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INTRODUCTION TO THEOLOGY

What is Theology?

There are various answers given to this question by various Theologians. There definition of
theology may vary according to their different approaches to this question. Nevertheless, there are some
elements which are to be included in any genuine and meaningful definition of Christian Theology: God
and his Revelation, mans response to this divine Revelation, i.e., faith, mans effort to understand the
contents of revelation in a methodical and scientific way applying them to mans contemporary situations.

Theology in the wide sense means knowledge of God:

On the basis of etymology, theology is derived from the Greek Theou logos, meaning doctrine,
discourse, or knowledge of God can be understood either in subjective sense or in objective sense. In
subjective sense it is the knowledge which God has about the creatures Himself. God communicates His
self-knowledge to men, and is accepted by men through faith. Hence understood in the subjective sense,
knowledge of God (Theou logos) can be taken as revelation. In objective sense, knowledge of God (theou
logos) is knowledge which has God as its object. It may be understood as the sum of mans knowledge
about God. In this sense, St. Thomas speaks about threefold human knowledge of God that which can be
had by reflection upon the created universe; that which is obtained through acceptance of Gods revelation
through faith; and that which results from the very vision of God.

Theology in the strict sense, speaks of God as He is known to men through divine Revelation and
in so far as His revelation can introduced them to a deeper knowledge of His inner mystery.

Considering in this proper sense, a mere etymological grasp of the term theology is not enough
to clarify its meaning. Otherwise, theology would not be distinguishable from theodicy and such similar
approaches to the question of God.

What is characteristic of theology in our Christian understanding is the faith of the theologian, his
acceptance of the divine Revelation through faith, or as some authors say, theology is an activity of faith.
It is generally held that only one who is a believer, who has faith, can be a theologian. Even if a non-believer
studies Christian religious doctrines, such a study would not be theology. His study may be termed as
philosophy of religion.

Faith that is required of a theologian is not mere acceptance of some revealed truths (preposition)
but it implies his total personal commitment tom God who revealed Himself in Jesus Christ as the Lord and
Saviour. Thus this faith includes both the intellectual aspects (content of faith-revealed truths fides quae,
expressed in the formulas to believe that), and personal commitment, an existential attitude which
permeates the believers whole existence, as the response to the call of the personal God. (fides quae-
expressed through the formula to believe in).

The theologian tries to arrive at a deeper understanding of the mysteries of faith. What is for the
simple believer an object of assent, the theologian attempts to comprehend. What the simple believer
affirms as true, the theologian tries to see as intelligible.

According to the definition given by St. Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109), (which is still accepts as
a classical definition of theology), theology is faith seeking understanding (Fides quaerens intellectum).
The document The Theological Formation of Future Priests. Published by the Congregation for Catholic
Education in 1976, says that theology is the science of Christian Revelation. Fides quaerens intellectum,
that is, faith, that searches for and develops its self-understanding, reaches its goal in a higher and more
systematic form through theology (.18). Following this line of thought it may be said theology is that
process by which we bring our knowledge and understanding of God to the level of expression (Richard
P. McBrien).

Theology is the work of the believer who uses his reason, in order to understand better what he
already possesses by faith. Theology is faith lived by a thinking mind, and scientifically elaborated
(Latourelle).
Faith precedes theological study. I do not seek to understand first by means of my reason what I shall then,
afterwards, believe. The object of theology is divine mystery and it will remain a mystery even if the
theologian may attain some understanding of it. That is why St. Anselm said, I do not pretend to sound the
depth, O Lord, for how should I compare my understanding with thy mystery? But I desire to understand
in some manner the truth which I believe and which my heart loves. I do not seek to understand in order to
believe, but I believe first in order to try afterwards to understand. And St. Augustine writes, I desire to
see with the eyes of my understanding what I believed.

Here, it must be noted that the notion of theology Faith seeking understanding should not
exclusively be applied only to the theologians in the technical sense. Every believer is virtually a theologian.
As a man, he reflects in a spontaneous though not in a methodical and scientific way on his situation as a
believer. Theological reflection that is, the understanding of the faith arises spontaneously and
inevitably in the believer, in all those who have accepted the gift of the Word of God. Theology is intrinsic
to a life of faith seeking to be authentic and complete There is present in all believers and more so in
every Christian community a rough outline of a theology (G. Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation, p.3).

In which way are faith and reason involved in theology?


A.) Faith is the basis, norm and goal of theology. At the origin of theology there is a double gift of
God, a double initiative of God: Gods initiative in revealing divine mysteries and his initiative in granting
the gift of faith to men.

B.) Faith gives rise to theology. First: Faith is an initial possession though obscure and imperfect
of the object we aspire to know, to see. There is includes in faith itself an intellectual appetite to know, a
desire to know and to see. Because it does not see, Faith seeks to see, to understand. Faith seeking
understanding. Second: The revealed truth is so rich that it will never be exhausted. The message of faith,
therefore, causes in human mind a desire to understand the content of that message more and more. The II
Vatican Council speaks about the necessity of grace to the fruitful intellectual development of faith, for a
more profound understanding of revelation (cf. Dei Verbum, n. 5).

C.) Faith exercises its influence throughout the theological reflection: By faith the theologian holds as
absolutely certain truths which cannot be known through experience or evidence. The certainty of his faith
is the motive and guarantee of his reflection. It is faith which keeps theology in contact with divine reality,
and it is from faith that it derives its value as the science of the real (Latourelle). Moreover, the theologian
operates under the continuous dynamic of the light of faith from which his theological reflection receives
its stimulus and its direction. It is Holy Spirit who helps the believer to attend a deeper understanding of
Revelation (cf. Dei Verbum n. 5).

D.) But theology, as we mentioned above, as an activity of faith in which both faith and human intellect
play a combined role. The subject or agent of theology is man as rational being, or simply reason illumined
by faith as the I Vatican council affirmed. Theology is the work of reason illumined by faith. When
reasons illumined by faith seeks in an earnest, pious and sober manner, it attains by Gods grace a certain
understanding of the mysteries (ND 132). It is this understanding that theology strives to attain, a
knowledge that is not infused but acquired by human effort through methodical reflection, undertaken by
human reason enlightened by faith.

Theology, the science of Faith


In the history of theology, at least from the middle age onwards there had been serious discussion
concerning the scientific nature of theology. There were authors who held the view that theology was not a
science. Even today when one speaks of science at first on thinks of natural science before applying it in
other spheres.

St. Thomas Aquinas asks in the beginning of his Summa Theologiae whether theology is a science
and he answers positively. But he goes on to point out that sciences are not all of the same kind and he
further clarifies what he means when he says that theology is a science (cf. S.T. I: 1:2).
At present the term science is more comprehensive that the one in Aristotelian use. Science is use
for any discipline with its own subject matter or subject and method of reflection leading to a communicable
synthesis. According to this understanding of science, theology also can be considered as a science, since
it has its own object, method, unity and systematization. Karl Rahner defines theology as the science of
faith and he affirms that in spite of the contrary thinking of some authors, theology has all the necessary
characteristics of a science: it has a special subject matter which can be distinguished from all others and
its own method of reflection, Methodical and critical reflection on ones faith leads a Christian to a better
understanding of the mysteries of his faith and also enables him to make a defense to any one who calls
him to account for the hope that is in him. (cf. 1 Pet. 3:15).

We quote here Rahners definition of theology which is rather elaborate. Theology is the science
of faith. It is the conscious and methodical explanation and explication of the divine revelation received
and grasped in faith. This methodical reflection is possible and necessary because the official revealed
word of God already contains a conceptual and propositional element which as an element of faith and its
responsible communication to others demands further explanation, reflection and confrontation with other
truths. Hence revelation is intrinsically amenable to reflection. If Science is understood to be methodical
reflection (along lines appropriate to the subject-matter in each case), it is absurd to deny theology the
character of a science (Sacramentum Mundi, Vol. 6, P. 234).

