FUEL PROPERTIES

Fuel is define as a substance composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen, because these elements will combine with
oxygen under suitable conditions and give out appreciable quantities of heat. In theory, sulphur should also be
.o,rnt"d as a fuel, but the product of buming sulphur is usually an acid which has harmful corroding effects, and
these much outweight the heating value of the substance. The heating or calorific values of these fuels are measured
by the heat evolved by burning I kg ofeach substance in an adequate supply ofoxygen, i.e. in an adequate supply of
air, and for the fuels mentioned :

Calorific value of bituminous coal : 32. I MJ /kg Caiorific value of petrols:46.5 MJ /kg
Calorific value of hydrogen : 144 MJ nrg ( I 1.9 MJ/m3) Calorific value of diesel -- 44 MJ /kg
Calorific value of sulphur : 9.1 MJ /kg Calorific value of alcohol:30 MJ /kg
Caiorific value of methane:37 MJ /m3 Calorific value of biomass/wood: 19.5 MJ /kg

Fuels may be classified into solid, liquid and gaseous fuels. The calorific value of a fuel can only be satisfactorily
determinei by experiment, and in the case of solid fuels a 'bomb calorimeter' is used. Bomb calorimeter consist essentially of a
strong container ialled a 'bomb', in which a measured quantity of energy released through the rised in surrounding temperature
when the.fuel is fired in oxygen at high pressure.

The Analysis of Fuels

Analysis of a fuel is carried out to determine its constituents, and two such analyses are employed for solid and liquid fuels. In
each case, samples must be carefully selected to be truly representative of the bulk, and several tests must be carried out with a
number ofsamples before any conclusions are drawn.

Ultimate Analysis (Elemental Analysis).

This analysis is required when important large scale tests are being carried out (e.g. a boiler trial), and is carried out by a chemist-
The analysis gives the percentage content by weight of:

Moisture Nitrogen Ash

Oxygen Sulphur
Hydrogen Carbon

Proximate Analysis.

This is a method of obtaining the more important constitutents of a coal and is used, for example, when purchasing coal in
butk quantity. Each sample of about 2 grammes is carefully weighed into a crucible, and the test is carried out using a small
temperature controlled furnace.

(a/ Moisture Percentage: 'Ihe sample is heated for I hour at 105"C and then reweighed. Loss of weight gives the moisture
content.

(b/ Volatile Percentage: The sample is now heated with a loose lid covering, i.e. without access to the air, for about l0
minutes at 955oC and then reweighed. The further loss of weight gives the volatile hydrocarbon content.

(c) Fixed Carbon Percentage: The lid is now removed from the crucible and the sample heated in still air for several hours
at 955oC until only ash remains. Reweighing gives the ash content, and the further loss of weight is the fixed
carbon.
v

Section through
a Bomb

Cooling wota. ('mstdnt. harad d*icc

Bo5ra' Oalorimotcr
 ApProx. lowet
% weight (ash lroe) Weighl o/o
cal. value

Wood
o8E8qq Ei8 I
Peach pits
Prune pits
Residuo dorived
,o
ls
luel ,o
l-
Olive pits r_+
o
Almond sholls
o
Cotton stalks Bituminous c..
coal o
Walnut sholls o
Corn stalks 5
o
oro
ltll
Bice hulls oro
o<
r x
Corn cobs o.-<
aE
8As
:(o l
Alf alla seed o
VVheat straw
BarleY strav/
Safllowor strBw

and biomass fuels

Elempntal analysis of coals ' wood

lntrodttction
Biomtrss Thermal Conversion Processes
Introduction
Gasilication Procegses
tor converting solid luels
to gasoous fuels:
O = oxygan Process
S = Stearn Process
L = Lignin H - Hydrogen procss
B " Biomas6
o Biomass
P ' Pyrolysis
CE = Cellul.ose
. Pesl
CH
'Coal
r Char

products prodtcts

CO COa
0.5

oxygen in sofid' fqurd' and gas*us luels

F,ta-, J (Sourcs; Resd l98l)'.aN
b) Clamicat
(b) chanaes dutng aomals converciui procoxes
ChBmicjl charyes

