w = 4x10 N/m = 4000N / mm
Abrasive grain density = 3gm/CC = 3x103 x103 = 3x106 kg/mm3
Mass flow rate of abrasives g = 2 gm/min = 2x 103 /60 kg/sec Velocity = V =
200x1000 mm/sec
Solution
Since the material is brittle. We need to use the MRR formula corresponding to The
brittle material.
Ma 2X103 X2000003/2
M RR = = 1/4
= 48mm3 /min
(g )1/4 (w )3/4 6
(3X10 ) (4X10 ) 9 3/4
[http://www.gpcet.ac.in/v2.0/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/IV-II-MMM-UNIT-I.pdf]
Problem-2
Material removal rate in AJM is 0.5 mm3 /sec. Calculate MRR/impact if the mass flow
rate of abrasive is 3 gm/min, density is 3 gm/cc and grit size is 60 microns .
Also calculate the indentation radius.
Data Given:
Material removal rate = 0.5 mm3 /s ec.
Abrasive grain size = 50 microns = 50 103 mm
22
gam
Abrasive grain density g =3 cc
= 3X103 106 kg/m3
Mass flow rate of abrasives Ma = 3 gm/min = 3 103 /60 kg/sec
SOLUTION

Problem-1
During AJM, the mixing ratio used is 0.2. calculate mass ratio if the ratio of densitiy
of abrasive and density of carrier gas is equal to 20
Solution
Va
we know that mixing ratio =
Vg
Ma
Mass ratio, =
Ma+g
Ma a Va
= =
Ma+g a Va + g Vg
or
1 a Va + g Vg
=
a Va
g Vg
= 1+ X
a Va
1 1
= 1+ X
20 0.2
1
= 1+ 0.25 =1.25 or = = 0.80
1.25
Problem-2
The diameter of the nozzle is 1.0 mm and the jet velocity is 200 m/s. Find the
volumetric flow rate(cm3 /s) of the carrier gas and absolute mixture, Va+g
Solution
The corss section*al area of the nozzle = X (0.5)2 X 102 cm2
= X25X104 cm2
Va+g = (X25X104 )X200X102 cm3 /s
= X25X2cm3 /s
Va+g = 50 cm3 /s

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF A J M
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Advantages

ADVANTAGES
1. This process is quite suitable for machining brittle, heat resistant and fragile
materials like, glass, ceramic, germanium, mica etc.
2. It can be utilized for cutting, drilling, polishing, deburring, cleaning etc. of the
materials.
3. Depth of damage is low (around 2.5 microns).
4. Holes of intricate shapes could be produced efficiently.
5. The surface machined can have good finish (by controlling the grain size mainly).
6. High surface finish can be obtained depending upon the grain sizes.
Particle Size (in Microns) Surface Roughness (in Microns)

10 0.152 to 0.203
25 to 27 0.355 to 0.675
50 0.965 to 1.27
7. It provides cool cutting action, so it can machine delicate and heat-sensitive

material such as glass and ceramics. They can be machined without affecting
their physical properties and crystalline structure.
8. Process is free from chatter and vibration as there is no contact between the tool
and the workpiece.
25
9. Capital cost is low and it is easy to operate and maintain AJM.
10. Thin section*s of hard brittle materials like germanium, mica, silicon, glass and
ceramics can be machined.
11. It has the capability of cutting holes of intricate shape in hard and brittle mate-
rials.
12. Abrasive jet process produces surfaces which have high wear resistance.
Disadvantages
1. Limited capacity due to low MRR. MRR for glass is 40 gm/minute.
2. The tapering of hole especially, when the depth of the hole is more, becomes
almost inevitable.
3. A dust collecting chamber is a basic requirement to prevent atmospheric pollution

to cause health hazards.
4. Abrasives may get embedded in the work surface, especially while machining soft
material like elastomers or soft plastics.
5. The accuracy of cutting is hampered by tapering of hole due to unavoidable

flaring of abrasive jet.
6. Nozzle life is limited (300 hours).
7. Abrasive powders cannot be reused as the sharp edges are worn and smaller
particles can clog the nozzle.
8. Short stand-off distances when used for cutting, damages the nozzle.
9. The process accuracy is poor because of flaring effect of the abrasive jet.
10. Deep holes will have unacceptable taper.
11. Process is not environment-friendly and causes pollution.
12. Some hazard is involved in using AJM process because of airborne abrasive par-
ticulates. By using abrasive water jet machining this problem can be solved.
AJM Applications
1. Abrasive jet machining is best suited for machining brittle and heat sensitive
materials
2. It is used for drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring, pol-
ishing etc.
3. It is used in drilling and cutting of hardened metals.

4. It is used for machining heat sensitive material like glass, quartz, sapphire, mica,
ceramic etc.
5. It is Use to manufacture electronic devices.
6. AJM is suitable for machining heat sensitive material like silicon, gallium because
the heat generation during the machining is very low.
7. AJM can be used for cleaning purposes. Removal of oxides on metal, smears on
ceramics, and other resistive coating on work material (e.g., insulator stripping
and cleaning of wire).
8. For removal of parting lines from injection moulded parts.
9. AJM is useful in deburring of plastic, cutting of metallic foils, machining of super

alloys and refractory materials.
10. They are used for machining of thin, brittle, fragile materials like germanium
because of low overall force.
11. To engraving permanent mark on the material.
12. Deburring of small precision parts that required a burr free finish such as medical
appliances, hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel system.
13. Micro grit blasting, Trimming and bevelling.
14. It is the best method for deburring small milled slots in hard metallic components,
small hole like in hypodermic needles and cavities inaccessible by other means.
15. Polishing of nylon and Teflon components.

Water jet machining and Abrasive water Jet Machining
[http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105127/pdf/LM-37.pdf]
Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) are
two non-traditional or non-conventional machining processes.
They belong to mechanical group of non-conventional processes like Ultrasonic

Machining (USM) and Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).
In these processes (WJM and AJWM), the mechanical energy of water and abra-
sive phases are used to achieve material removal or machining.
WJM and AWJM can be achieved using different approaches and methodologies
as enumerated below:
WJM - Pure
WJM - with stabilizer
AWJM entrained three phase abrasive, water and air
AWJM suspended two phase abrasive and water
In WJM water is pumped at a sufficiently high pressure, 200-400 MPa (2000-

4000 bar) using intensifier technology.
An intensifier works on the simple principle of pressure amplification using hy-

draulic cylinders of different crosssection*s as used in Jute Bell Presses.
When water at such pressure is issued through a suitable orifice (generally of

0.2- 0.4 mm dia), the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy,
yielding a high velocity jet (1000 m/s).
Such high velocity water jet can machine thin sheets/foils of aluminium, leather,
textile, frozen food etc.
28
In pure WJM, commercially pure water (tap water) is used for machining purpose.
However as the high velocity water jet is discharged from the orifice, the jet tends
to entrain atmospheric air and flares out decreasing its cutting ability.
Hence, quite often stabilisers (long chain polymers) that hinder the fragmentation
of water jet are added to the water.
In AWJM, abrasive particles like sand (SiO2), glass beads are added to the water
jet to enhance its cutting ability by many folds.
AWJ are mainly of two types entrained and suspended type. In entrained type
AWJM, the abrasive particles are allowed to entrain (i.e to draw along with) in
water jet to form abrasive water jet with significant velocity of 800 m/s. Such
high velocity abrasive jet can machine almost any material.
Schematic diagram of Water Jet Machining:
Figure 24: Schematic diagram of Water Jet Machining

Figure 25: Water Jet Machining Setup
Figure 26: View in Water Jet Machining process

Figure 27: View in Water Jet Machining process
Construction of Water Jet Machining (WJM)

The apparatus of water jet machining consists of the following components:
1. Reservoir: It is used for storing water that is to be used in the machining opera-
tion.
2. Pump: It pumps the water from the reservoir.
3. Intensifier: It is connected to the pump. It pressurizes the water acquired from

the pump to a desired level.
4. Accumulator: It is used for temporarily storing the pressurized water. It is

connected to the flow regulator through a control valve.
5. Control Valve: It controls the direction and pressure of pressurized water that is
to be supplied to the nozzle.
6. Flow regulator: It is used to regulate the flow of water.
7. Nozzle: It renders the pressurized water as a water jet at high velocity.
Working of Water Jet Machining (WJM)

Water from the reservoir is pumped to the intensifier using a hydraulic pump.

The intensifier increases the pressure of the water to the required level. Usually,
the water is pressurized to 200 to 400 MPa.
Pressurized water is then sent to the accumulator. The accumulator temporarily

stores the pressurized water.
Pressurized water then enters the nozzle by passing through the control valve
and flow regulator. Control valve controls the direction of water and limits the
pressure of water under permissible limits.
Flow regulator regulates and controls the flow rate of water.
Pressurized water finally enters the nozzle. Here, it expands with a tremendous
increase in its kinetic energy. High velocity water jet is produced by the nozzle.
When this water jet strikes the workpiece, stresses are induced. These stresses
are used to remove material from the workpiece.
The water used in water jet machining may or may not be used with stabilizers.
Stabilizers are substances that improve the quality of water jet by preventing its
fragmentation.
Applications and limitations of WJM and AWJM

The applications and materials, which are generally machined using WJ and AWJ, are
given below:
1. Application
(a) Paint removal

(b) Cleaning
(c) Cutting soft materials
(d) Cutting frozen meat
(e) Textile, Leather industry
(f) Mass Immunization
(g) Surgery
(h) Peening
(i) Cutting
(j) Pocket Milling
(k) Drilling
(l) Turning
(m) Nuclear Plant Dismantling
2. Materials
(a) Steels

(b) Non-ferrous alloys
(c) Ti alloys, Ni- alloys
(d) Polymers
(e) Honeycombs
(f) Metal Matrix Composite
(g) Ceramic Matrix Composite
(h) Concrete
(i) Stone Granite
(j) Wood
(k) Reinforced plastics
(l) Metal Polymer Laminates
(m) Glass Fibre Metal Laminates
The cutting ability of water jet machining can be improved drastically by adding
hard and sharp abrasive particles into the water jet.
Thus, WJM is typically used to cut so called softer and easy-to-machine

materials like thin sheets and foils, non-ferrous metallic alloys, wood, textiles,
honeycomb, polymers, frozen meat, leather etc, but the domain of harder and
difficult to machine materials like thick plates of steels, aluminium and other
commercial materials, metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites, reinforced
plastics, layered composites etc are reserved for AWJM.
AWJM can as well be used besides cutting for pocket milling, turning, drilling
etc.
One of the strategic areas where robotic AWJM is finding critical application is
dismantling of nuclear plants.
Advantages of WJM and AWJM

WJM and AWJM have certain advantageous characteristics, which helped to achieve
significant penetration into manufacturing industries.
Extremely fast set-up and programming
Very little fixturing for most parts
Machine virtually any 2D shape on any material
Very low side forces during the machining
Almost no heat generated on the part
Machine thick plates

No secondary finishing required
Low cutting forces on workpieces
Limited tooling requirements
Little to no cutting burr
Typical finish 125-250 m
Smaller kerf size (i.e width of cut) reduces material wastages
No heat affected zone
Localises structural changes
No cutter induced metal contamination
Eliminates thermal distortion
No slag or cutting dross
Precise, multi plane cutting of contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.
Limitations
1. Cannot drill flat bottom
2. Cannot cut materials that degrades quickly with moisture
3. Surface finish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for rough
cutting.
4. The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost and
high noise levels during operation.

ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/unconventional-machining-process/
CHEMICAL MACHINING
? Chemical machining (CM) is the controlled dissolution of work piece material
(etching) by means of a strong chemical reagent (etchant).
? The material in CM is removed from selected areas of work piece by immersing

it in a chemical reagents or etchants; such as acids and alkaline solutions.
? The Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action, as occurs in

corrosion or chemical dissolution of a metal.
? This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch all exposed surfaces
even though the penetration rates of the material removal may be only 0.00250.1
mm/min.
Electro Chemical Machining Process

Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM) is the generic term for a variety of electro-
chemical processes.
ECM is used to machine workpieces through the anodic dissoultion of metal.
The process is used in aerospace engineering and the automotive, construction,

medical equipment, microsystem and power supply industries.
Almost all kinds of metal can be electro-chemically machined, especially high-

alloyed nickel- or titanium-based ones, as well as hardened materials.
35
As it is a contactless procedure with no heat input, the process is not subject to
any of the disadvantages experienced with traditional machining methods, e.g.
tool wear, mechanical stresses, micro-fissures caused by heat transfer or the need
for subsequent deburring operations.
All electro-chemical machining processes are characterized by stress-free stock

removal, gentle transitions and top-quality surfaces without burr formation.
ECM is basically the reverse of electroplating. An electrolyte acts as current

carrier, and the high rate of electrolyte movement in the tool-workpiece gap
washes metal ions away from the workpiece(anode) before they have a chance to
plate on the tool (cathode).
The cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool.
Modifications of this process are used for turning, facing, slotting, trepanning
and profiling operations in which electrode becomes the cutting tool.
The shaped tool is generally made of brass, copper, bronze or stainless steel.
The electrolyte is a highly conductive inorganic salt solution such as sodium

chloride mixed in water or sodium nitrate.
It is pumped at a high rate through the passages in the tool.
A DC power supply in the range of 5-25 v maintains current densities, which for
most applications are 1.5 5A/mm2 of active machined surface.
Machines having current capacities as high as 40,000 A and as low as 5A are

available.
The penetration rate of the tool is proportional to the current density.
Because the metal removal rate is only a function of ion exchange rate, it is not
affected by strength, hardness or toughness of the work piece, which must be
electrically conductive.
Process capabilities
Electrochemical machining is generally used for machining complex cavities in high-
strength materials, particularly in the aerospace industry for mass production of turbine
blades, jet- engine parts and nozzles. It is also used for machining forging - die cavities
and for production of small holes. The ECM process leaves a burr-free surfaces and
hence used for deburring process. It doesnt cause any thermal damage to the part
and the lack of tool forces prevents distortion of the part. Furthermore there is no tool
wear and the process is capable of producing complex shapes as well as machining hard
materials.

Figure 28: Chemical Machining
Figure 29: Electro Chemical Machining Equipment

Working Principle
1. During electrochemical machining process, the reactions take place at the elec-
trodes i.e. at the anode (workpiece) and cathode (tool) and within the electrolyte.
2. Lets take an example of machining low carbon steel which is mainly composed
of ferrous alloys (Fe). We generally use neutral salt solution of sodium chloride
(NaCl) as the electrolyte to machine ferrous alloys. The ionic dissociation of
NaCl and water takes place in the electrolyte as shown below.
N aCl N a+ + Cl
H2 O H + + OH
3. As the potential difference is applied across the electrode, the movement of ions
starts in between the tool and w/p. The positive ions moves towards the tool
(cathode) and negative ions move towards the workpiece.
4. At cathode the hydrogen ions takes electrons and gets converted into hydrogen
gas.
2H + + 2e H2
5. In the same way the iron atoms comes out from the anode (w/p) as Fe++ ions.
F e F e++ + 2e
6. Within the Electrolyte, the sodium ions combines with Hydroxyl ions and form
sodium hydroxide and ferrous ion combine with Chloride ions and forms ferrous
chloride. Also iron ions combine with hydroxyl ions and forms Iron hydroxide.
N a+ + OH N aOH
F e2+ + 2Cl + F eCl2
In the electrolyte the FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 produced and gets precipitated in
the form of sludge and settle down. In this way material is removed from the
workpiece as sludge.
7. The various reactions taking place in the Electrochemical machining process are
in the figure given below.
[http://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2017/05/electrochemical-machining.html] The
various reactions taking place in the Electrochemical machining process are in
the figure given below.


EQUIPMENT IN ECM
Main parts of Equipment in ECM

The ECM system has the following modules
1. Power Supply
2. Electrolyte filtration and delivery system
3. Tool Feed system
4. Working Tank
Design Considerations
Because of the tendency for the electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles, electrochemical
machining is not suited for producing sharp square corners is difficult and irregular cav-
ities may not be produced to the desired shape with acceptable dimensional accuracy.
Designs make provisions for a small taper for holes and cavities.
Electrolyte
The electrolyte used in ECM performs many functions such as
1. Completing the electric circuit between the tool and the work piece
2. Allowing desirable machining reactions to occur
3. carrying away the heat generated during the chemical reactions
4. Carrying away products of reaction from the zone of machining
40
Figure 30: Schematic Diagram of Electrochemical Drilling Unit
Essential Properties and Selection

An effective and efficient electrolyte should have the following characteristics
1. High electrical conductivity
2. Low viscosity and high specific heat
3. Chemical stability
4. Resistance to formation of passivating film on work surface
5. Non-corrosive and non-toxic in nature
6. In-expensive and readily available.
In most applications, sodium chloride solution in water has been found to be sat-
isfactory. Sodium nitrite solution is also extensively used as it is less corrosive charac-
teristics than sodium chloride solution.
Working Process of Electrochemical Machining

? First the workpiece is assembled in the fixture and tool is brought close to the
workpiece.
The tool and workpiece is immersed in a suitable electrolyte.
? Potential difference is applied across the w/p (anode) and tool (cathode).
? The removal of material starts and the material is removed as in the same manner
as we have discussed above in the working principle.

? Tool feed system advances the tool towards the w/p and always keeps a required
gap in between them.
? The material from the w/p is comes out as positive ions and combine with the
ions present in the electrolyte and precipitates as sludge.
? Hydrogen gas is liberated at cathode during the machining process.
? Since the dissociation of the material from the w/p takes place at atomic level,
so it gives excellent surface finish.
? The sludge from the tank is taken out and separated from the electrolyte.
? The electrolyte after filtration again transported to the tank for the ECM process.
Process Parameter
Table 5: Process Parameter selection
S.no Parameters Values

1. Power Supply
Type Direct Current
Voltage 2 to 35 V
Current 50 to 40,000 A
Current Density 0.1 A/mm2 to 5 A/mm2
2. Electrolyte
Material NaCl and NaNO3
Temperature 20 oC to 50 oC
Flow rate 20 lpm/100 A current
Pressure 0.5 to 20 bar
Dilution 100 g/l to 500 g/l
3. Working gap 0.1 mm to 2mm
4. Overcut 0.2 mm to 3 mm
5. Feed rate 0.5 mm/min to 15 mm/min
6. Electrode material Copper, brass and bronze
7. Surface roughness (Ra) 0.2 to 1.5 m
Application
1. The ECM process is used for die sinking operation, profiling and contouring,
drilling, grinding, trepanning and micro machining.
2. It is used for machining steam turbine blades within closed limits.

Advantages
1. Negligible tool wear.
2. Complex and concave curvature parts can be produced
3. Easily by the use of convex and concave tools.
4. No forces and residual stress are produced, because
5. There is no direct contact between tool and workpiece.
6. Excellent surface finish is produced.
7. Less heat is generated.
Disadvantages
1. The risk of corrosion for tool, w/p and equipment increases in the case of saline
and acidic electrolyte.
2. Electrochemical machining is capable of machining electrically conductive mate-

rials only.
3. High power consumption.
4. High initial investment cost.

ELECTRO CHEMICAL GRINDING
PDF FILE ON ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING
? Electro-chemical grinding (ECG) is a variant process of the basic ECM.
? Electrochemical grinding and electrochemical machining are similar processes

with a difference that a wheel substitutes the tool used in ECM.
? It is a burr free and stress free material removal process, wherein material removal
of the electrically conductive material takes place through mechanical (grinding)
process and electro-chemical process.
? The abrasive laden grinding wheel is negatively charged and the workpiece is
positively charged.
? They are separated by an electrolyte fluid.
? The fine chips of the material that is removed from the workpiece (debris) stays
in the electrolyte fluid, which is further filtered out.
? The wheel shape is similar to the desired work shape.
? The schematic of the electrochemical grinding is shown in Fig. 31
ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING VIDEO I
ELECTROCHEMICAL GRINDING VIDEO II
Process of Grinding in ECM

? The main feature of electrochemical grinding (ECG) process is the use of a metal-
lic grinding wheel which is embedded with insulating abrasive particles such as
diamond, set in the conducting material.
44
Figure 31: Electro Chemical Grinding
? Copper, brass, and nickel are the most commonly used materials while aluminum
oxide is a typical abrasive used while grinding steels.
? The commutator is an electrolytic spindle having carbon brushes and holds the
grinding wheel.
? It receives a negative charge from the DC power supply and the workpiece is
given a positive charge.
? In ECG process, the grinding wheel slightly touches the workpiece.
? Electrolyte is supplied on-to the grinding wheel near the workpiece such that
the wheel carries it through the cutting process thereby resulting in an electro-
chemical action.
? A nozzle similar to the one which carries coolant in a conventional grinding

process is provided, which enables the flow of electrolytic fluid to the work-tool
contact area.
? The electrolyte along with wheel works simultaneously in the process of cut-
ting. The electro-chemical cells thus formed further oxidize the surface of the
workpiece.
? The wheel carries away the formed oxides thereby exposing the fresh metal layers
beneath the workpiece.
? In this process of ECG, the major material removal activity takes place by th e
electrolytic action (around 90%). Rest of the metal removal takes place due to
the grinding action along with abrasives used (embedded in the wheel).
? This mechanical action contributes to around 1 0% due to abrasive action of the

conducting grinding wheel.
? The pressure applied on the grinding wheel is also much lesser than the conven-
tional grinding process.
? Thus the very basic necessity of frequent wheel dressings and truing as in the
case of conventional process is also eliminated.

Process Characteristics
? The life of grinding wheel in ECG process is very high as around 90% of the metal
is removed by electrolysis action and only 10% is due to the abrasive action of
the grinding wheel.
? The ECG process is capable of producing very smooth and burr free edges unlike
those formed during the conventional grinding process (mechanical).
? The heat produced in the ECG process is much less, leading to lesser distortion
of the workpiece.
? The major material removal activity in ECG process occurs by the dissolving
action through the chemical process.
? There is very little tool and workpiece contact and this is ideally suited for grind-
ing of the following categories:
? Fragile work-pieces which otherwise are very difficult to grind by the conventional
process
? The parts that cannot withstand thermal damages and
? The parts designed for stress and burr free applications.
Applications
The applications of ECG process include the following:
? In production of tungsten carbide cutting tools.
? In burr-free sharpening of hypodermic needles.
? In grinding of super-alloy turbine blades.
? In form grinding of aerospace honeycomb metals.
? In removal of fatigue cracks from steel structures that have been used for under-
water applications.
? The ECG process can be applied to the following common methods of grinding.
1. Face Wheel Grinding.