Theology differs from Other Sciences


Other sciences proceed from experimentally veritable facts of observable evidences. But the subject-
matter of theology are Christian mysteries which are not the object of ordinary experience observation.

Bothe the natural and human sciences make use of mans reasoning power. Theology too uses
rational reflection. But the reason of mans cognitive faculty which is involved in theological reflection is
not mere reason but reason enlightened by faith. Faith enlightens and directs mans cognitive faculty in its
effort to understand the Christian mysteries. The I Vatican Council clarified the special way in which
reason in considered as the subject of theological works. In the first place, reason accepts the objective
contents of Christian massage as truth. It is in this way that reason is enlightened by faith. The reason
adapts itself also in its operation to the way demanded by faith in seeking to understand the mystery of
faith. The inquiry undertaken by reason enlightened by faith should be carried out in an earnest, pious and
sober manner, that is with appropriate diligence and also being mindful of the limit of human reason in its
effort to understand the divine mysteries and also with proper religious attitude expected of a cognitive
faculty seeking to grasp divinely revealed truths. If the human reason undertakes this specific task in the
manner proposed, with Gods grace it can attain a certain understanding of the mysteries. (cf. ND 132). The
II Vatican Council also speaks of the work of grace helping the believer in his attempt to attain a more
profound understanding of revealed truths. (cf. Dei Verbum, n. 5).

Theology, service of the Church


Here what we want to speak about it the ecclesial function of theology. Theological knowledge, as
the case of any other knowledge, cannot be corrected estimated unless it is seen in its communal implication.
A theologian is reflecting on the faith of the community as it is experience and lived by the community in
a definite time and cultural situations. This fact is admitted by all genuine theologians even by non-Catholic
theologians like Karl Barth. According to Barth, in relation to the Word of God and His testimony the
theologian is never in a void, but very concretely, in the community (cf. An Introduction of Evangelical
Theology).

A theologian cannot work in insolation. His reflections and views cannot have Scientific value
unless recognized as such by other believers and theologians. He also has to take into account the views of
others. The theologians are aware that they belong to the community of believers who accept the divine
truths which are the subject matter of the theological reflections. Their belonging to the faith-community is
a condition for their theological work. Thus, theology is an ecclesiastical science of faith. If done in isolation
apart from the Church-community it cannot anymore be considered theology. The theologians are to do the
theology in the church and for the church; a theology which scientific in character and pastoral in
orientation; a theology which is critical in outlook and ecclesially committed.

Theology and the Magisterium of the Teaching Office of the Church:


As an ecclesiastical science of faith theology and theologians have a special relationship to the
Magisterium in the Church which has been entrusted by the Lord with the task of safeguarding and
authentically interpreting the Word of God (cf. II Vatican Council, Dei Verbum, n. 10). Although the
function of the Magisterium and theology are different, nevertheless they have resemblances too. Both have
a common origin: the divine Revelation. Both work for the same end, that of conserving, understanding
more deeply, and for presenting to men the revealed truths in a way that can be understood by them, and
thus helping them to live the life of faith leading them on the way of salvation.

(The relationship between the Ecclesiastical Magisterium and theology is explained in the
publication by the International Theological Commission 1976. Please study the Reading No. 5 given to
you about this question: Theses on the Relationship between the Ecclesiastical Magisterium and Theology).
This study clarifies the specific function of both Magisterium and of theology, and speaks about the need
of collaboration and dialogue between them. Although the Magisterium has the last say regarding the
authentic interpretation of the Word of God, it should respect the freedom of the theologians in their
research and attempt in seeking the understanding of faith (cf. Gaudium et Spes, n. 62).

The activities of the Magisterium and of the theologians are meant to be at the service of the Church
community. Each of those activities is animated by a different charism.

It is the task of the Magisterium, in virtue of the mandate received from Christ, and by a gift of the
spirit proper to it (the charism of assistance), to preserve the deposit of faith (Tradition and Scripture) in its
integrity, to protect it against all error of contamination, to judge authoritatively theology interpretation of
revelation, and itself to offer new and deeper understanding of the faith. In fulfilling this task, the
Magisterium may not disregard the finding of the theologians reflections. The Magisterium without
theology runs the risk of repeating to the modern man formulae which may not be understood by him.

Theology receives a charism of the spirit needed for its function on the Church. Its function is to
investigate revelation under the guidance to the Holy Spirit and to bring to knowledge of the Christian
community, and in particular of the Magisterium, the result of its research, so that through the doctrine
taught by the Magisterium these results may guide the Christians in their life of faith.

It should be noted that the special charism of the theologian does not dispense him from submission
to the Magisterium to which entrusted by the Lord the task of authentically interpreting the Word of God.
Nevertheless, submission to the Magisterium does not mean passiveness and absence of initiative on the
part of the theologians. As Poe John Paul II said, although the theological reflection must be guided by the
revealed Word of God and by the teaching of the Church. The application of a Scientific method to this
reflection is the specific task of the theologians. Theological reflection clarifies the structure of the
intelligibility of the Christian message, discovers its intrinsic coherence, and illustrates the relationship of
the unchanging content of the tenents of faith to the varied ang changeable cultural context in which the
message is proclaimed and preached (cf. Osservatore Romano, Aug. 26, 1985, P. 6, see also the section
on Theology and the Magisterium in the document The Theological Formation of Future Priest, 1976).

Theology and Life


An accusation frequently raised against theology is that of being abstract, alienated from real life
detached from Christian experience, in short, not having any genuine impact on life. Even some priests and
seminarians may at times state that they do not find in theology any help for their spiritual life, and that
their theology is of little use of their ministry. It is also true that some student of theology find difficulty in
acquiring a just balance between their spiritual life and intellectual life. There seems to be need of
reconciling their desire to know with their desire to love God. Hence, it is important that we try to see how
a genuine theology is expected to help us to foster our interior life and also a life of charity in the service
of men.

A genuine theology is to help one in the understanding of ones faith and also to transform the
theologian interiorly through the light of the gospel, so that he can reflect its light and become a principle
of conversion for others. But what is experienced today is a lack of correspondence between theological
knowledge and Christian life, or a lack of unity between knowledge and real life. At present, scientific
theology, taught in universities and seminaries, has little to do with the life of prayer, with community
commitment, with the research for the life-style of future priest, and with preparation for the various
function of pastoral activity (Z. Alszeghy and M. Flick, Introductory Theology, p. 91). The document of
II Vatican Council or Priestly Formation strongly recommends the needs of a synthesis between theological
studies, spiritual life and the pastoral ministry (cf. n. 16).

Christian life the condition of Theological activity:


II Vatican Councils documents on Priestly formation quotes from the writings of St. Bonavneute
where the saintly doctor of the church speaks about the necessary disposition of the one who desires to
engage himself in theological studies. Let no one think he will find sufficiency in a reading which lacks
unction, an inquiry lacks devotion, a seach which arouses no wonder, a survey without enthusiasm, industry
without piety, knowledge without love, intelligence without humility, application without grace,
contemplation without wisdom inspire by God (n. 16, footnote 32). What is clear from the teaching is that
study of theology as faith seeking understanding, presupposes a Christian life on the part of the theologian.
We may speak about a religious experience through which the believer has some pre-scientific and pre-
conceptual knowledge of God and His mysteries. This is the effect of a direct influence of God in the
believing subject. This experience of the believer is a grace of God, a free gift of God, which may be
testified through a life of prayer and discipline of the believer who wants to engage himself in the
theological studies. From the early time the masters of theology exhorted the students of theology that they
should keep in mind the ascetic requirements of this study (e.g. Hugh of St. Victor in his guide to the study
of theology). Hence, we may affirm that theological study presupposes a spiritual-existential context.