Cellulose is a linear polymer of anhydroglucosE units;

hemicellulose is a mixture of polymers of 5-
and 6-carbon anhydiosugars, anct lignii is an irregular
polymer of phenyl propane units' In
or block copolymer' that varies in
biomass, these three pollmers form an interpenetriting system,
a relatively *constant
comp\sition across the cell wall. Nevertheliss, in large samples, there is
FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Fossil fuels originate from the earth as a result of the slow decomposition and
chemical conversion of organic material. They come in three basic forms: so/id (coal),
tiquid (oil), and natural 8as. Coal rePresents the largest fossil-fuel energy resource in
the world. In the United States today (1983), it is responsible for about 50 percent of
electric-power generation. Oil and natural gas arc responsible for another 30 percent.
Ttre rcmaining percentage is mostly due to nuclear and hydraulic generation. Natural
gas, however, is being phased out of the picrure in the United States because it must
bc conscrved for essential industrial and domestic uses'
New combustible-iuel options include the so-called synthetic fuels, or synfuels,
which are liquids and gases derived largely from coal, oil shale, and tar sands. A tiny
fraction of fuels used tday are industrial by-products, industrial and domestic wastes,
and biomass.

COAL

. Evolutlon and Format!on

Coalandpeatarethepartiallydecomposedremainsofvegetationthatgrewmillions
vegetation was
of years ago. Coal formation began when this.partially decayed
coveredbyinorganicsilt,which-preventedfurtherdecay'Asinorganicsediment
to coa['
layers built up,-pressure and heat converted the vegetation
Coalisagenerictermthatdescribesaratherwidevarietyofsolidhydrocarbon
of vegetation frorrl
products formed from prehistoric terrestrial vegetation' The type
which the coal was pioduced significantly affects the characteristics of the coal
formed. The compositiin of a coal, inclucling impurities such as sulfur, is
ultimately
was found'
generally characteristic of the region in which the coal
Peatisformedfromthebacterialdecompositiorrofvegetationthatisriclrin
celluose.Inthepresenceofbacterialaction,thechenricaldecompositionproceeds
by a process called humifcotion:

2c6!lroor 'b"ct'Y , crHrool r lcH. + Hro t 2cor

md ncrt
rctlon
veS,etation Pcal

(peat' resins,
The accumuladon of compounds that resist further decomposition
wrxes, and dead bacteria) eventually forms the principal part of the
deposit'
In locations where coal was formed, the peat became covered with layers
of
silt. As the layers of sand and silt built up' the pressure on the peat
sand and
The
increased, forcing out ,ha *ot"' antl volatile products' such
as
.melhanc'
renrainingmaterialbecamedepletedinoxygenandrichinhydrogen'thuspronroting
additional hydrocarbon formation' The longer this process continues'
the more
and the less water is present. Ultimalely, the so[t, spongy
hydrocarboni are formed
'peatisconvertedintohard,brittlecoal,withhighcarboncontentandlowinrpurity
and water content. tt is this "aglng" process that gives each type
o[ coal its basic
these characteris-
characteristics and properties. n1 *itt'u" discussed subsequenrly,
tics and properties ire cataloged by "class" or " rank'"

Prlnclpal Locatlons and Raserve Estlmates

:
Coal resources are widely distributed throughout the world' but major deposits irre
limited to a few regions of the world. The United Srates, the USSR, and China hold
of
almost 90% of the world's coal resources. Table 3.9 list the maj0r coal resources
rhe world. The estimated total resources intlicate<l by this table include those

resources whose presence has not been verified by detailed exploration.

Data for
assessing these toial resources are obraine4 from geologic infornration, visual irtspec-
rion, seiimic surveys, antl very limired exploratory drilling. The explorrtion-drilling
samples are obtained from widely scattered geographic locations and are
subject to
coniiderable uncertainly. lv{easured or proven reserves have been verified by
de-

railed exploration and drilling. These resources are reasonably well assured. The
economically recoverable resources are estimared from the proven reserves on_the
90% of
basis of practical experience. A common assumption is that between 85 and
coal
all surface mined coal can be recovereti and between 45 and 50% of deep-mined
can be recovefed.
 TABLE 3.9 MAJOR WORLO COAL RESOURCES
a
(MrLLloNS OF METRIc ToNS)

iota.l known and cstimatcd

rccovcrablc rcSoufccs

USSR 6.0o0.m,0
Unites States 1,200,0{J0

China 1.000.000
Canada 500.m0
Wcst Cermmy 100,000
England 200.000
Aust ralia 200,Oui
lndia 80.000
Polud 60,000

South Alrica 50,000

Other nations 500,000

Source: Data tton ,\!ueral Resources und tht

Entir'
onnrerrl, National Academy Prcss. Wrhington' D
C-'
l9?4; md Altenwre Etergr'Dennnl Futures to 2010'
National Rcsearch Council. Wuhintton. D C l9?9 '

There arc many ways of classifying coal according to its chemical and physical
properties. The most accepted sysrem is the one used by thc American Sociery for
f"riing and Marerials (ASTM), which classifies coals by grade or rank according to
the delree of metamorphism (change in form and structure under the influences of
hdat, pressure, and water), ranging from the lowest slate, lignite, to the highest'
anrhra;ite (ASTM D 388). These classifications are briefly described below in a de-
scending order.