2. Cone Wheel grinding.
3. Peripheral or Surface grinding.
4. Form Wheel or Square grinding.

ELECTROCHEMICAL HONING
? ElectroChemical Honing process comes under the process of ElectroChemical

Machining process.
? ElectroChemical Honing process is mostly employed for better surface finish,
accuracy and economic aspects too.
? An ElectroChemical Honing Process consists of a tool, non conducting abrasive
honing stones, cylinder and an electrolyte. It has a negative pole, a positive pole,
electrolyte and a tool.
Figure 32: Electrochemical Honing Process
ELECTROCHEMICAL HONING PROCESS VIDEO I
47
? In this process, the tool inside the cylindrical parts moves in the longitudinal as
well as rotational direction.To obtain uniform flow, the electrolyte is feeded to
the tool under pressure through the holes.
? The abrasive honing stones are pushed forward to move in the slots under equal
pressure in all directions.These stones help to assist the electrochemical action
and also to scratch the left over unfinished surfaces.
? Thus, a clean finished surface is obtained.
? In an electrochemical honing process, in order to obtain better accuracy, the size

of the tolerance on the diameter can be provided at 0.01 mm and roundness can
be maintained at lesser than 0.05 mm.
? It provides the surface roughness in the range of 0.1 microns to 0.5 microns. To
attain a specified roughness on the work surface, the abrasive honing stones are
required to keep on the work for a few seconds after the power is cut off.
? The surface finish of the electrochemical honing process obtained is mostly based
up on the following terms.
1. Size of the abrasive grains.

2. Speed of the rotation and reciprocation.
3. Duration of the run out period.
Advantages of Electorchemical Honing process

1. ElectroChemical Honing process enhances the material removal rate specif-
ically for harder materials.
2. There is no presence of burrs on the finished surfaces.
3. ElectroChemical Honing process requires minimum amount of work pressure
on the tool and the work piece.
4. ElectroChemical Honing process reduces the noise level and distortion while
honing thin walled tubes.
5. ElectroChemical Honing process increases the accuracy without damaging
the materials due to the provision of cooling medium.
Applications of ElectroChemical Honing process

1. ElectroChemical Honing process is used for machining small size materials
with greater accuracy.
2. ElectroChemical Honing process is applicable for the cylindrical components
where truing operation is performed on the interior surfaces.

ELECTROCHEMICAL DEBURRING PROCESS
? Electrochemical deburring (ECD) also known as Electrolytic Deburring is an

adaptation of Electrochemical Machining (ECM) process designed to remove
burrs or to round sharp corners on metal workpieces by anodic dissolution method.
? Workpieces with complex geometries often contain machining sectors that are
difficult to get correct profile at undercuts, intersecting drill holes etc. without
burrs.
? The setup for Electro Chemical Deburring is as shown in figure ??.
? The hole in the workpart has a sharp burr of the type that is produced in a
conventional through-hole drilling operation.
? The electrode tool is designed better to focus the metal removal action on the
burr.
? Surface portions of the machining tool not being used for machining are insulated.
? The electrolyte material flows through the hole to carry away the burr particles.
Figure 33: Electro Chemical Deburring Process
49
? The same Electrochemical machining (ECM) principles of operation also apply
to Electrochemical deburring (ECD).
? Less material is removed in the Electrochemical Deburring (ECD) machining

process; cycle times are much shorter. A typical cycle time in ECD is less than
a minute. The cycle time can be increased if it is desired to round the corner in
addition to removing the burr.
? However, this changes drastically when it comes to the necessary deburring, as

the burrs on sections that are difficult to reach must also be removed cleanly and
without negative impact on the material.
? Medium size batch and mass production attach great importance to high quality,
and internal burrs and ridges can adversely affect the functioning of a component.
Process
? ECD removes metal by non-contact, electrochemical action at very fast and safe.
? Using a low voltage direct current and non-toxic salt electrolytes the burrs are
dissolved away is a reverse plating action.
? During electrolytic deburring the metal which is removed is converted into fine
metal hydroxide particles, which are flushed out of the part by the electrolyte,
and can be removed from the electrolyte with filtration.
? The process involves three principle elements: a fixture, the machine, and the
electrolyte.
ELECTROCHEMICAL DEBURRING PROCESS VIDEO
Fixtures
? An ECD fixture starts with a base made from a conductive material onto which
a workpiece is mounted and precisely located.
? An electrode may be mounted stationary onto the base such that it is correctly
positioned relative to the feature being deburred when the part is mounted onto
the fixture, or electrodes may be mounted on pneumatically actuated slides and
positioned inside the workpiece after it has been located onto the base.
? Tool design centers around the mask and the electrode. Masks are made from
nonconductive material and are bored out to cover the electrode except in the
work zone, plus additional space for the flow of electrolyte.
? The mask can also serve as a locating device for the workpiece. The gap between
the electrode and the workpiece at the work zone is usually 0.5 1.0 mm.
? If the ECD machines power supply has a sufficient high current rating, multiple
identical fixtures can be mounted onto the worktable and used simultaneously.

Machines
? An ECD workstation consists of a frame mounted sink, an electrolyte tank and
pumping system, and a DC power supply.
? A worktable to hold fixtures is mounted in the sink. Backsplashes are located

at the rear and sides of the sink. Busbars for electrical current, manifolds for
electrolyte, compressed air, and rinse water are mounted onto the backsplash for
convenient access.
? Pneumatic cylinders are frequently used both to clamp the workpiece into the
fixture, establishing electrical contact, and also to index electrodes into internal
workpiece features.
? The electrolyte tank is separated by an internal divider into two compartments

(for clean and dirty electrolyte) sits under the frame, and has a capacity of
approximately 60 gallons.
? Electrolyte flow is provided by a stainless steel centrifugal pump to a manifold

mounted to the frame behind the back splash; flowrates to fixtures are set by
individual needle valves.
? The Power Supply is a 30 VDC switching type power supply and provides excel-
lent quality DC with less than 3% ripple. Pulsed output can be provided down
to 50 millisecond pulse width. Power supply cooling can be either by forced air
or cooled water.
? All production ECD machines require an electrolyte filtration system with its
own pump; bag filters, filter presses, and, for ultimate electrolyte cleanliness,
nanofiltration membrane filters are used.
? Most machines also include an electrolyte chiller to maintain electrolyte temper-

ature, and an electrolyte Conductivity Monitor & pH Controller to monitor the
salt concentration and to maintain the neutral pH of the electrolyte by pumping
a mildly acidic solution, such as citric acid solution, into the electrolyte tank.
Electrolyte
? The electrolyte is a simple conductive solution of a salt dissolved in water.
? The most common electrolytes use sodium chloride or sodium nitrate as the salt.
? For most applications, we recommend an electrolyte made with 2 pounds of

sodium nitrate per gallon of water. Keeping the electrolyte chilled below 21o C
improves the surface finish in the work zone and reduces the evolution of hydrogen
gas (from the formation of metal hydroxides).
? Some metals, such as titanium, require blends of several salts to achieve the best
results.

? The electrolyte can be used for several months With good filtration, maintaining
the correct salt concentration and pH adjustment.

MRR IN ELECTROC CHEMICAL MACHINING
INTRODUCTION
? Material removal rate (MRR) is an important characteristic to evaluate efficiency
of a non-traditional machining process.
? In ECM, material removal takes place due to atomic dissolution of work material.
? Electrochemical dissolution is governed by Faradays laws.
? FIRST LAW: It states that the amount of electrochemical dissolution or depo-

sition is proportional to quantity of electricity (i.e., amount of charge) passed
through the electrochemical cell. Hence
mQ (59)
where m = mass of material dissolved or deposited

Q = amount of charge passed
? SECOND LAW : It states that the amount of material deposited (or dissolved
further) depends on Electrochemical Equivalence (ECE) of the material which is
the ratio of atomic weight and valency.
A
m ECE
Z
4
An electrochemical equivalent (ECE) is the amount of a substance in grams produced or consumed
by the passage of one coulomb of electricity in an electrochemical reaction.
53
? Thus
QA
m
Z
1 QA
m=
F Z
MRR = Material removed per unit time
m
M RR =
t
Hence
1 1 QA 1 Q A 1 A I A
M RR = = . . = .I. = .
tF Z F t Z F Z F Z
where
I = current (amps)
F = Faradays constant= 96500 A-s/mol (or 26.801 Ah/mol)
t = time
m = mass in grams
A = Atomic weight of material
Z = Valency of dissolution
The above equation can also be written as
I A IE
MRR = .
F Z
= F
Where
E = gram equivalent weight of material = A/Z
If we take current efficiency into account
IE
M RRg =
F

g stands for grams
= current efficiency
The material removal rate in terms of volume is
IE
M RRv =
F.a

Problem 1
Calculate the MRR when copper is electrochemically machined under following
conditions:
gm
V= 18volt; I= 500A; Atomic weight= 56; Valency = 2 ; = 7.8 3
cm
Solution
IE
M RR =
F a
Here
E = atomic weight/valency= 56/2= 28
F = 96500
consider = 1
Hence
(500 28)
M RR = = 0.0186cm3 /s
(96500 7.8)
Problem-2
In electrochemical machining of pure iron a material removal rate of 600
mm3 /min is required. Estimate current requirement.

Solution
Given
M RR =600mm3 /min
=600/60mm3 /s
=10mm3 /s = 10x103 cc/s
IE
M RRg = 10X103 cc/s
F
IE
= 10X103
F.a
I(A/Z)
= 10X103
F.a
IA)
=
F.a Z
F or iron A =56
Z =2 and
=7.8
F =96500(constant)
10X103 .F a X2
I=
A
3
10X10 X96500X7.8X2
=
1X56
=268.8A
Problem 3
Calculate the MRR when copper is electrochemically machined under the fol-
lowing conditions:
Voltage V = 18 volts; Current I = 500 A ; Automic weight A = 56; Valency =
2; = 7.8 gm/cm3

Solution
EI
W e have : M RR =
F
(A/Z)I
=
F
(56/2)X500
=
96500X7.8
= 0.0186 cm3 /s (Ans)
Problem - 4
Calculate MRR of Nimonic alloy(Co-Ni-Cr) with the following composition
Element % Automic weight Valency

Co 18 58.93 2
Ni 62 58.71 2
Cr 20 51.99 6
I=500A; =8.28 gm/cm3
solution
1/E = % composition X (valency/automic weight)

2 2 6
= (0.18X ) + (0.62X ) + (0.20X )
58.93 58.71 51.99
= 0.0061 + 0.0211 + 0.02308
= 0.05028
E = 1/0.05028
= 19.888
EI
M RR =
F
19.888X500
=
96500X8.28
9944
=
799020
= 0.0124 cm3 /sec (Ans.)

Unit II - Short answer questions review
Question Define AJM?