The study of theology is to be done not to satisfy some human curiosity of knowing, but because of
the desire to listen and understand the divine message of salvation. Here it is fitting to quote the advice of
the theologian DEITRICH BONHOEFFER to the students of a Christian Theological School: Anyone who
would study with equal interest other subjects, medicine or law, for example, merely because it is necessary
to study something to prepare for a profession, should not study theology. Those who are attracted by the
Word of God should dedicate themselves to theological study. This attraction does not consist of a special
experience of a divine call. It is manifested in readiness to think of God, or his word, of his will, and in the
satisfaction found in meditating on the divine law day and night (cf. Z. Alszeghy and M. Flick,
Introductory Theology, p. 20).

In other words, a deep spiritual life is necessary for the success of theological studies. Without such
a spirituality one can learn what is required for a theological examination, one can explain various
theological terms, but one cannot grasp the meaning of the mysteries which is the expected fruit of the
theological studies. Only a man of deep spirituality will have the special intellectual attitude resulting from
the gifts of the Holy Spirit, mainly the gift of understanding, which helps us penetrate divine truths.

Theological Studies - Nourishment of Christian Life:


The document on the Theological Formation of the Future Priest says that theology has a very
relevant influence on the spiritual life because it clarifies and depens a sense of the laws of salvation and
the way of spiritual progress that Revelation offers to Christian life. In a particular way theology is to help
the seminarians and priest to have a solid piety and to have a cleaner grasp of the nature of their ministry
and an exact appreciation of what the church ask them.

The understanding of the mysteries of the faith aimed at in theological studies should normally
contribute to the progress of interior life. Theology seek not only the specific intelligibility od each mystery
as such, but also it seeks an insight of the various bonds which unite the mysteries among themselves.
Through this attempt theology directs the believers up to a contemplation of the whole mystery in its
complex unity. All this work of the theologian is accompanied by his daily converse with the Word of God
through the study of sacred scripture which is the soul of all theology (O.T. n. 16). Hence, this familiarity
with Word of God and the contemplation of the whole mystery of the saving plan of God would lead one
to wonder and love and a deeper commitment.

It is true that progress in the theoretical knowledge of truth does not necessarily go hand in hand
with progress in love, nor does theological study lead one directly and by itself to contemplation.
Nevertheless, all true theology is useful for Christian life; it can show to the Christian the right path to
follow and avoid any possible deviation such as emotionalism, activism, superstition, etc.; it can rectify and
purify our ways of conceiving divine reality and thus lead us to truer knowledge of God and a better
grounded spirituality; it can offer us wider and better themes in prayer; it an indicate to us the characteristic
dispositions of a real disciple of Christ; it can help us to verify our spontaneous experience, and it can be
of great help in giving account of one faith and in sharing ones faith-experience with others.

Theology and Prayer


Since a genuine theology is to plan an important role in the formation of Christian life, it has a
certain spiritual dimension. A theologian cannot progress in study just only through intellectual effort. But
at the same time be should take the steps needed to strengthen personal and existential union with God who
can only enable him to deepen his understanding of the divine mysteries Since theology has for its object
truths which are principle of life and personal commitment, both for the individual and the community in
which he is part it has a spiritual dimension and, therefore, the theologian cannot be purely intellectual in
his research and study, but must always follow the requirements of faith, always deepening his existential
union with god and his lively participation in the Church (Theological Formation of Future Priest, n. 22).

All through his study a theologian should never lose sight of the primacy of love, a love which is
expressed in the fidelity in action fidelity to the commands of love, to the very duties which the theological
and priestly formation imposes on him, fidelity to the Church, fidelity to the inner guidance of the Holy
Spirit (cf. Latourelle, pp. 234-238).

We have to aim at the balance between theoretical knowledge of life, between theory and praxis,
orthodoxy and orthopraxis. Although it is not always easy to attain this balance of unity, I we are open to
the light and guidance of the holy Spirit, it is possible for us. The great doctros of the Church reach this
union between theological reflection and sanctify of life (e.g. St Augustine, St. Bernard, St. Anselm, St
Bonaventure, St Thomas and many others). They teach us that the Word of God which theologians seek to
understand demands a docility, a docility of mind and will and of life. But this docility is a gift of God. To
obtain it one must pray. It is in prayer that theology must approach the mystery; it is in prayer that it must
seek understanding; it is in prayer that it must accomplish its research. Study and prayer must remain in a
constant union. When faithfulness to God, implore in prayer, goes hand in hand, with theology then the
knowledge of God and life in God (orthodoxy and orthopraxis) will go forwards together in harmonious
union.

When one comes to know more about God and his mysteries in the theological studies, leading one
to love and wonder, one cannot but express this love and wonder in prayer in adoration, in praise and
thanksgiving, petition foe further illumination, etc. A certain theologian (John Ashton) says that the purpose
of theology is to discover and expound the condition of the possibility of Christian prayer. A genuine
theology will make us men of prayer.

The theology is to serve for the building up of the church as mentioned in the document on the theological
formation of future priests (cf. N. 27). In other words, the desire fruit of theological reflection is not merely
the growth of the Christian life of the individual theologians. Christs message is to be interpreted and
understood by the whole people of God. Theology must be at the service of the whole Church. The study
of theology, being a reflection on Revelation, would be meaningless unless it aims at the building up of the
people for whom the Revelation was intended. Hence, theological study must at once be scientific and
pastoral in character, as we mentioned earlier. Theological Reflection is not be undertaken just for satisfying
the intellectual curiosity, but must aim at the pastoral good of the Church. Pastoral interest in a condition
for a good theology.

Pastoral action and theology are closely bound together as life and reflection on life. Pure pragmatic
approach in pastoral activities, (i.e. without the help of theological principles), would be disastrous, as also
a theological speculation without taking into account the ecclesial-pastoral life would be a sterile effort.

In order to avoid any tension between theological reflection and pastoral activity in the Church it is
necessary collaboration between pastors and theologians, as such collaboration is essential and will be
fruitful in their effort in the building up of the Church. There is need to share ideas and experiences which
will be helpful to both groups in their respective mission in the Church. If a theologian does not want to
communicate to others the result of his research and study his theology lacks the ecclesial dimension. A
practical opportunity to put the result of ones studies at the disposal of the community can be had through
renewal courses, given for the pastoral clergy and for other lay groups etc. who come together to deepen
their knowledge of the Word of God. The impulses and experiences gained as such gatherings can help the
theologians to do their research and study structured according to the service requirements of the whole
community.

A synthetic and overall view of Theology


A synthesis or overall view of theology can help us to see the structure of the theological assertions
in their proper order. All theological treatises speak of God, of the God who is one and triune, of the God
who creates and justifies, of the God who is made man and suffering servant, of the God who is the source
of every grace and virtue, of the God who sanctifies through the Church and the sacrament, of the God who
is the blessedness of those who love and serve him. In short theology studies God in the mystery of hid
inner life and in his design for our salvation; theology treats also of creatures but only in their relationship
to God, as affects of God or images of God, called to share in his divine life.

The classical manner of viewing the whole theology in a synthetical way considers the living God,
source of life as its axis. The inner dynamic of the divine life is fulfilled in the generation of the Word and
the aspiration of the Spirit hence the treatise of One and Triune God. There is also in God an external
activity, in virtue of which the divine life is communicated to creatures: God creates man and raises him to
a participation in his own life the treatise on creation. Through sin this life has been destroyed in man,
but the new life is restored through the incarnation and redemption by Christ the treatise on Christology
and Mariology. The divine life is defused within the members of Christs Body, the Church the treatise o
the Church or Ecclesiology. The new life is celebrated and transmitted to the members of the Church
through the Sacraments the treatise on sacraments. The nature of this divine life communicated to men,
and the way it is cultivated in the life of Christians is studied in the treatise on Grace, and on Virtue. The
ways and means to live the new life Spiritual theology and Moral theology. Finally, theology studies
mans last end, that is the everlasting possession or the everlasting loss of this life the treatise on the last
things or eschatology.