Anthracite This is the highest grade olcoal. It cotains a high content, 86 to 98 mass
percent, of fixed carbon (the carbon content in the elemental state) on a dry, mineral-
matter-free basis and a low content of volatile matter, less than 2 to 14 mass Percent
(chiefly merhane, cHr). Anrhracite is a shiny black, dense, hard, brittle coal that
borderi on graphite* at the upPer end of Rxed carbon. It is slow-buming and has a
heating value just below that of the highest for bituminous coal (see below). Its use

into dimnd'
'Graphitc is a modcratcly sofi allotropic fom of carbon. Crbon crystallizcs pcrfectly
imperfccriy inro graphitc, and is amorphous (having no rcgular strucrure, noncrystallinc) in mthncitc mrl
charcoal.

ralely in pulverized
in steam generators is largely confined to burning on stokers, and
form. [n ihe United States it is mostly found in Pennsylvania'
The anthracite rank of coal is suLdivided'into three groups. ln desccnding
order
percent, they are meta-anlhracirc, gre l1r than 98 percent; anlhracile,
of fixed-carbon
92 to 98 prcent; and semianthracite, 86 to 92 percent'

of coals con-
Bituminous coal The largest group, biruminous coal is a broad class
taining 46 to 86 mass p"r".nt of nxea carbon and 20 to 40 percent of volatile matter
name from birumen'
of moie complex content than that found in anthracite. It derives its
obtained in the distillation of some fucls' Bituminous coals mn8e
an asphaltic residuc
(about 25,600 tq.32'600
in heating value from 11,000 to morc than 14,000 Btr'/lb-
kjlkg)'Biruminouscoalsusuallyburneasily,esPeciallyinpulverizedform.
medium-volatiq'
Thc bituminous rank is subiiuided into five gtoupt, low-volatile,
andhigh.volatiteA,B,andC.Thelowerthevolatiliry,thehighertheheatingvalue.
while thc high-
The low-volatiliry group is grayish black and glanular in structure'
volatiliry grouPs are homogeneous or laminar'
values than
subbituminous coal This is a class of coal wior generally lower heating
birurrrinous coal, betwecn 8300 to ll,5m Bru/lb- (about 19,300 to 26,750 kj/kg)' It
is relatively high in inherent moisture content, as much as l5 to 30 percent, but often
or mostly homogeneous in
low in sulfur content. It is brownish black black and
stucture. subbituminous coals are usually burned in Pulverized form' The subbitu-

minous rank is divided into three groups: A, B' and C'

 Lignite The lowest grade of coal, lignite derives its name from the l-atin lignum, a
which means "wood." It is brown and laminar in structure , and remnants of wood )
fibcr are often visible in it. It originates mostly from resin-rich plants and is thereforc
high in both inherent moisture , as high as 30 percent, and volatile matter. Its heating
value ranges between less than 6300 to 8300 Btu/lb- (about 14,650 to 19,300 kj/kg).
Because of the high moisture content ard low heating value, lignite it is not economical
to trirnsport over long distances and it is usually burned by utilities at the mine site.
The lignite rank is subdivided into two grouPs: A and B.

Peat Pcat is not an ASTM rank of coal. It is, however, considered the fint geological
step in coal's formation. Peat is a heterogeneous material consisting of decomposcd
plant matter and inorganic minerals. It contains up to 90 Percent moisture. Although
not attractive as a utility fuel, it is abundant in many Parts of the world. Severd states
in the United States have large deposits. Because of its abundance, it is used in a few
countries (Ireland, Finland, the USSR) in some electric generating plants and in district
heating.