It is the material removal process where the material is removed or machined by
the impact erosion of the high velocity
stream of air or gas and abrasive mixture, which is focused on to the work piece.
Question How does AJM differ from conventional sand blasting process?
AJM differ from the conventional sand blasting process in the way that the
abrasive is much finer and effective control over
the process parameters and cutting. Used mainly to cut hard and brittle mate-
rials, which are thin and sensitive to heat.
Question What are the advantages of AJM process?
1. Low capital cost
2. Less vibration.
3. Good for difficult to reach area.
4. No heat is generated in work piece.
5. Ability to cut intricate holes of any hardness and brittleness in the material.
6. Ability to cut fragile, brittle hard and heat sensitive material without damage.
Question What are the applications of AJM?
1. For abrading and frosting glass, it is more economical than acid etching and
grinding. 2. For doing hard suffuses, safe removal of smears and ceramics oxides
on metals.
3. Resistive coating etc from ports to delicate to withstand normal scrapping
4. Delicate cleaning such as removal of smudges from antique documents.
5. Machining semiconductors such as germanium etc.
58
Question Write the Disadvantages of AJM process?
1. Low metal removal rate.
2. Due to stay cutting accuracy is affected.
3. Parivles is imbedding in work piece.
4. Abrasive powder cannot be reused.
Question Give the formula for find the material remove rate for brittle metal?
M V 3/2
M RR = 1.04 (60)
1/4 H 3/4
Question Give a summary of the abrasive of their application for different operation? (1)
Aluminum Cleaning, Cutting and Debar (2) Silicon Carbide. Faster cleaning,
Cutting. (3) Glass Heads Matt polishing, cleaning (4) Crushed glass Peening
and cleaning.
Question Write the formula for find the MRR for ductile materials?
MV 2
M RR = 0.5 (61)
H
Question What are the Process parameters affecting the MRR in AJM?
1. Gas Pressure. 2. Velocity of Particles. 3. Abrasive mass flow rate. 4. Mixing
ratio. 5. Nozzle Tip Distance.
Question What are the disadvantages of using abrasives again and again?
1. Cutting ability of the abrasives decreases after the large 2. Contamination of
wears materials clogging the nozzle and the cutting unit orifices.
Question What are the different types of nozzles heads used in AJM?
1. Right angle head. 2. Straight head.
Question Why oxygen should not be used in AJM?

Oxygen should not be used because of fire hazard problem.
Question What are the different types abrasives used in AJM?

Aluminum oxides, silicon carbides, Crushed glass, Sodium bicarbonate, Dolomite.
Question Reuse of abrasives is not recommended in AJM. Why?

Reuse of abrasives is not recommended since the cutting ability of abrasive de-
crease after the usage and also the
contamination of wear materials clogging the nozzle and the cutting unit orifice.

WATER JET MACHINING
Question What are the properties of water jet machining about effect cutting action?
High pressure, high velocity jet of water.
Question What are the types of units and its purpose used in water jet cutting system?
a. Pump to generate high pressure
b. Machining unit to actually cut the material with the jet nozzle. c. Filtration
unit to clear the water after use. 3. Why we are using the diamond nozzle? a.
High hardness metal
b. Working life is more compared to other jewel nozzle such as ruby or sapphire.
Question Why do you select proper cutting fluid in WJM?

Cutting fluids mainly depends on the operation requirement, quality of finish,
cutting speed and overall cost
Question Does there is any environmental effects while using the water jet machining?
There is no environmental pollution such as dust suspended in the air because
the water jet drains any dust simultaneously
when cutting.
Question What are the advantages of WJC over conventional cutting methods?
a. Because of point cutting WJC is able to cut materials almost any pattern. b.
Material loss due to machining is minimum. c. WJC will not burn surfaces or
produces a heat an affected zone.
d. No environmental pollution.
Question What are the applications of WJM?

*Aero space
*Automobile
*Paper pulp industries
Question What are the commonly used additives in WJM?

1. Crly cerine
2. Polyethylene oxide
3.Long chain polymers
Question What is optical tracing system?

It employs an optical scanner that traces a line drawing and produces electronic
signals that control the X-rays.

UNIT III-THERMAL PROCESSES
- Thermal metal removal processes
- General principle and applications of electric discharge machining
- Electric discharge Grinding
- electric discharge wire cutting processes
- Power circuits for EDM
- Mechanics of metal removal in EDM
- Process parameters
- selection of tool electrode and dielectric fluids
- surface finish and machining accuracy
- characteristics of spark aroded surface
- machine tool selection
- Wire ECM-Principle and applications.
0.1 Objective
At the end of this unit the student would have learnt about the chemical and electro-
chemical energy based processes
Table 6: UNIT LECTURE PLAN
S.no Topics to be covered Time Ref Teaching

Aids
25 Chemical machining, working Principle 50 min 1,2,4 BB/OHP
26 Etchants, Maskant, 50 min 2,3,4 BB
27 Techniques of applying maskants 50 min 1,4 BB/OHP
28 Process Parameters MRR- 50 min 2,3 BB/OHP
29 Principles of ECM, Electrolysis, Functions of 50 min 1,2,3 BB
Electrolyte and its importance
30 ECM machine tool, equipments 50 min 2,4,5 BB
31 Electrical circuit, MRR 50 min 1,4 BB/OHP
32 Process Parameters of ECM, parametric 50 min 1,4 BB
analysis
33 Principles of ECG, ECG Machine Tool 50 min 1,4,5 BB
34 Equipments, Process Parameters 50 min 2,3,4 BB/OHP
35 Electrical circuit, MRR 50 min 2,3,4 BB/OHP
36 Process Parameters ,Process characteristics 50 min 2,3,4 BB/OHP

THERMAL METAL REMOVAL PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
? The application of very intensive local heat for machining have come into use in
recent year.
? Thermal energy usually applied to small portion of work surface, causing that
portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization.
? The source of energy used is amplified light, ionized material and high voltage.
? The spark of short duration and high frequency for machining and if the discharge
is submerged in dielectric, the energy can be concentrated in a small area.
? Examples are laser beam machining (LBM), ion beam machining (IBM), plasma
arc machining (PAM), and electric discharge machining (EDM).
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

EDM is a thermal material removal process
The material is removed by local melting or vaporizing small areas at the surface
of workpiece.
The EDM process removes material by controlled erosion by repetitive electric

sparks between the work and tool.
The heat energy is liberated by means of short duration electrical impulses
The tool and work is submerged in dielectric oil.
62
EDM finds its application in machining of hard metals which cannot be machined
easily by conventional metal cutting processes.
The products include dies, tools made of tungsten carbide, stellite, hard alloy
steels, hastalloy, nimonic, etc.
Facts About Lightning & Thunder how lightning works
ADVANTAGES OF EDM
Conventional EDM machines can be programmed for vertical machining, orbital,
vectorial, directional, helical, conical, rotational, spin and indexing machining
cycles.
This versatility gives Electrical Discharge Machines many advantages over con-
ventional machine tools.
Any material that is electrically conductive can be cut using the EDM process.
Hardened workpieces can be machined eliminating the deformation caused by
heat treatment.
X, Y, and Z axes movements allow for the programming of complex profiles using
simple electrodes.
Complex dies sections and molds can be produced accurately, faster, and at lower
costs.
The EDM process is burr-free.
Thin fragile sections such as webs or fins can be easily machined without deform-
ing the part.
L/D ratio as high as 20 can be achieved.
There is no contact between tool and workpiece so no forces acting in machining.
No residual stresses are generated in machining.
Among all non-conventional machining processes, EDM gives highest MRR
The mechanical properties of work piece material will not affect the material
removal rate (MRR).
Good surface finish.
DISADVANTAGES
Used for electrically conductive materials only.
Electrode wear rate is more.
Re-hardening occurs due to heat generated during machining.
No possibility for making exact square corners.

0.1.1 Applications of Electric Discharge Machining process
Blind cavities and narrow slots in dies, minimum diameter hole can be produced
is 0.13 mm.
For production of small holes, orifices, slots in diesel fuel injection nozzles, air-
brake valves and aircraft engines etc.
Delicate parts
Hole drilling
Machining of hard metals.
Tooling for many mechanical processes
moulds for plastic injection moulding
extrusion dies
wire drawing dies
forging and heading dies
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINE (EDM)

DEFINITION, EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS OF EDM
DEFINITION OF EDM
Electrical discharge machining (EDM), also known as spark machining, spark eroding,
burning, die sinking, wire burning or wire erosion, is a manufacturing process whereby
a desired shape is obtained by using electrical discharges (sparks).
PRINCIPLE AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL

REMOVAL
EDM is based on the erosion of metals by spark discharge.
The electric spark with emission of electrons is produced when a potential differ-
ence is applied between anode and cathode.
When a pulsating (ON/OFF) electrical charge of high-frequency is applied through

the electrode to the workpiece, removes (erodes) very tiny pieces of metal from
the workpiece.
The emitted electrons during the spark collide with the dielectric fluid particle
and break them into electrons and ions.
These liberated electrons again break the particles into electrons and ions and
form a channel of plasma.
The intense heat generated melts and evaporates the work material at spark zone.
The effectiveness of the process can be improved by submerging the workpiece

and the tool in dielectric fluid.
65
Figure 34: Electric Discharge Machining
The most common dielectric fluids are mineral oils, although kerosene and dis-
tilled and ionized water may be used in specialized applications.
If both the electrodes made of the same material, the electrode connected to the
positive terminal erodes at a faster rate and so the workpiece is made as anode.
The dielectric fluid acts as:
1. Insulator until the potential is sufficiently high

2. Flushing medium and carries away the debries on the gap
3. Provides a cooling medium
The gap between the tool and the workpiece (called overcut) is critical and the
downward feed of the tool is controlled by a servomechanism which automatically
maintains a constant gap.
The tool is shaped to the form of the cavity to reproduce. The formed electrode
is fed vertically down and the reverse shape of the electrode is eroded (burned)
into the solid workpiece.
The commonly used electrode materials are copper, brass, zinc, tungsten, and
graphite.
The Metal removal is the amount of energy applied during the on-time of pulse
time.
Longer the pulse time, larger the melting away of workpiece material and resulting
with larger crater and poor surface finish.
A continuous traveling vertical wire electrode having diameter of a small needle

or even less, is controlled by the computer to follow a programmed path to erode
or cut a narrow slot through the workpiece to produce the required shape.
Since the process doesnt involve mechanical energy, the hardness and toughness
of the workpiece material do not necessarily influence the removal rate.

The electrodes for EDM are usually made of graphite, although brass, copper or
copper- tungsten alloy may be used.
Figure 35: Electric Discharge Machining
Figure 36: Power Circuit for for EDM

THERMOELECTRIC MODEL
THERMOELECTRIC MODEL
Stage 1 A charged electrode is brought near the workpiece separated by an dielectric fluid
like kerosene, mineral oils or distiled and ionized water.
Stage 2 The number of ionic (charged) particles increases and the insulating properties of
the dielectric fluid begin to decrease along a narrow channel at shortest distance
of the field. Voltage reaches its peak, but current is still zero.
Stage 3 A current is established as the fluid becomes less of an insulator and the Voltage
begins to decrease.
Stage 4 Heat builds up rapidly as current increases and the voltage continues to drop.
The heat vaporizes some of the fluid, workpiece, and electrode, and a discharge
channel begins to form between the electrode and workpiece.
Stage 5 A vapor bubble tries to expand outward, but its expansion is limited by a rush
of ions towards the discharge channel. These ions are attracted by the extremely
intense electromagnetic field that has built up. Current continues to rise, voltage
drops.
Stage 6 Near the end of the on-time, current and voltage have stabilized, heat and pres-
sure within the vapor bubble have reached their maximum, and some metal is
being removed. The layer of metal directly under the discharge column is in
a molten state, but is held in place by the pressure of the vapor bubble. The
discharge channel now consists of a superheated plasma made up of vaporized
metal, dielectric oil, and carbon with an intense current passing through it.
68
Stage-1 Stage-2 Stage-3
Figure 37: Stages in Machining Cycle of EDM process

Stage 7 At the beginning of the off-time, current and voltage drop to zero. The tempera-
ture decreases rapidly, collapsing the vapor bubble and causing the molten metal
to be expelled from the workpiece.
Stage 8 Fresh dielectric fluid rushes in, flushing the debris away and quenching the surface
of the workpiece. Unexpelled molten metal solidifies to form what is known as
the recast layer.
Stage 9 The expelled metal solidifies into tiny spheres dispersed in the dielectric oil along
with bits of carbon from the electrode. The remaining vapor rises to the surface.
EDM cycle
Each cycle has an on-time and an off-time that are expressed in units of microsec-
onds (Figure 38). Since all the work is done during on-time, the duration of these
pulses and the number of cycles per second (frequency) are important.
Figure 38: Cycle time
On-Time (Pulse Time) : Metal removal is directly proportional to the amount of

energy applied during the on-time. longer on-time cycle makes more workpiece
material removal and resulting with broader and deeper crater with poor surface
finish.
The polarity, on-time, off-time, and peak current (Ip ) are the basic machine
settings. These parameters can also be expressed as duty cycle, frequency, and
average current.
Duty Cycle : Duty cycle is the ratio of on-time to the total cycle time. Generally,
the higher duty cycles mean increased cutting efficiency.
EDM Dielectric Fluids

The standard configuration of a team of machining by EDM consists of a gener-
ator for power, with one end connected to the piece which, in turn, is submerged
in a tank of dielectric oil.