Each of this treatises an aspect of the divine life. What is central in this model of theological
synthesis is the mystery of divine life, which has its source in the trinity, is communicated to men, destroyed
by sin, restored by Christ and diffused within the Church.

Some authors propose a model of theological synthesis following a temporal order in the history of
salvation. As in the case of classical model, here too, it begins with Gods intimate life. There follows
creation, sin and redemption which took place in the past in the history of salvation. But this past has its
meaning in the present life of man demanding a Christian way of life (morality) and supplying the helps
needed for it (sacraments). The history is to come to end in the future, with eschatology.

In the Creeds (e.g. Apostolic Creed) we find the elements of the above-mentioned theological
syntheses. It has its place in the theology of some of the Fathers and of later theologians including in our
own time.

Theology can be considered under different aspects:


A.) Based on the purpose or end of the theological work, study of the theology may be judge as theoretical
or academic and practical or popular.
Theoretical or academic: limits to the intellectual grasp of the revealed truth without stressing its
relevance to life. It is clear that such a theology is inadequate as its disregards the pastoral aspects.

Practical or popular: more concern is on the practical and pastoral aspect of the theological studies
disregarding the scientific reflection and effort to understand the meaning of the mysteries. This also is
one-sided approach to theology and hence not adequate one.

A genuine theology should be both academic and pastoral in approach.

B.) According to the various contents, Fundamental theology which studies the fact of revelation and the
reasonableness of faith; Dogmatic theology which reflects on the mysteries of faith as it has been
expressed in official teachings of the Church; Moral Theology which is a methodical reflection upon
the mystery of our calling in Christ and upon the resonance of this mystery in our daily life or the
impact of our faith in attitudes, values and behavior; Spiritual and Ascetical theology which focuses
on the inner transformation affected by the presence of faith and grace, studying the organic structure
of spiritual life; Pastoral Theology seeks to understand the implications of faith for the actual situation
of the Church (preaching and various other ministries); Liturgical theology which interprets the
meaning of faith as expressed in the rituals and devotion of the Church; Missionary theology or
missiology which studies the doctrinal principles which underline the Churchs missionary activities;
Ecumenical theology which reflects on the dogmatic principles which are underlying the ecumenical
movement with a view to the restoration of the unity of the Church as willed by Christ.

The study of various theological disciplines can be presented according to the pattern of treatises:
On Revelation, on the Church, on God One and Triune, on Creation, on Incarnation, on Redemption,
on Grace, on the Virtues, on the Sacraments, on the last thing or Eschatology.

C.) Based on the method used:


1.) Positive or historical theology which seeks to understand and interpret the revealed truths as
they are articulated in some principal historical success, such as the Holy Scriptures, the writings
of the Fathers and doctors of the Church and the Church Magisterium. Biblical Theology is a
subdivision of this historical theology. It attempts to organize in coherent, harmonious and
intelligible synthesis the message of Scriptures, either in part or in whole, perhaps in a
particular book or a particular author. Patristic theology also belongs to the area of historical
theology. Its purpose is to give an accurate explanation of the Fathers thought so that we may
share in their understanding of faith. Some authors speak of doctrinal theology intending the
attempt to study and examine the official teaching of the Church (Magisterium)

2.) Speculative theology or systematic theology attempt the understanding of the mysteries of faith,
or it is the intellectus fidei which is a methodical, discursive effort of the mind seeking to clarify
the mystery.

Aids to the study of theology


Apparently, the way how theology be studies would be different for different persons, Nevertheless,
we can affirm that there are some general principles which would be helpful to all those who pursue the
study of theology. Moreover, there are various aids to the study of theology.

A. Scriptures: Theology is a reflection on revelation. The scriptures in which revelation in embodied in an


immediately accessible way is to be the soul of all theology (Decree on Priestly Formation, n. 16).
All theology, then, must begin with the Bible. But theology is not to be confused with exegesis.
Theology reads the Bible in faith, as the book of the Church, listening to it submissively as befits the
word of God. Exegesis studies the Bible critically, analyzing it with the help of the methods of literary
and historical criticism, as if it were any other historical book. Theology makes use of the results of
critical exegesis for its for its faith-reflection on the Word of God. Hence, we may consider the tools of
the exegete too among the aids to theological study. Among these we find the following:

1. Text of the Bible


Hebrew Bible ed. By R. Kittel. This is the standard Hebrew Bible among Christian scholars.
Septuaginta ed. By A. Rahlfs. The Septuagint (LXX) is the Greek translation of the Old Testament
made for the Jews of the diaspora in Alexandria in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. Legend has it that
this translation was made by 70 men (72 men 6 each from each of tribes). Greek New Testament ed.
By C. Tischendorf. One of the three best known major critical edition of the New Testament. The
Vulgate: The Latin translation made by St. Jerome. The Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version, Catholic
Edition (RSV). This edition is both accurate and readable. Mostly this edition is made use of during
our theological studies.

- The Jerusalem Bible good for its notes and introductions.


- The New American Bible

Biblical Commentaries and Dictionaries:


- The Jerome Biblical Commentary, ed. R. Brown and others.
- A New Catholic Commentary of Holy Scriptures
- BAUER, J.B. (ed), Encyclopedia of Biblical Theology.
- LEON-DUFOUR, X., Dictionary of Biblical Theology
- MCKENZIE, J., Dictionary of the Bible
- KITTEL, Theological Dictionary of the new Testament (10 vols.)

B.) Fathers of the Church: Great importance is attached in theology to the teachings of the Fathers of the
Church, ecclesiastical writers who lived in the first seven centuries of Christianity.

The most comprehensive source of patristic writings is still the two mammoth collection of MIGNE,
published in Paris from 1844 to 1866.

MIGNE, J.P., Patrologia Latina (PL), 221 vols. (Paris 1844-1855). Here are collected the writings of the
Latin Fathers and of medieval ecclesiastical writers up to the time of Innocent III (1216).

MIGNE, J.P., Patrologia Graeca (PG)., 161 vols. (Paris 1857-1866). Here are collected the writings (in
Greek with Latin translation) of the Greek Fathers band Greek ecclesiastical writers up to the
time of the Council of Florence1459)

DEFERRARI and others (ed): The Fathers of the Church, 67 vols. (Available in the Library of ICST).

Manuals of Patrology
QUAESTEN, JOHANNES, Patrology, 3 vols. Best available in English. Excellent for rapid references.

ALTANER, B., Patrology

C.) The teaching of the Church: the students of the theology must be familiar with the official documents
of the Church where the Magisterial teachings of the Church are collected.

The basic source book for magisterial texts is the collection f symbols (creeds), council definitions
and other magisterial texts, known as DENZINGER, collected by the Priest-theologian DENZINGER,
Heinrich Joseph (1819-1883). The first publication was in 1854. Others continued the work begun by
Denzinger. The most recent edition of this work is: H. Denzinger A. Schoenmetzer (DS), Enchridion
Symbolorum Definitionum et Declarationum de Robus Fidei et Morum (36th edition, emended, Freiburg,
1976). To this must be added the documents of Vatican II and the subsequent documents of the Holy See.