This tank has connected through a system of pipes to a supplier deposit of di-
electric and a filtering system.
The pipes of the team system provides the necessary pressure to carry out the
cleaning or wash the area of work and circulate to the dielectric fluid, while
the filtering system captures and removes debris from the process of EDM in
suspension in the dielectric that is to say, the resulting swarf from machining.
Two types of fluids used in these processes are mineral oils, compounds of hydro-
carbons derived from oil, and water that has been previously deionised (latter is
used generally for court processes by wire). They can also be used as dielectric
fluid in the case of EDM for penetration, certain aqueous solutions of organic
compounds, such as certain carbohydrates, alcohol and polymers, among others.
Dielectric oils should be high density and viscosity, thus favouring the effect of a
concentration of the download and the energy of appropriate download channel.
The dielectric fluids used in EDM should
Remain electrically nonconductive until the required breakdown voltage is

reached, i.e., they should have high dielectric strength
Breakdown electricity in the shortage possible time once the breakdown
voltage has been reached.
Quench and spark rapidly or deionize the spark gap after the discharge has
occured
Provide an effective cooling medium
Be capable of carrying way the swarf particals in suspensions, away from
the working gap.
Have a good degree of fluidity
Be cheap and easily available
The common dielectric fluids are hydro-carbon oils such as transformer oil, paraf-
fin oil, kerosene, lubricating oil and distilled water.
The dielectric fluid must be circulated under constant pressure to flush (wash)
away the metal particles and assist in the machining or erosion process.
If red sparks occur during the cutting operation, the water supply is inadequate.
To overcome this problem, increase the flow of water until blue sparks appear.
Servo Mechanism
Both wire and vertical EDM machines are equipped with a servo control mech-
anism that automatically maintains a constant gap of about the thickness of a
human hair between the electrode and the workpiece.

It is important for both machine types that there is no physical contact between
the electrode and the workpiece, otherwise arcing could damage the workpiece
and break the wire.
The servomechanism advances the electrode into the workpiece as the operation
progresses and senses the work-wire spacing and controls it to maintain the proper
arc gap which is essential to a successful machining operation.
Important Parameters in EDM

1. Spark On-time (pulse time or Ton):It is the duration of time the current is allowed
to flow per cycle. Material removal is directly proportional to the amount of
energy applied during this on-time. This energy is controlled by the peak current
and the length of the on-time.
2. Spark Off-time (pause time or To f f ): The duration of time (s) between the
sparks . This time allows the molten material to solidify and to be wash out of
the arc gap. This parameter is to affect the speed and the stability of the cut.
Thus if the off-time is too short, it will cause sparks to be unstable.
3. Arc gap (or gap): The Arc gap is distance between the electrode and workpiece
during the process of EDM. It may be called as spark gap. Spark gap can be
maintained by servo system .
4. Discharge current (current Ip): Current is measured in amp allowed per cycle.
Discharge current is directly proportional to the Material removal rate.
5. Duty cycle : It is a percentage of the on-time relative to the total cycle time. This
parameter is calculated by dividing the on-time by the total cycle time (on-time
pulse off time).
Ton
T = (62)
Ton + Tof f
6. Voltage (V): It is a potential that can be measure by volt it is also effect to the
material removal rated and allowed to per cycle.
7. Over cut It is a clearance per side between the electrode and the workpiece
after the marching operation.

MACHINE TOOL SELECTION
Machine tool selection

ECM machines come in both vertical and horizontal types.
Depending on the work requirements, these machines are built in many different
sizes as well.
The vertical machine consists of a base, column, table, and spindle head. The
spindle head has a servo-mechanism that automatically advances the tool and
controls the gap between the cathode (tool) and the workpiece.
Copper is often used as the electrode material. Brass, graphite, and copper-
tungsten are also often used because they are easily machined, they are conductive
materials, and they will not corrode.
Spark Erosion Generators

In EDM, electrical energy in the form of shot duration impulses are required to
be supplied to the machining gap.
The generator used in EDM are of three types such as
1. Relaxation generator
2. Rotary pulse generator
3. Static pulse generator
Relaxation generator or R-C generator consist of a d.c.voltage source U, a charg-

ing resistor RA , a discharging resistor R and a storage element C.
73
U = D C Supply voltage, Ra = Charging Resister

R= Discharging resister, C = Storage element
Figure 39: Relaxation generator circuit
1:Variation of capacitor voltage with time
2.Pulse waveform of controlled pulse generator
Figure 40: Voltage and current variation in an EDM cycle

A discharge across working gap will occur if the input voltage equals the break-
down voltage and the dielectric de-ionizes and capacitor is recharged and the
cycle is repeated.
In relaxation generator, the spark repetition rate for a given supply voltage and
capacitance, cant be increased beyond a certain value and is determined by the
speed at which the spark gap is deionized and cleared off the debris after each
discharge.
The advantages of relaxation generator are
1. Comparatively cheap
2. Simplicity of design
3. Robustness and relatively extensive range of discharge
The disadvantages with relaxation generator are
1. High tool wear

2. Slow metal removal rates
The four important process parameters in relaxation generator are
1. Supplharging resistance(R)
2. Capacitance(C)
3. Gap setting i.e., dielectric strength of the gap
Rotary Pulse Generator

MRR is not high in case of RC relaxation circuit.
To increase MRR impulse generator is used.
The capacitor C is charged through the diode during the first half of the cycle
and during the following half the sum of the voltages generated by the generator
and the charged capacitor is applied to the work tool gap.
The operating frequency is the sine wave frequency that depends on motor speed.
Though the MRR is higher surface finish is not good.
Static Pulse Generator

static pulse generators were developed in order to be able to change the pulse
energy independently of the pulse repetition frequency.
Higher removal rates are achievable, however, the process has no more its self-
regulating mechanisms.

Figure 41: Rotary Pulse Generator
The appearing gap conditions lead to more unwanted discharges that have to be
recognized and avoided.
The majority of spark erosion machines are fitted with transistorized pulse cir-
cuits which can achieve higher metal removal rates together with a high degree
of accuracy
Figure 42: Static pulse generator (scheme of equivalent circuit) and pulses
The resister Ra is replaced with series of vacuum tubes connected in parallel.
Discharges at the working gap are generated by switching on/off.
By increasing the current rise rate of the pulses a higher removal rate results,
however, the wear in-creases substantially.
http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/50/1/012062/pdf

ANALYSIS OF R-C CIRCUITS
charging voltage and charging current

The relaxation type circuit consist of charging circuit and discharging circuit.
The charging circuit (Ict ) flowing in time t is given by
Vo Vct
ict = (63)
Rc
also
dVct
ict = C (64)
dt
where
Vo is the supply voltage
Vct is the charged voltage of the condenser at time t.
Rc = Charging resistance
C = capacitance of the condenser
From the above
dVct 1
= dt (65)
Vo Vct Rc C
Integrating both sides
t
ln(Vo Vct ) = + K1 (66)
Rc C
where K1 is a constant of integration. Using the boundary conditions(Vct )=0 at
t= 0
K1 = lnVo (67)
substituting K1 in the above equation we get
Vct = Vo (1 et/Rc C ) (68)
77
The time required by the condenser to attain 0.638 times of its voltage is called
time constant( = Rc C) Substituting the value of Vct we get
ict = Vo (1 et/Rc C ) (69)

EFFECT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS IN EDM PROCESS
Spark On-time (pulse time (Ton)

It is the duration of time the current is allowed to flow per cycle.
Material removal is directly proportional to the amount of energy applied during

this on-time.
This energy is controlled by the peak current and the length of the on-time.
The output responses are material removal rate (MRR) and surface roughness.
The MRR will be influenced by peak current, duty factor. Finally, the parameters
were optimized for maximum MRR with the desired surface roughness.
Discharge current (current Ip)

Current is measured in amp allowed per cycle.
Discharge current is directly proportional to the Material removal rate.
Voltage (V)
It is a potential that can be measure by volt it is also effect to the material
removal rated and allowed to per cycle
79
source : http : //www.ijetae.com/f iles/V olume4Issue4/IJET AE0 4142 4.pdf

Figure 43: Effect of pulse on time on MRR
Spark Off-time (pause time or Toff )

The duration of time (s) between the sparks . This time allows the molten
material to solidify and to be wash out of the arc gap.
This parameter is to affect the speed and the stability of the cut. Thus if the
off-time is too short, it will cause sparks to be unstable.
Duty cycle (t)

It is a percentage of the on-time relative to the total cycle time,This parameter
is calculated by dividing the on-time by the total cycle time.


Figure 44: Effect of pulse on time on TWR

Figure 45: Effect of discharge current (I) on MRR


Figure 46: Effect of discharge current on TWR
Figure 47: Effect of pulse off time on MRR

Figure 48: Effect of tool area on TWR


MRR
MRR in EDM
Metal removal rate is usually expressed as cubic mm3 per minute.
The MRR influenced by machine settings, melting point of workpiece, thermal

conductivity of the workpiece.
Electrode area X Depth of cut
MRR =
T ime of cut
? The MRR and EWR were calculated using the equation 72 and 71.
The surface finish can be measured in terms of arithmetic mean roughness (Ra
in m).
M ass loss of workpiece (g)

M RR(mm3 /min) =
Density of work piece (g/mm3) X machining time, (min)
(70)
M ass loss electrode(g)
EW R (mm3/min) =
Density of electrode (g/mm3) X machining time (min)
(71)
P ulse duration(s)
Duty f actor(%) = (72)
P ulse duration(s) + pulse interval(s)
[
Problem]
84
WIRE EDM
Wire EDM (Wire Electric Discharge Machining) is probably the most exciting
and diversified machine tool developed for industry in the last fifty years, and
has numerous advantages to offer.
It is a thermo - electrical process in which the material is eroded through a series

of sparks between the work piece and the wire electrode (tool).
The part and wire are immersed in a dielectric (electrically nonconducting) fluid
which also acts as a coolant and flushes away debris.
Many sparks can be observed at one time. This is because actual discharges can
occur more than one hundred thousand times per second.
The heat of each electrical spark, estimated at around 15, 000o to 21, 0000 F.
This process has been widely used in aerospace, nuclear and automotive indus-
tries, to machine precise, complex and irregular shapes in various difficult-to-
machine electrically conductive materials.
The movement of wire is controlled numerically to achieve the desired three

dimensional shape and high accuracy of the work piece
The wire does not touch the workpiece, so there is no physical pressure imparted
on the workpiece and amount of clamping pressure required to hold the workpiece
is minimal.
The wire is usually made up of brass, copper or tungsten and is typically about
0.25 mm in diameter making narrow cuts possible.
The wire should have high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity and ca-
pacity to flush away the debris produced in cutting.
85
The wire travels at a constant speed of 0.15- 9 m/min. and constant gap (called
kerf) is maintained during the cut.
The cutting speed is generally given in terms of the cross-sectional area cut per
unit time and it is about
18,000 mm2 /hr. for 50 mm thick tool steel item[] 45,000 m2 /hr for 150
mm thick aluminum
Recently, WEDM process is also being used to machine a wide variety of minia-
ture and micro-parts in metals, alloys, sintered materials, cemented carbides,
ceramics and silicon.
These characteristics makes WEDM a process which has remained as a com-

petitive and economical machining option fulfilling the demanding machining
requirements imposed by the short product development cycles and the growing
cost pressures.
? The wire-cut EDM is a discharge machine that uses CNC movement to produce
the desired contour or shape.
? It does not require a special shaped electrode, instead it uses a continuous-

traveling vertical wire under tension as the electrode.
? The electrode in wire-cut EDM is about as thick as a small diameter needle whose
path is controlled by the machine computer to produce the shape required.
? Dielectric Fluids - Conventional EDM During the EDM process the workpiece and
the electrode are submerged in the dielectric oil, which is an electrical insulator
that helps to control the arc discharge.
? The dielectric oil, that provides a means of flushing, is pumped through the arc
gap. This removes suspended particles of workpiece material and electrode from
the work cavity.
? Flushing One of the most important factors in a successful EDM operation is the
removal of the metal particles (chips) from the working gap.
? Flushing these particles out of the gap between the workpiece to prevent them
from forming bridges that cause short circuits.
? In the wire-cut EDM process, water is commonly used as the dielectric fluid.
Filters and de-ionizing units are used for controlling the resistivity and other
electrical properties.
Wires made of brass are generally preferred.

Figure 49: Wire EDM
PRINCIPLE OF WIRE E D M
Wire EDM Machining is also known as Spark EDM.
It is an electro thermal production process in which a thin single-strand metal

wire (usually brass) in conjunction with deionized water which is used to conduct
electricity allows the wire to cut through metal by the use of heat from electrical
sparks.
Wire-cut EDM is typically used to cut plates as thick as 300 mm and to make
punches, tools, and dies from hard metals that are difficult to machine with other
methods
Wire-cutting EDM is commonly used where low residual stresses are desired,
because it does not require high cutting forces for removal of material.
If the energy/power per pulse is relatively low (as in finishing operations), little
change in the mechanical properties of a material is expected due to these low
residual stresses, although material that hasnt been stress-relieved can distort
in the machining process.
Due to the inherent properties of the process, wire EDM can easily machine
complex parts and precision components out of hard conductive materials.
Major Components In Wire Cut Machine

A Wire EDM system is comprised of four major components.
Computerized Numerical Control (CNC): This act as The Brains.

Power Supply: Provides energy to the spark.This act as The Muscle.
Mechanical Section:Worktable, workstand, taper unit, and wire drive mecha-

nism.This is the actual machine tool.This act as The Body.
Dielectric System: The water reservoir where filtration, condition of the waterre-
sistivity/conductivity and temperature of the water is provided and maintained.
This act as The Nourishment.
Principle Of Wire Electrical Discharge Machining

In wire EDM a series of electrical discharges (sparks) are produced between an ac-
curately positioned moving wire (the electrode) and the workpiece for machining
a material.
Alternating or direct current High frequency pulsesare discharged from the wire
to the workpiece with a very small spark gap through an insulateddielectric fluid
(water).
Many sparks can be observed at one time.
The volume of metal removed depends on the desired cutting speed and the
surface finish required.
MRR
The heat of each electrical spark is around 15, 000o to 21, 000o Fahrenheit, it
erodes away a very small bit of material which is vaporized and melted from the
workpiece and some of the wire material is also eroded away.
These particles (chips) are flushed away from the cut with a stream of deionized
water through the top and bottom flushing nozzles.
The water also acts as coolent to prevent heat build-up in the workpiece.
If this cooling is not there then the thermal expansion of the part would affect
size and positional accuracy
The material removal rate is given by the formula:
M RR(g/min) = W RR/T (73)
Where
MRR = material removal rate
WRR = the work piece removal rate
T = time
Higher is the material removal rate in the EDM process, the better is the ma-
chining performance.

However, the smaller is the electrode wear ratio and surface roughness in EDM
process, the better is machining performance.
Therefore, the material removal rate is higher-the-better performance character-

istic is obtained and the lower the electrode wear ratio and the surface roughness
better is the performance characteristic.
Wire EDM Application

1. Parts with complex geometrys
2. Thin or delicate parts that are susceptible to tool pressure
3. Progressive, blanking and trim dies
4. Extrusion dies Precious metals
5. Narrow slots and keyways
6. Mold components
7. Medical and dental instrumentation
8. Aerospace, defense and electronic parts
http://www.theijes.com/papers/v3-i2/Version-4/F0324024035.pdf
Fill up the blanks

1. The EDM stands for ................... and is used for machining of ..................only.
Answer Electric discharge machining, conducting materials.
2. The dielectric fluid used in EDM is ................................
Answer Hydrocarbon oil (e.g. kerosene) or deionized water.
3. The principle advantage of EDM is that materials, regardless of their..................

they can be easily machined.
Answer Hardness, strength, toughness and microstructure.
4. The ............... and .................. are inherent features of the EDM process, thereby
making the surface quality poor.
Answer Re-cast layers, micro-cracks.
5. The principle advantage of ECM is .....................................
Answer Hardness is not the limitation.

6. Some of the hybrid variants of ECM process are ..........................
Answer Electro chemical grinding and electro chemical honing
7. The commonly used electrolytes in ECM and ECDM are: ....................
Answer NaOH, NaNO3, KOH, HCl etc..
8. What are the 2 types of EDM machines?
Answer Sinker and wire
0.2 MCQs
1. What is EDM an acronym for?
(a) Electronic diffusion machining

(b) Electronic dielectric mechanism
(c) Electrical discharge machining
(d) Elevated discharging machine
Ans:c
2. Which is a component of an EDM machine?
(a) Servomechanism
(b) Electrode
(c) Power supply
(d) All of the above
Ans:a
3. An electrode works like a?
(a) Cutting tool

(b) Grinding wheel
(c) Chisel
(d) Belt sander
Ans:a
4. is the most used material for electrodes
(a) Steel
(b) Aluminum
(c) Graphite
(d) Gas

Ans:C
5. forms a nonconductive barrier between the electrode and the

work at the arc gap.
(a) Graphite
(b) Power supply
(c) Dielectric fluid
(d) Steel
Ans: C
6. On an EDWC machine, the wire acts like the on a sinker EDM.
(a) electrode
(b) coolent
(c) binding the work material
(d) none of the above
Ans: a
7. Dielectric fluid.
(a) Cools the work

(b) Flushes particles
(c) Prevents fusion
(d) All of the above
Ans:d
8. EDM wire is made of
(a) Brass
(b) Steel
(c) Gold
(d) Aluminum
Ans:a
9. Which the following is true for Electrical Discharge machining (EDM)?
i The metal removal takes place due to erosion

ii Any electrical conductor can be machined by this method.
iii Some light oil like transformer oil or kerosene oil is used as dielectric.
a Only i
b i &ii

c i,ii & iii
d ii & iii
(Ans:c)
10. In Electrical discharge machining (EDM), the spark gap is kept between mm
tomm.
a 5 to 5
b 0.05, 0.5
c 0.005, 0.05
d 0.0005, 0.005
(Ans:c)
11. In Electrical discharge machining, the temperature developed is of the order of
a 2,000o C
b 6,000o C
c 10,000o C
d 14,000o C
(Ans:c)
12. Which of the following is not true in case of Electrical discharge machining
(EDM)?
a Erosion takes place both on Work piece and the tool.

b Gap between tool and work piece is controlled by servo mechanism.
c The electrode (tool) is made of graphite or copper.
d The size of impression on work piece is exactly the same as that on electrode
(tool).
(Ans:d)
13. The Electrical Discharge machining (EDM) process is
a Burr free
b Not for hard metals
c Direct contact machining
d Capable of producing sharp corners
(Ans:a)
END OF FIRST MID SYLLABUS

REVISION -I FOR M C Q
SCHEDULED DATE: XX.XX.2017 ACTUAL DATE :
MULTIPUL CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. WJM cannot be used to machine []
(a) frozen food

(b) plywood
(c) leather
(d) steel plates
Ans: (d)
2. In AWJM mixing process takes place in []
(a) intensifier
(b) catcher
(c) mixing chamber
(d) orifice
Ans: (c)
3. Abrasive water jet velocity increases with (keeping all other parameters un-
changed) [
]
(a) increasing traverse velocity of the job

(b) decreasing mass flow rate of abrasive
(c) decreasing traverse velocity of the job
(d) increasing mass flow rate of abrasive
93
Ans: (b)
4. In an enumerate friendly development concerning AWJM, the following is used

as abrasive []
(a) dry ice

(b) cubic boron nitrite
(c) diamond
(d) tungsten carbide
Ans: (a)
5. A process that can occur simultaneously with manual deburring is []
(a) inspection
(b) painting
(c) forming
(d) plating
Ans: (a)
6. A major problem with mechanical hand deburring is []
(a) tool cost

(b) worker injuries
(c) surface blemishes
(d) piece to piece inconsistency
Ans: (d)
7. A brushing variable in regards to deburring is []
(a) bristle material type

(b) free length configuration
(c) brush velocity
(d) all of the above
Ans: (d)
8. Mass deburring is considered a []
(a) bonded abrasive method

(b) loose abrasive method
(c) free abrasive method
(d) chemical abrasive method

Ans: (b)
9. The Laser Beam Machining process can be carried out, when the media for energy
transfer between tool and workpiece is
(a) air
(b) liquid
(c) vacuum
(d) any of the above medium Ans:
any of the above medium
10. What is the reason for using unconventional or advanced machining processes?
(a) Complex surfaces

(b) High accuracy and surface finish
(c) High strength alloys
(d) All of the above Ans:
All of the above
11. Which of the following is not a media of energy transfer on which the advanced
machining processes are classified?
(a) Reactive atmosphere

(b) Electrons
(c) Electrolyte
(d) Chemical ablation Ans:
Chemical ablation
12. The spark gap in Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) process is maintained
such that
(a) the gap voltage is around 99% of supply voltage

(b) the gap voltage is around 70% of supply voltage
(c) the gap voltage is around 50% of supply voltage
(d) the gap voltage is around 10% of supply voltage Ans:
the gap voltage is around 70% of supply voltage
13. Barrel tumbling deburring is []
(a) followed with a secondary finishing process