- Acta Apostolicae Sedis (AAS): Official text of documents issued by the Holy Father and the
Congregation of the Holy See are published in ASS (Rome 1909).
- The documents of Vatican II, ed: M.W. ABBOT (New York 1966).
- Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post-Conciliar Documents, vol. I ed. By A. FLANNERY,
New York 1975; More Post-Conciliar Documents (Vatican Collection Vol. II), New York 1982.
- NEUNER-ROOS (NR): The teaching of the Catholic Church: (A collection of Church documents
in English (1967).
- NEUNER-DUPUIS (ND) The Christian Faith in the Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Church:
Fourth Revised and enlarge edition, 1982, Bangalore, India. (We use this edition).
- MEGIVERN, J.J. (ed); Official Catholic Teachings (6 vols.)
- Papal Encyclicals
- Pope Speaks
- Osservatore Romano

Other aids in theological studies:

- New Catholic Encyclopedia (17 vols.)


- K. RAHNER (ed.), Sacramentum Mundi (6 vols.)
- K. RAHNER (ed.), Encyclopedia Theology
- K. RAHNER and H. Vorgrimler, Theological Dictionary\
- H. VORGRIMLER (ed.) Commentary on the Documents of Vatican II (5 vols.)
- ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, Summa Theologica (3 vols.): English translation of the Summa
Theologicae-

There are various Theological Reviews which are of importance in the study of theology. Some
good theological reviews are found in our reference room. Eg: Theological Studies, Theological Digest,
Thomist, Communio, Concilium, Gregorian, The Irish Theological Quarterly, Chicago Studies, East Asian
Pastoral Review.

A few references useful for the course Introduction to Theology:

- ALSZEGHY and FLICK: Introductory Theology


- BALTHASAR, H. U., Word and Redemption
- CHENU, M.D., Faith and Theology
- CHENU, M.D. Is Theology A Science?
- CONCAR, Y., A History of Theology
- LATOURELLE, R., Theology, Science of Salvation
- LONERGAN, B., Method in Theology
- MCBRIEN, Richard, Catholicism (2 vols.)
- RAHNER, K., Foundation of Christian Faith
- RAHNER, K., Theological Investigation (20 vols.) Some articles are relevant to our present study.
- SCHILLEBEECKX, E., Revelation and Theology (Vol. I and II)
- TRACY, David, Blessed Rage for Order

Some other general references:

- AURICCHIO, JOHN, The Future of Theology


- BENT N. CHARLES, Interpreting the doctrine of God
- COLLINGWOOD, F.G. Faith and Reason
- EBELING, G., The study of Theology
- GRANFEILD, PATRICK, Theologians at Work
- HENRY, A.P., Introduction of Theology
- HOLMER, L. Paul, The Grammar of Faith
- MACQARRIE, John, God-Talk
- MACQUARRIE, John, Principle of Christian Theology
- MASCALL, E.L., Theology and the Future
- RATZINGER, J., Introduction
- Tan, RODRIGO, Theology in the Philippine Setting
- WEILAND, J., New Ways in Theology

Some Articles

- BALTHASAR, H.URS Von, Current Trends in Catholic Theology and the Responsibility of the
Christians, Communio, 1978, pp. 77-85.
- BEINERT, WOLFGANG, Theology and Christian Existence, Theology Digest, 1977, pp. 104-
110.
- BERNARDIN, L. Joseph, Magisterium and Theologians: Steps Toward Dialogue, Chicago
Studies, Vol. 17, n. 2. Summer, 1978, pp. 151-158. (There are few other articles in
the same number of Chicago Studies which examine various questions concerning
Magisterium and Theologians by authors like Brown, Raymond, and Peter J. Carl).
- ___________ E.S., Political Theology: An Historical Analysis Theology Digest, 1977, Pp. 317-
334.
- GUTIERREZ, G., Notes for a Theology of Liberation, Theological Studies, 1970, pp. 243-261.
- KERESZTY, Roch, Theology and Spirituality, Communio, 1983, pp. 314-331.
- RAHNER, K., Theology and Magisterium: Self Appraisal, Theology Digest, 1981, pp. 257-261.

Students of theology who are undergoing their formation for Priesthood should be familiar with some of
the recent documents published by the Church Magiterium. We mention a few of them here:

- Vatican IIs Decree on Priestly Formation (Optatam Totius), 1965.


- The Basic Plan for Priestly Formation (Ratio Fundamentalis), Congregation for Catholic Education,
1970.
- The Theological Formation of Future Priests (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1976.).
- Instruction on Liturgical Formation in Seminaries (Congregation for Catholic Education, 1979).
- A Guide to Formation in Priestly Celibacy (Congregation for Catholic Education 1974).
- Circular Letter Concerning some of the more urgent aspects of Spiritual Formation in Seminaries
(Congregation for Catholic Education, 1980).
- POPE JOHN PAUL II, Apostolic Constitution, Sapientia Chrsitianan, on Eccelsiatical Univesities
and Faculties, 1979.
- Norms of Application for the Congregation for Catholic Education for the Correct Implementation
of the Apostolic Constitution, Sapienta Chriatiana, 1979.
- Vaticans IIs Decree on the Ministry and life of Priest (Presbyterorum Ordinis, 1965).
- The Ministerial Priesthood, (Synod of Bishops, 1971).

N.B.: The document: The Theological Formation for Future Priest is the most important one in our present
course in Introduction to Theology.

The Function of Theology


- The document on the Theological Formation of Future Priests speaks about the specific fi=unction
of the Theology in the board sphere of the activities and ministries of the Church (cf, Nos. 23-28;
in the handout on pp. 4-5).

- Theology serves the data of revelation, i.e. it investigates the Revelation and studies in depth.

It has very relevant influence in spiritual life

It has its importance in Christian Apostolate especially in pastoral ministry.

Serving in the building up of the Body of Christ.

Serving to arouse the missionary awareness of the Church.

Helping the ecumenical endeavors of the Church.

Presenting the Christian message as adequate answers to the problems faced by men of today.

Clarifying the notion of liberation, social progress etc. in the light of the Gospel message and
helping men achieve genuine progress.

- The same document deals in detail about the twofold task or function of theology which is basic to
all other services rendered by it in the Church. These two task or functions of theology are distinguished,
as we mentioned earlier (p.8), with regards to its approach to the data of revelation. It is in this understanding
that the document speaks about the positive of historical dimension and systematic or speculative dimension
of theology (cf. ns. 29-43; pp. 5-8 of the Reading n. 6). Both positive and historic investigation of data of
revelation and the speculative or systematic reflection on the same are involve in theologizing.

Positive Function of Theology:


This is the function by which theology takes position of its datum in order to have the object of faith
as it is expressed in tradition and scripture, in a methodical and scientific manner (Auditus fidei).

In concrete, it means that positive theology studies the revealed truths. It seeks to define wat God
has revealed it, clearly or in a hidden way, explicitly or implicitly.

Positive theology also studies the progress of revelation in its historical and constitutive phrase up
to the end of the apostolic age, and its transmission by the Church from the early times to our day.

It is also the task of the positive theology to determined what has been proposed as truths of faith by
the teaching authority of the Church, the authority attached to such teachings (ordinary Magisterium or
extra-ordinary Magisterium, etc.).

The positive function of theology involves precise doctrinal and historical research. It aims to
undertake the task of retracing the whole history of the object of faith in its revelation, in its transmission,
in its promulgation, in all the forms, in which it has been expressed.

But it is not mere history of Christian doctrines; it is theology. It only makes use of historical method as a
help in it proper function (e.g. textual criticism, cultural background, etc.). But it evaluates the datum in a
theological light.

That is why it develops in dependence on the Churchs Magisterium. The task of positive theology
is to find and interpret documents and to know the past as far as documents and past testimony attest to the
revealed mystery of God. Hence it has to accept the verdict of the Church Magisterium, which on only can
say what are the documents and who are the men that bear witness to revealed truth and what is respective
value of their testimony.

Division of Positive Theology:


The totality of revelation which tradition and scripture together constitute, has been entrusted to the
Church as a whole in order that she may live by it. But the interpretation of the revealed truths has been
entrusted by Christ to the Magisterium of the Church.