(b) a high-energy application

(c) a low pressure process
(d) very fast
Ans: (c)
14. A limiting factor in spindle finishing of parts is []
(a) the size and number of parts

(b) the speed and smoothness
(c) the size of tub or barrel
(d) the abrasive particle size
Ans: (a)
15. Thermal energy deburring most usually employs []
(a) propane gas

(b) acetylene gas
(c) natural gas
(d) butane gas
Ans: (c)
16. In electro-chemical deburring, the workpiece is the []
(a) cathode
(b) anode
(c) insulator
(d) resistor
Ans: (b)
17. The device for converting any type of energy into ultrasonic waves is called []
(a) Ultrasonic transducer

(b) Wave transducer
(c) Energy transducer
(d) None of these
18. In ultrasonic machining, tool is made of []
(a) Tungsten carbide

(b) Brass
(c) Diamond
(d) Steel

19. In Abrasive Jet Machining, the gas that can be used as carrier gas is []
(a) Air
(b) Carbon dioxide
(c) Nitrogen
(d) All of these
20. The abrasives used for cutting in abrasive jet machining are []
(a) Aluminium oxide

(b) Silicon carbide
(c) Both A and B
(d) None of these
21. In Electro Chemical Machining, the gap between the tool and work piece is kept
as []
(a) 0.1 mm
(b) 0.25 mm
(c) 0.4 mm
(d) 0.75 mm
22. Which of the following process is used for preparing parts having large curved
surfaces and thin section
(a) Ultrasonic machining

(b) ECM Process
(c) Chemical milling
(d) None of these []
23. The selection of a maskant for use in chemical machining depends on the []
(a) Chemical resistance required

(b) Number of parts to be produced
(c) Shape and size of the component
(d) All of these
24. Unconventional Manufacturing processes are suitable for []
(a) Harder metals and alloys

(b) Accurate machining
(c) Good surface finish
(d) All of these

25. In non - traditional machining, the material removal may occur []
(a) With chip formation

(b) Without chip formation
(c) Both A and B
(d) None of these
26. Ultrasonic Machining is best suited for []
(a) Tool steels

(b) Sintered carbides
(c) Glass
(d) All of these
27. ............ method is unsuitable for machining of electrically non conducting mate-
rials [ ]
(a) USM
(b) ECM
(c) AJM
(d) none
28. Which method is excellent for making precision through cavities in work piece [ ]
(a) USM
(b) ECM
(c) AJM
(d) AWJM
29. ...............is used as a energy source in electro chemical machining []
(a) high current

(b) low current
(c) abrasives
(d) none
30. In non traditional process tool material must be ....................... than work piece
material []
(a) harder
(b) softer
(c) medium
(d) none

31. The machining rate in ultra sonic machining is high in case of the following []
(a) brittle
(b) ductile
(c) a & b
(d) none
32. In AJM abrasive jet consists of ....................... []
(a) Compressed air & abrasives

(b) compressed water & abrasives
(c) due to hammering action abrasives
(d) none
33. In ECM ,material removal of metal takes place by []
(a) abrasives
(b) dissolution of metal from job
(c) Compressed air & abrasives
(d) none
34. ................ is/are the disadvantage/s of non conventional machining []
(a) High cost

(b) complex set up
(c) skilled operator required
(d) all the above
35. Very hard materials can be machined with the help of []
(a) conventional machining

(b) unconventional machining
(c) both a & b
(d) none
36. In ....................... machining process there is direct contact of tool and work
piece, so there is more wear []

(c) both a & b
(d) none
37. Very hard materials can be machined with the help of

(c) both a & b
(d) none
Ans: B
38. In ........... machining process there is direct contact of tool and work piece, so
there is more wear

(c) both a & b
(d) none
Ans: A
39. .......... method is unsuitable for machining of electrically non conducting mate-
rials
(a) USM
(b) ECM
(c) AJM
(d) none
Ans: B
40. Which method is excellent for making precision through cavities in work piece
(a) USM
(b) ECM
(c) AJM
(d) AWJM
Ans: A
41. ...........is used as a energy source in electro chemical machining
(a) high current

(b) low current
(c) abrasives
(d) none
Ans: A
42. In non traditional process tool material must be ............than work piece material

(a) harder
(b) softer
(c) medium
(d) none
Ans: B
43. The machining rate in ultra sonic machining is high in case of the following
(a) brittle
(b) ductile
(c) a & b
(d) none
Ans: A
44. In AJM abrasive jet consists of ..............
(a) Compressed air & abrasives

(b) compressed water & abrasives
(c) due to hammering action abrasives
(d) none
Ans: A
45. In ECM, material removal of metal takes place by
(a) abrasives
(b) dissolution of metal from job
(c) Compressed air & abrasives
(d) none
Ans: B
46. Which of the following materials is/are used for Electrical Discharge Machining
(EDM) process?
(a) Brass
(b) Copper
(c) Graphite
(d) All of the above Ans:
All of the above
47. In Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) process the metal removal is carried
out by

(a) electrolysis
(b) melting and vaporisation
(c) fracture of work material due to impact of grains
(d) none of the above Ans:
melting and vaporisation
48. Which of the following statements are true for Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)?
(a) ECM is capable of machining metals and alloys irrespective of their strength
and hardness
(b) No cutting forces are involved in ECM process
(c) ECM process consumes very high power
(d) Very small space is required to set up ECM process
(a) (1), (2) and (3)

(b) (2), (3) and (4)
(c) (1), (3) and (4)
(d) (1), (2) and (4) Ans:
(1), (2) and (3)
49. In which process the material is removed due to the action of abrasive grains?
(a) Electro-Chemical Grinding (ECG)

(b) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
(c) Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
(d) Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) Ans:
Ans: Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
50. Which of the following processes is generally applied for dentistry work like to
drill fine holes of particular shape in teeth?
(a) Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

(b) Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
(c) Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
(d) Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Ans:
Ans:Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
51. Which of the following process has highest rate of metal removal?
(a) Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

(b) Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)
(c) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
(d) Laser Beam Machining (LBM) Ans:
Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)
(a) In abrasive jet machining, as the distance between the nozzle tip and the
work surface increases, the material removal rate
i. increases continuously
ii. decreases continuously
iii. decreases, becomes stable and then increases
iv. increases, becomes stable and then decreases
(b) The size of abrasive grains in abrasive jet machining ranges from
(c) 1 to 10 microns
(d) 10 to 50 microns
(e) 50 to 100 microns
(f) 100 to 500 microns
52. The vibrating frequency used for the tool in Ultrasonic machining is of the order
of
(a) 10,000 oscillations per second

(b) 35,000 oscillations per second
(c) 35,000 oscillations per second
(d) 45,000 oscillations per second
53. In Ultrasonic machining, the material is removed by
(a) anodic dissolution

(b) thermal melting
(c) abrasive action
(d) electrochemical oxidation
54. Ultrasonic machining can machine both metallic and non-metallic surfaces
(a) True
(b) False
55. Which of the following machining process(es) use mechanical energy as the prin-
cipal energy source ?
(a) conventional milling

(b) water jet cutting

(c) wire cut EDM
(d) abrasive jet machining
56. Abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at a high velocity against the work by
a tool vibrating at low amplitude and high frequency.This is the metal removing
mechanism for.............................
(a) USM
(b) LBM
(c) WJM
(d) AJM
57. In USM, the amplitude of vibrating tool is,
(a) 10 - 50 micro meter

(b) 500 - 5000 micro meter
(c) 20 - 20000 micro meter
58. Which of the following material is not generally machined by USM
(a) Copper
(b) Glass
(c) Silicon
(d) Germanium
59. Tool in USM is generally made of
(a) Glass
(b) Ceramic
(c) Carbides
(d) Steel
60. Increasing volume concentration of abrasive in slurry (in USM process) would
affect MRR in the following manner
(a) increase MRR

(b) decrease MRR
(c) would not change MRR
(d) initially decrease and then increase MRR
61. In water jet cutting and abrasive water jet cutting, the separation between the
nozzle opening and the work surface is called which one of the following
(a) Gap
(b) gap size

(c) orifice
(d) stand-off distance
62. In abrasive water jet cutting, the abrasive particles are added to the water stream
after it exits the nozzle
(a) before it enters the pumping unit

(b) just before it enters the nozzle
(c) while it is in the nozzle
63. AJM nozzles are made of
(a) low carbon steel

(b) HSS
(c) WC
(d) Stainless steel
64. Material removal takes place in AJM due to
(a) electrochemical action

(b) fatigue failure of the material
(c) sparking on impact
(d) mechanical impact
65. As the stand off distance increases, the depth of penetration in AJM
(a) Increases
(b) decreases
(c) does not change
(d) initially increases and then remains steady
66. Abrasive slurry is used in the following type of machining process.
(a) Ultrasonic machining

(b) Conventional milling
(c) Wire cut EDM
(d) Laser beam machining
67. The following principle is used for converting electrical energy into mechanical
energy in USM
(a) Faradays law

(b) Stefans law
(c) Piezoelectric effect

(d) Thomsons law
68. The following device is used for converting electrical impulses into mechanical
vibration in USM
(a) Transducer
(b) oscillator
(c) tank
(d) pump

REVISION -II FOR M C Q
SCHEDULED DATE: XX.XX.2017 ACTUAL DATE :
1. In AJM, removal of metal takes place by bombardment of fine grained particle.
(a) with air at high velocity

(b) with water at high velocity
(c) with kerosene at high velocity
(d) at controlled rate in brine
2. In WJM, removal of metal takes place by bombardment of fine grained particle.
(a) with air at high velocity

(b) with water at high velocity
(c) with kerosene at high velocity
(d) at controlled rate in brine
3. Which the following is true for Electrical Discharge machining (EDM)?
i. The metal removal takes place due to erosion

ii. Any electrical conductor can be machined by this method.
iii. Some light oil like transformer oil or kerosene oil is used as dielectric.
a. Only i
b. i & ii
c. i, ii & iii
d. ii & iii
Ans: (Ans:c)
107
4. In Electrical discharge machining (EDM), the spark gap is kept between .......mm
to.......mm.
(a) 0.5 to 5mm

(b) 0.05, 0.5
(c) 0.005, 0.05
(d) 0.0005, 0.005
Ans: (Ans:c)
5. In Electrical discharge machining, the temperature developed is of the order of
(a) 2,000o C
(b) 6,000o C
(c) 10,000o C
(d) 14,000o C
Ans: (Ans:c)
6. Which of the following is not true in case of Electrical discharge machining

(EDM)?
(a) Erosion takes place both on Work piece and the tool.
(b) Gap between tool and work piece is controlled by servo mechanism.
(c) The electrode (tool) is made of graphite or copper.
(d) The size of impression on work piece is exactly the same as that on electrode
(tool).
Ans: (Ans:d)
7. The Electrical Discharge machining (EDM) process is
(a) Burr free

(b) Not for hard metals
(c) Direct contact machining
(d) Capable of producing sharp corners
Ans: (Ans:a)
8. In Electron beam machining, workpiece is held in
(a) vacuum chamber

(b) dielectric medium
(c) electrolyte
(d) none of these

Ans: (Ans:a)
9. In Electron beam machining, as the electrons strikes the work piece
(a) Their kinetic energy is converted into heat

(b) They get scattered
(c) Mechanical erosion in work piece takes place
(d) Electro-chemical etching takes place
Ans: (Ans:a)
10. The vacuum in case of Electron Beam machining is of the order of
(a) 10-2 mm of mercury