Hence, we can distinguish three sections or departments in positive theology. All these three together
constitute the source of theology. They are Scripture, Tradition and the Magisterium of the Church.

1. Scripture: Here one may speak of positive Theology of the scripture documents. This is based
on exegesis. Its aim is to understand the thoughts of the Sacred author. Its method is that of textual criticism,
literary and historical (cf. DV n. 12, where the documents speaks about the nature of the work of the
exegete).
Besides the exegesis, biblical theology also is seen as part of the scriptural source of positive
theology, as it attempts to organize in a coherent, harmonious and intelligent synthesis the message
contained in the Scripture.

2. Tradition: Positive theology of tradition is concerned with the witness of the Fathers of the
Church, the doctors of the Church and the theologians. Besides this it includes the witness of the liturgy,
the history of the Church and Christian life as it is lived today.
a.) Fathers of the Church are witnesses to her tradition. The fathers systematized in their
writings revelation as it was received, believed and lived in the early Church. They formed the link between
the apostolic faith and the later generations. Together with Scripture, the tradition of the Fathers formed
the norm of Christian faith.

The technical term Father of the Church implies four things.

- Christian Antiquity: The Fathers of the Church are representatives of Christian antiquity. They
were the ones who made the first attempt in the post-apostolic Church to initiate theological reflection and
to seek answers to the problems arising from the apostolic Kerygma and the later age. Thus, we can say
that the Fathers laid the foundations of theology as developed in the later generation of Christians.

The Patristic age is considered as coming to an end in the west St. Isidore of Seville (636)
(some authors limit it with St. Gregory the Great 604). In the East, the Patristic period is regarded to have
ended with St. John Damascene (749).

- Orthodoxy in doctrine: This does not mean that individual fathers did not commit error in
doctrine. Their orthodoxy is to be seen in their collective testimony of the Churchs doctrine, and as active
witness of the living tradition of the Church.

- Explicit or implicit ecclesiastical approval: The value of their teaching and witness comes
from the fact that they are teachers and witnesses of tradition remaining in communion with the Church.
Only the teaching authority of the Church can officially recognize the orthodoxy of their doctrines.

- Holiness of life: Only those Patristic writers who have been venerated as saints from early
times are regarded as Fathers, but only as ecclesiastical writers.

B.) The title Doctor of the Church only partially coincides with Father of the Church. Some
of the Fathers are raised to the rank of doctors by the Church. In the East, St. Basil, St. Athanasius, St.
Gregory of Nazianzus, St. John Chrysostom are included in the list. In the West: St. Ambrose, St. Jerome,
St. Augustine, St. Gregory the Great.

Various form of deduction are included in the speculative function of theology as developed by
Scholastics. Deductive process understood in wider sense includes not only deduction in strict sense, in the
form of syllogism, but also various other procedures as we mention below:

Three tasks of theology in its speculative function:


1. Understanding the truths of faith or theological reflection.
2. Systematizing the truths of faith, i.e. arranging them into a larger system.
3. Judging on the result of theological reflection.

I. Understanding the truths of faith or theological reflection:


The need of such a theological reflection is emphasized in the documents on the Theological
Formation of Future Priest, by referring to the teaching of the II Vatican Council in the document on Priestly
Formation, Optatam Totius 9n. 16). Such a speculative reflection is not exclusive Medieval scholasticism;
but it is in line with mans intellectual need which tries to understand more and to understand better. And
this reflection is undertaken by reason enlightened by faith (ad lumen fedei), although according to
philosophical principles.

Some forms of theological reflection: Some theologians speak of various forms which such
theological reflection takes in the attempt to understand the mysteries of faith.

1. Definition: What is intended here is making more precise and defining in technical terms the truths
or expression in Tradition and Scripture in order to have better grasp of the exact meaning of the revealed
truth. e.g. what do expression like kingdom of heaven, Son of Man, mean? Before reaching any
dogmatic definitions, this form of reflection helps to clarify the meaning of such expression.

2. Syllogistic deduction: Various conclusion may be reached depending on the form of deductive
processes involved in the reflection. Thus, a conclusion may be reached from two revealed truths. E.g. All
revelation is Gods self-communication. But Gods self-communication and self-expression is only the
second person of the H. Trinity. This, all revelation is communication of Jesus Christ.
3. Argument from fitness: As to the mysteries concerning Gods inner life and his saving purpose
human intellect finds itself unable to provide necessary reasons. But it can show the fitness of divine action.
(Vatican I says that it was fitting to Gods wisdom and goodness to reveal himself to man. As God has
raised man to supernatural order, giving him a desire to the supernatural or transcendent, it was fitting to
divine wisdom to reveal to men the nature of that life.

Regarding the saving work of God, answering the question why was delay of Chriss coming, some
Fathers (Irenaeus, and Clement of Alexandria said that God has first to prepare humanity to receive the
plenitude of the _________.

4. Genetic explanation: This is an attempt to understand the evolution of a theme through the history
of salvation, going back to its original use. E.g. genetic explanation of the messianic titles applied to Christ
(Prophet, King, Son of Man, Suffering servant, etc.), help us to understand better the nature of Christs
mission.

5. The analogy between divine realities and human realities (ND 132); I Vatican Council speaks of
the possibility of some understanding of divine mysteries from the analogy with the object of natural
knowledge. Christ made use of human realities to help us to grasp the meaning of divine realities. E.g.
analogy of father-son relationship in the human life can help us to have some grasp of the Father-Son
relationship in divine life, and also our supernatural relationship to God the Father, Theologians also can
make use of other analogies. Thus, St. Augustine and St. Thomas tries to explain the mystery of the Trinity
by using the analog of the operation of intellect and will in man.

6. Phenomenological analysis: what is involve here is the analysis of a concept or a symbol to show
the depth of the mystery underlying it. E.g. analysis of the concept Word, Witness and encounter as
human experiences can deepen our awareness of the mystery of revelation; or the symbol of Sacred Heart
is the analysis of the notion of heart (What is significant of the heart? Seat of love, mercy, patience,
compassion, etc.) can help us to grasp the mystery underlying the symbol of the Sacred Heart of Jesus.

7. The interconnection of the mystery of faith: This kind of theological reflection is mention by I
Vatican Council (see ND 132). This consist in understanding and illustrating the interconnection of various
Christian mystery among themselves and to the central mystery, in order to recognize the harmony of the
total mystery. (cf. OT 16). Because of this interconnection of mysteries, some understanding of one mystery
can lead us to the grasp of the meaning of another mystery. (e.g. mystery of Christs resurrection clarifies
the mystery of our resurrection; mystery of revelation can be better seen by comparing the three stages of
revelation revelation through creation, through the spoker word of God, and trough vision.

8. The connection between the mysteries and the mans last end: This type of theological reflection
also is accepted by I Vatican Council (ND 132). Gods revelation is intended to show us the way to our
salvation. The divine mysteries are thus in one way or other connected with the mystery of mans salvation,
mans end in the plan of God. Thus, the mysteries of Incarnation, the Church, Grace, Sacraments are all
concerned with mans salvation, this fact help us to view the mysteries in correct perspective (e.g. the
mystery of Assumption of Mary tells us that at the end also we will be glorified).

9. The argument from convergence: This type of argument used in historical sciences can also help
us to grasp the meaning of mysteries. A number of argument, none of which alone can prove a case, are put
together to show the probability of the case. In theology, this type of arguments is used mostly in
fundamental theology. Thus the fact of revelation is established from signs and from the convergence of
these signs.