(b) 10-5 mm of mercury
(c) 10-7 mm of mercury
(d) 10-9 mm of mercury
Ans: (Ans:b)
11. The cathode filament is heated to a temperature of in case of Electron

beam machining
(a) 1200o C
(b) 1700o C
(c) 2000o C
(d) 2500o C
Ans: (Ans:d)
12. In Electron beam machining, the order in which electrons passed after emitted
by filament cathode
(a) diaphragm anode focusing lens Deflector coil

(b) anode diaphragm focusing lens Deflector coil
(c) focusing lens anode diaphragm Deflector coil
(d) Deflector coil anode diaphragm focusing lens
Ans: (Ans:b)
13. With Electron beam machining, a hole of ............. depth/diameter ratio can be
drilled
(a) 5
(b) 10
(c) 15

(d) 20
Ans: (Ans:b)
14. Plasma is a mixture of
(a) free electrons

(b) positively charged ions
(c) neutral atoms
1 i & ii
2 ii & iii
3 i & iii
4 i, ii & iii
Ans: (Ans:d)
15. The metal is removed in Plasma arc machining due to
(a) erosion
(b) chemical reaction
(c) melting of metal
(d) grinding
Ans: (Ans:b)
16. In Plasma arc welding the electrode is made of
(a) tungsten
(b) copper
(c) bass
(d) steel
Ans: (Ans:a)
17. In plasma arc welding, the maximum temperature is of the order of
(a) 18000o C
(b) 20000o C
(c) 28000o C
(d) 35000o C
Ans: (Ans:c)
18. Which of the following method is used for profile cutting of flat plates?
(a) Electron beam machining

(b) Laser beam machining
(c) Plasma arc machining
(d) Electro-chemical machining
Ans: (Ans:c)
19. The process utilizing mainly thermal energy for removing material is
(a) Ultrasonic Machining

(b) Electrochemical Machining
(c) Abrasive Jet Machining
(d) Laser Beam Machining
Ans: (Ans:d)
20. Which of the following is used as gas laser in Laser beam machining?
(a) Helium-neon
(b) Agron
(c) CO2
1. i only
2. i & ii
3. ii & iii
4. All of these
Ans: (Ans:d)
21. Which of the following methods is used for trimming of sheet metal and plastic
parts?

Ans: (Ans:d)
22. In which of the following methods, an electrolyte is used?

Ans: (Ans:b)

23. Which of the following is not true for Laser beam machining?
(a) The laser used can be of solid or gaseous type

(b) It is a thermal cutting type process
(c) The light radiated from flash lamp is directly focused on workpiece
(d) Any material can be machined irrespective of its physical and mechanical
properties.
Ans: (Ans:c)
24. In electrochemical machining (ECM) removal of metal from the work piece takes
place

(b) abrasive action
(c) thermal melting
(d) erosion
Ans: (Ans:a)
25. Which of the following process is based on Faradays law of Electrolysis?
(a) Electron beam Machining

(b) Laser Beam Machining
(c) Electrical discharge Machining
(d) Electrochemical Machining
Ans: (Ans:d)
26. In Electrochemical machining the gap maintained between tool and workpiece is
of the order of
(a) 0.05mm
(b) 0.1mm
(c) 0.5mm
(d) 1mm
Ans: (Ans:c)
27. In electrochemical machining
(a) both tool and workpiece are stationary

(b) both tool and workpiece move
(c) tool is stationary and workpiece moves
(d) tool moves and workpiece is stationary

Ans: (Ans:d)
28. Machining of complicated shapes like jet engine blades and turbine blades is done
by
(a) Plasma arc machining

(b) Electrical discharge Machining
(c) Laser Beam Machining
(d) Electrochemical Machining
Ans: (Ans:d)
29. In which of the following, an electrochemical oxidation on the work surface takes
place?
(a) Electrochemical grinding

(c) Electrochemical Machining
(d) Ultrasonic Machining
Ans: (Ans:a)
30. Tools and carbide tips are sharpened by
(a) Electrical discharge Machining

(b) Electrochemical grinding
(d) Ultrasonic Machining
Ans: (Ans:c)
31. The vibrating frequency used for the tool in Ultrasonic machining is of the order
of
(a) 10,000 oscillations per second

(b) 20,000 oscillations per second
(c) 35,000 oscillations per second
(d) 45,000 oscillations per second
Ans: (Ans:b)
32. In Ultrasonic machining, the material is removed by

(b) thermal melting
(c) abrasive action

(d) electrochemical oxidation
Ans: (Ans:c)
33. An Ultrasonic machining, the function of transducer is to
(a) convert mechanical energy into heat

(b) convert electrical energy into heat
(c) convert electrical energy into mechanical vibrations
(d) convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
Ans: (Ans:c)
34. In Ultrasonic machining, the tool moves
(a) moves in transverse direction

(b) moves in longitudinal direction
(c) vibrates in transverse direction
(d) vibrates in longitudinal direction
Ans: (Ans:d)
35. In which of the following processes, the shape of tool is not same as that of cavity
produced?

(d) Plasma arc machining
Ans: (Ans:d)
36. In which of the following processes, a nozzle is used?
i Plasma arc machining

ii Ultrasonic Machining
iii Abrasive jet machining
a. i & ii
b. ii & iii
c. i & iii
d. i, ii & iii
Ans: (Ans:c)
37. In which of the following gases is not used in Abrasive jet machining?

(a) Air
(b) Nitrogen
(c) Carbon di-oxide
(d) Argon
Ans: (Ans:d)
38. . Which of the following machine uses non conventional machining technique for
metal removal?
(a) Grinding machine

(b) Milling machine
(c) Electric discharge machine
(d) None of the mentioned
Ans: c
39. Which of the following material cannot be machined using electronic discharge
machine?
(a) Iron
(b) Aluminum
(c) Copper
(d) Wood
Ans: d
40. Which of the following material can be machined using electronic discharge ma-
chine?
(a) Iron
(b) Rubber
(c) Plastic
(d) Wood
Ans: a
41. Which of the following EDM machine is used for cutting shapes cut out of flat
sheet or plate of metal?
(a) Wire EDM

(b) Sinker EDM
(c) Wire and Sinker EDM both
Ans: a

42. Which of the following EDM machine is used for die cast tooling?
(a) Wire EDM

(b) Sinker EDM
(c) Wire and Sinker EDM both
Ans: b
43. Dielectric medium in EDM is used for
(a) Flushing away the debris

(b) To make the medium conducting
(c) To decrease the material removal rate
Ans: a
44. Material removal rate in EDM increases with
(a) Increase in melting point of work piece

(b) Increase in Current
(c) Decrease in current
Ans: b
45. Material removal rate in EDM increases with
(a) Increase in melting point of work piece

(b) Decrease in Current
(c) Decrease in melting point of work piece
Ans: c
46. For maximum power delivery using resistance capacitance relaxation circuit in
EDM, discharge voltage should % of the supply voltage?
(a) 80
(b) 23
(c) 65
(d) 72
Ans: d

47. In an EDM machine, metal removal rate is 1.937 cubic mm / min. If total amount
of material to removed is 600 cubic mm. Time required in min will be
(a) 100
(b) 200
(c) 309
(d) 402
Ans: c
FILL UP THE BLANKS
1. In AJM the distance between workpiece and nozzle is kept about ..........................
Ans: 1 to 0.7 mm
2. The term .......................... is a vibratory wave with a frequency above that of

upper limit of human ear.
3. .......................... is a good material suitable for the tool cone in Ultrasonic ma-
chining.
4. .................................. machining uses a stream of fine grained abrasive mixed

with air or some other carrier gas at high pressure.
5. In AJM, the abrasive grains should have a sharp and .......................... shape.
6. To reduce dust and associated hazards while cutting coal, .......................... jets
are used.
7. In ECM, the metal is removed by maintaining an .......................... between the

work and tool in a very small gap.
8. The undesirable burrs of metal are removed through electrochemical means by a

process called.......................... .....................
9. Unconventional manufacturing methods cannot ...................... Conventional man-

ufacturing methods.
10. In nontraditional machining, the tool need not be ............ than the work piece
material.
11. The metal removal takes place due to ...................... .. in non conventional
mechanical process.
12. Mixing ratio is defined as ......................
13. SOD means .......................... Ans: The distance between nozzle surface to work
surface
14. In AWJM mixing process takes place in......................... Ans: Mixing chamber

15. During USM the metal removal is achieved by ....................... Hamering action
of abrasive particles
16. Abrasive slurry is the mixture of ........................... Ans: Abrasive grains & water
(a) ECM process is working on ..................principle. Ans: Faradays First Law
(b) The device used for converting any type of energy into ultrasonic waves or vibra-
tion is Called ..................... Ultrasonic transducer
(c) ECM process is best suited for ........................... Ans: Hard materials
(d) ECM operates on at ....................voltage. Ans: 2 to 20v

Ucmp First Mid Course File

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ucmp First Mid Course File

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COURSE FILE

SREYAS INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

- Need for non-conventional machining methods

- Classification of modern machining processes

- Considerations in Process selection

- Elements of the process

- Mechanics of metal removal process parameters

- Applications and limitations

S. Topics to be covered Time Ref Teaching

SCHEDULED DATE: ACTUAL DATE :

1.1 NEED FOR NON-CONVENTIONAL

? Non traditional machining processes, are employed where traditional machining

? The major characteristics of conventional machining are

1. Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation

1.3 CHARECTERISTICS OF NON-CONVENTIONAL

? Flexible or slender work piece be machined, due to absence of physical contact

? Complex part geometries can be produced

? Provides very good quality surface finish and dimensional accuracy

? Production of stress free components are possible

? Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials using tools that

? Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining hard materials

? They are classified under the domain of non traditional processes.1

ACSR 2 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

? Mechanical: Erosion of the work material by a high velocity stream of abrasives

? Chemical: Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack

ACSR 3 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

ACSR 4 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

Table 1: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

S. Process Process Characteristics Process parameters

ACSR 5 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

Figure 1: Material removal rate in different non-conventional machining processes

ACSR 6 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF U C M

SCHEDULED DATE: ACTUAL DATE :

2.1 ADVANTAGES OF UN-CONVENTIONAL

Delicate , brittle material can be machined without damage.

2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF UN-CONVENTIONAL

? skilled operator required

2.3 APPLICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL

Chemical machining (CM)

The photo-chemical blanking is applied for manufacturing printed circuit boards

Electrochemical machining (ECM)

Electrochemical grinding (ECG)

ACSR 8 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM)

Laser-beam machining (LBM)

Electron-beam (plasma) machining (EBM)

Water-jet machining (WJM)

Abrasive jet (gas) machining (AJM)

ACSR 9 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

SCHEDULED DATE: ACTUAL DATE :

3.1 CONSIDERATIONS IN PROCESS SELECTION

these methods cannot replace the conventional machining processes and

A careful assortment of the procedure for a given machining issue is fundamental.

When comparing the physical parameters of modern machining processes, it may

In conclusion, the suitability of application of any of the processes is dependent

Table 2: Economic Considerations in UCMP

ACSR 11 UCMP : IV B.Tech I Sem

Comparison of conventional and non-conventional machining processes

SCHEDULED DATE: ACTUAL DATE :

4.1 CONVENTIONAL MACHINING VS.

Conventional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical (motion)

Non-conventional machining utilizes other forms of energy.

The three main forms of energy used in non-conventional machining processes