II. Systematization:
The second task involved in the speculative function of theology is systematizing the truths of faith
or ordering in a coherent synthesis the result of the theological reflection. This is done to show the unity
and coherence of the system of theology, unifying the theology around a basic insight.
Systematization will vary according to the principle of unity chosen by the theologian. It will vary
also according to the various philosophica principles which are made use of in the theological reflection.
Because of these factors various theological synthesis or systematization are possible. Each system
represents or approach to the mystery, an effort to understand the divine mysteries and as must be judged
by the Church as valuable in Catholic theology.

The systematization of theology achieved by St. Thomas is especially mentioned in the document on
Priestly Formation (OT) of Vatican Council II. The same idea is repeated in the document The Theological
Formation of Future Priests (n. 53).

III. Judging the Result of Theological Reflections: This task of theology in its speculative function means
the assessment to be made by theologians about the reflection made and synthesis obtained. Theologian has
to judge the value of each new understanding; he has the possibility of judging critically the value of his
own findings. At the same time, he has to be mindful of the fact that his work is done as a member of the
Church-community and under the direction of the Church Magisterium. Hence his personal judgment must
be submitted to the superior judgment of the Church Magisterium.

Unity of the Positive and Speculative Functions of Theology:


The positive and speculative functions together express the essence of theology in its totality. They
are not two theological disciplines, but two functions of the one and the same theology. They are bound
together in mutual and continual collaboration. Both are required for theology:
Auditus fidei and intellectus fidie, determination of the object of faith and the understanding of faith. The
total theological process is a quest of revealed truth and a quest of a mind on the subject of revealed truth.

Strictly Speaking, there is no strict distinction between these two stages of theological work. As the
document on theological work. As the document on Theological Formation of Future Priest (TFFP) says,
some reflection is present also in the positive phase of the theological process although not sufficient for
an adequate and properly theological understanding of revealed truths or to give an organize and complete
systematization (cf. n. 35). Such a scientifically methodical reflection is the task included in the speculative
function of theology (Ibid., n. 36).

Thus, the speculative function is never absent from positive work, just as the speculative activity
itself in never exercised without constant reference to the positive facts upon which it is built. (Latourelle,
p. 88). Hence, we may conclude by saying that these two functions of theology are two aspects of the same
process interpenetrating each other, and lending each other mutual support.

The three levels of a single process of human knowledge experience understanding and judgement
are found analogically in the one process of theological knowledge, which includes both positive and
speculative function. It is positive function, theology receives and appropriates revealed truth. In its
speculative function, it seeks to understand the truth which it has received and systematized. Finally, as in
human knowledge, the theological process ends in a judgement. (Ibid)

Two differences distinguish theology from the human sciences: the fact or thing given in theology is
not given by experience but by revelation and the judgment of the theologian, though a personal judgment,
remain subject to the higher judgment of the Church.

The positive and speculative functions of theology are so bound together that we may say: No
speculative function without the positive, and no positive function without the speculative.

Without positive function, theology is no longer theology, but philosophy; it is understanding, but it
is not understanding of faith. A theology which ceases to draw its life from contact with revealed truths as
obtained by the positive function from the sources become sterile and static.

Without the speculative function, the positive has no criterion in its effort to appreciate the pre-
scientific state of theology in Scripture and the Fathers, and to evaluate properly other sources of theology.
For this task the positive function should be well acquainted with the later developments of theological
reflection.

Hence a positive theologian cannot ignore the progress achieved by those who pursue the speculative
function of theology just as a speculative theologian cannot carry out his task without keeping close touch
with the progress being made by positive theologian in his research in the positive function of theology.

Relation between theology and philosophy and other sciences: Please see Theological Formation of
Future Priest (nn. 50-58) cf. your handout pp. 9-11.

******************

TA/eop/September 30, 1986


PART II: A HISTORY OF THEOLOGY

INTORDUCTION

- In order to be able to do theology, or read theological books and articles, with some understanding, the
student of theology has to have at least a general grasp of the history of theology
- of theological question and issues
- of the main theological personages and their contributions to theology

- this is why the second part of our course is devoted to presenting a general overview of the history of
theology.

- Naturally the history of theology is very complicated, and so well have to simplify and streamline it quite
a bit.
- what is hope, though is that it will serve as a general orientation to theological studies
- by exposing you to the main theological periods, names and issues

- I am basically following the article Theology II, in SACRAMENTUM MUNDI Theology, History of
Vol. 14 of the NCE.

- Also, good in Yves Congar, A HISTORY OF THEOLOGY; Geoffrey Bromiley HISTORICAL


THEOLOGY; Edward Lohse, A SHORT HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE

- I further suggest that you look up the different theologians we talk about; (as well as different topics) in
- NCE
- OXFORD DICTIONARY OF THE CHRISTAIN CHURCH
- DICTIONARY OF CHURCH HISTORY

- Before we begin our history, here is an outline of the history of theology, divide into the standard periods
of the history of theology:
- New Testament Period
- Patristic Period (100-700)
- early Patristic Period (100-300)
- golden age (300-450)
- late Patristic Period (450-700)

- Middle Ages (700-1500)


- early middle Ages (700-1100)
- High Middle Ages (1100-1200)
- late Middle Ages (1200-1500)

- Reformation and Counter-Reformation (1500-1700)


- The Eighteenth Century (1700-1800)
- The Nineteenth Century (1800-1900)
- The Twentieth Century (1900 to the present)
- In this history, I will concentrate on Western Theology, i.e. the theology of the Roman Church
- After the Protestant reformation, my emphasis will be on Catholic theology, though I will touch on
Protestant Theology in the 19th and 20th centuries.

I. THE NEW TESTAMENT PERIOD


- We dont usually think of the NT as theology, but that is really what it is.
- Of course, the NT is absolutely normative for subsequent
- it is a source of theology
- and so is not a theology of the same status as that of Aquias or Rhaner
- besides, the Church absolutely guarantees that the NT faithfully presents the person of Christ and the
Christian message (that why it is called inspired and inerrant)
- but the fact remains that the NT writings are written by men and (women?) who were trying to express
- the meaning abd impact of Jesus in their lives
- and on the world
- and so that they wrote, though inspired and inerrant, though Gods Word itself, is nevertheless
theology.

- More accurately, the NT is a collection of theologies. There is real plurality of theologies in the NT,
different ways of approaching Jesus and His message
- each gospel presents its own theology, brought out by the way each evangelist arranged his periscopes,
edited his work chose his words
- we can really speak of a distant Theology of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John
- Paul, as well develops a distinct theology. His point of departure for example, is not the Historical
Jesus (he hardly ever mentioned Him) but the Kyrios, the Risen Lord.
- from here he develops his great ideas about faith and justification. in Christ and te church as
the Body of Christ.
- on this cf. SM, NT THEOLOGY

- We can see that several basic ideas are being worked out during times
- the first Christologies are being worked out:
- one approach is that of functional Christology explaining reality of Christ by means of OT
images and titles. Son of Man, Son of David, Shepherd? Messiah. Good examples of this is the
Gospel story of the Transfiguration-not history as much as Christology (cf. Mt. 17:1-8).
- another approach is the Christology of descent Jesus, it was believed, pre-existed, and therefore
is divine (cf. Jn. 1:1-18: Phil. 2:6-11)
- Problems with the Judaizers clarified the idea that
- the Church was not the mere sect of Judaism
- man is saved by grace, not by the law
- the Church was for all men, Jew and Gentile
- the Later NT writing brought out the idea that Christs death was a sacrifice and that Christ was the
only true priest. This again pointed to the fact that the Christian Community was something far
surpassing Judaism, and interpreted Jesus with themes from OT.

II. THE PATRISTIC PERIOD


- There are, as we saw from our general overview, three sub-periods in the patristic period.
- however, since the later period is not all that important in theology, I will just have two divisions in
the section
- section one will be the Early Patristic Period and section two will treat the Golden Age and Late
Patristic Period.
-The Early Patristic Period (100-300)
- The New Testament is a great body of theology, but thing were more less understood in OT terms and
categories. At first, theologians just did theology in the same way cf. Clement, Ignatius of Antioch.
- By 100, the Church had begun to move and expand westward into the heart of the Roman Empire,
and so to the Christian faith has to be expressed in more than just Categories.
- the challenges, as the Church expanded, was to express the Faith in terms that members of the
Hellenistic Culture of the Roman Empire could more easily understand.

- in addition to this the church was misunderstood by many who could not understand biblical categories
and symbols, and so there arose defenders of Christian Doctrines.
- tried to make it understandable to pagans
- tried to defend it from attacks
- these were called the Apologist (from apologia, defenders) these apologists, says Congar, gave the
Church its first theological construction of the Christian faith (p. 39).
- the next famous of apologist were
- Jestin: Apology, Dialogue with Trypho
- Ireneus: Adversus Haereses, Demonstration of Apostolic Teaching

- In this period too is Origen, one of the greatest patristic theologians, who used Neo-platonic categories in
his theologizing, He was, says Congar, the creator of the first grand synthesis of speculative theology
(p. 42) - his Principles (4 vol.).
- Another of his great works: Contra Celsum, in which he depends the faith against the most serious
attack in the intellectual realm that Christianity had over experienced (NCE, Origen P. 779).
- Origen also defended the divinity of Christ and the Trinity, and wrote many commentaries on the
scriptures.

- Also, important in this period for his attempts at dialogue between philosophy and Christian Faith is
Clement of Alexandria.
- Says Clemet: Greek Philosophy purifies the soul and prepares it to receive the faith on which truth
construct knowledge. (Stromateis, vii, 20, quote in Congar, p. 40)
- and says the great historian of Dogma, Adolf Harnack: In Clement religious philosophy did not serve
merely for apologetic and polemic purposes, but rather it opened the door for thinkers to the
understanding of Christianity. He was conscious that his task consisted in adapting the content of that
ecclesiastical tradition by thought. Faith is a gift. It must be translated into terms of gnosis, in other
words it must turn into a doctrine which can satisfy the exigencies of an ethic and philosophical
conception of the universe.

- Some early Patristic Doctrines:


- the continuity and discontinuity which Judaism was work out over against the heresies of Gnosticism
and Marcionism.
- both stressed a radical discontinuity between OT & NT
- in doing this, the Marcionists rejected all the OT books as inspired Scripture.
- and so in the Christian reaction, was developed the official Canon (i.e. list) of Sacred Scripture.
- the controversies about the re-baptism of defectors re-baptism of heretics clarified the Sacrament of
Baptism. What emerged was the idea that it was not the holiness of the minister but the cation of Christ
that effects Baptism. Thus some small steps toward the later concept of ex opere operato.

- Tertullian, a lawyer born in Carthage but practicing in Rome, coined the term meritum and was the first
who used persona. He was also the first theologian to use the term sacramentum, which he applied to
Baptism (the notion of sacrament had to wait until the High middle ages, and even Trent, to be clarified).

The Golden Age and Late Patristic Period (300-700)


- Three main theological themes were being worked out during this period:
- The Trinity
- the big impetus of trinitarian theology was the Arian Heresy
- Arianisms basic tenet was there was a time when the Word was not the Logos was seen as
divine, but as the first creature, a demigod.
- says Bromiley: This teaching launched a controversy which, could not be settled until the
council of Constantinople re-established the Nicene confession in 681, and which for complicity,
intrigue, and bitterness has seldom, if ever, been exceeded in the history of the Church: (p. 69).

- The Council of N icea (3250 declared that the son, the Longos, is of the same substance as the Father (the
Greek word: homoourious).
- as we say in the nicene creed: God from God, Light from light, true God from true God, begotten
not made, of one substance with the Father.
- with the acceptance of this term homoousis , the divinity of Christ was expressed for the first time in
clearly non-Biblical terms a real breakthrough in theology; really significant.
- one of the strongest supporters of homoousis was Athanasius. His name was associated with the term
in the history of theology, and he is the champion of the real incarnation of the word (quod non est
as sumtus no est redemtus what has not been assumed is not redeemed).
- Hilary of Pointeirs wrote a work on the Trinity which has strongly anti-Arian, but he also spoke of the
Holy Spirit as equally as God.
- the three Cappadocians, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa (brothers) and Gregory Nianzianzen, were strong
defenders of the Holy Spirits divinity and consubstantiality. They use to the full the sources of Platonic
Philosophy (NCE, Theologu, History of, p. 50)
- all this was contributing to the Trinitarian Doctrines refinement which would be eventually expressed as
one divine nature, three divine persons.

- At the end of the Arian Controversy, when consubstantiality was secure, Augustine wrote his master work
De Trinitate.
- in this work Augustine proposes for the first time the psychological analogy memory,
understanding and will.
- this psychological analogy is the standard analogy (via Aquinas) for understanding the Trinitarian
nature.

- Christology
- This period was also a period of refinement of Christology. This was done in a dialectic between
several Christological heresies and Ecumenical Councils which defined orthodoxy.
- the basic question was: how can we explain that Jesus is both God and man?
- Apolinarianism
- Apolinaris was a disciple of Athanasius and wanted at all cost to preserve Jesus divinity.
- in doing so he denied the human soul in Christ, and so erred by not affirming Jesus real humanity.
- this heresy was condemned at Constantinople in 381.
- Nestorianism
- Nestorius tried to maintain the balance that Jesus was both God and man, but he said that the
union between both nature was only a moral union.
- a consequence of this was that Mary was not the Mother of God (the technical term was
theotokos) but only the mother of Jesus.
- The great opponent of Nestorianism was Cyril of Alexandria, and the council of Ephesus (341) accepted
Cyrils theology, condemning Nestorianism and officially calling Mary the Mother of God (Theotokos;
(DS 252-263; NR 234-245).

- Monophysitism
- This heresy maintained that Jesus had only one nature: his Divine Nature assumed his human nature,
thus again eclipsing the true humanity of Jesus.
- in 451 the Council of Chalcedon laid down the classic definition that Jesus is one divine person
possessing two natures: fully human and divine. Any subsequent Christology is built from this.
- The idea of Chalcedons definition is as follows:
- to the question who is Jesus we answer: God.
- to the question what is Jesus we answer: God and Man.
- the principle of unity of both natures is the one divine person. (hyposthasis = person: therefore
we speak of hypostatic union.)
- person is a relational notion:
- that Jesus is one divine person means that through His humanity (like us in all things but sin)
Jesus relates to us always as Go. He is God and Man and God for man.
- The doctrine of hypostatic union (two natures united in the divine person) was proposed in the
letter written by Pope Leo I (the Great) to the emperor in the previous year (this is commonly
called the Tome of Leo). It is said that when the letter was read in the Council Assembly the
cry went up Peter has spoken through Leo. This was another small but sure step in the
development of the Roman Primacy. (cf. DS 291-94; 301-302; NR 247-252).

- Grace
- this was the special contribution of Augustine.
- Augustine developed this idea in controversy, mainly with the Palagians, who said that man made the
first move toward God, and the God gives help. Grace makes salvation easier, but is not necessary for
salvation.
- This idea Augustine fiercely denied, and said that man can only be saved if God acts first.
- Augustines reason was that man, after Adams fall, participates somehow in Adams sin. Adams sin
he called original sin. Because of this original sin he needs Gods assistance to rise from his
corruption.
- The danger of Augustines thought was that he came very close to a position of double
predestination predestination to heaven and hell. He himself did not draw this conclusion. But
others after him did.
- for a good presentation of Augustines doctrine of grace, cf. Roger Haight, SJ: The experience and
Language of Grace.

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