TABLE 3.'I 1 ASTM COAL CLASSIFICATION BY RANK

('rlorilic vuluc
Fircd curbon V()lnrilc rrultcr lirnits llllu/lb
liiltits (x,) linrils ('I') (kJ /kB)l
(dry rrincrol- (rttrrisl trtitrcral-
(dry ruincrul-
trrnttcr'fr!'c hlsi5) nrrlter-[rcc Itlsis]
nrrltcr-frcd hasis)
<
liqrrrl or (ircil(eI Iiqrrul or l;.t;trrl trr
(;roup grcutcr llratr l-css tltun lltan lcs' tlrtn gtcitlct lllltt l'ess lllutl

2
9tt
l. Antlrracitic I Mcta aotllrlcitc l{
92 9t{ 2
2 Anthrucitc
l Scilriilillltrucilc l{6
(,,
] 2 t(

?ti X(r ll
ll. llitrtrttirotrs I t,ow-volatilc bilutttirtrrts corl
?tt ll .il
2 McJiurrt-vtrlatilc bilurttirttrtts coal
6(,
ll I I 4.{XX}
l I ligh-vrtlutile A bitunrinous coul 'li (ll,.l{x))
I l.(xx) 14.{xx)
4. ltigh-volutilc l! biluntinous coul (.1(l,l(xl) (12,.1(x))
I l,slx) I l,(xx)
5. lligh-volalilc C bituttrirrous coal (26.6{X}} (l(},1(x))
lo.5(X) I t,5(Xl
lll. Subbiturlrnous l. Subbitumiuous A coal (24.2(xl) (26,600)
9,5(X) lo.5tx)
2. Subbitunrinous l] coa!
(21,9(X)) (14,2(X))
ll,l(x) 9.5(X)
l. Subbiturninous C coal ; (I9,1(x)) (l 1.9(x))
().l(Xl ti..l(Xl
lV. [-ignitit L t-ignitc A (l.l.lt(xl) (l9.llX))
(r.l(X)
2. l-ignitc ll (I4
'('lX)l

Srrecr, I'hilarlclphiu. l'}A lt)l0l l{cl}titrlc(l rrillt pcttttrssttttt

sourte.. A.S.flvl Spet.$utionol.vl]txo;.opyriglrt ASTM, l9l6 ltrce
Properlles

There are several properties of coal that are important in power plant applications:
sulfur content, combustion properties, weatherability of the coal, ash softening
temperature, grindability of the coal, and heat content.
The sulfur content is now an important consideration in the selection of coal.
Sulfur is one of the combustible constituents of coal, thus generating some energy
However, the product o[ combustion, sulfur dioxide, (SOr), is considered to be a
major source of atmospheric pollution. It is diflicult and expensive to remove the
sulfur dioxide from the combustion products. In selecting a coal source, detailed
assessment must be made considering current environmental regulations covering
plant SO, emissions, the sulfur content of the coal, the cost of the coal, and the
capital cost and operating cost of S0, removal equipntent.

The combustion properties of coal are related to how well the coal burns. ln a
stationary bed, such as a chain grrte stoker furnace, (he coal must not cake as it
burns. Coal that does not cake, called free-burning rcal, breaks apart during
combustion. This exposes the unburned center of the coul to thc combustion air,
thereby enhancing the cornbustion process. Conversely, a caking coal does not burn
completely. Caking coals are used to produce coke. In power plant applications
using a stationary bed, caking coal beds must be mechanically agitated to preveni
large masses of partially burned coal from forming. A qualitative evaluation nrethod,
called the free-swelling inde.r, has been devised to aid in thc selection process.
Information is contained in ASTM Standard D720. A free-burning coal is char-
acterized by a high value of the free-swelling index. This property is of rninor
importance when modern pulverized coal burners are used.
The weatherability of a coal is a measure of how well it can be stockpiled lor
long periods of time without crumbling. Modern coal-fired power plants normally
stockpile 60 to 90 days' supply oI coal in a large pile near the power plant. A typical
pile would contain up to 300,000 tons of coal. The coal is generally unloaded from a
train or barge and spread and packed in a long trapezoidal'shaped pile. Excessive
crumbling due to cycliq weather conditions rvould result in the formation of small
particles of coal that can be dispersed by wind or rain. Environmental problems
would result if these particles pollute the local rivers or groundrvater table.
Grindability is another important consideration when selecting coal. This
property is measured by the grindability index, ASTM Standard D409. Grindability
of a standard coal (bituminous class II group 1) is defined as 100. The inclex is
established to be inversely proportional to the power required to grind Ihe coal to lr
specified particle size for burning. If the coal selected for usc at a power plant has a
grindability index of 50, it would require twice the grinding power of the standard
coal to produce a specified particle size. The grindability index for commercial coals
varies from about 25 to 105.
The asA softening temperature is thp temperature at which the ash softens and
becomes plastic. This is usually somcwhat belorv (he rnelting point of the irsh. This
coal charactcristic is important to the ash discharge system. lFor furnaces that
discharge firebox ash as a slag, coal with a low ash softening tenlperature would be
desirable. For firebox systems that discharge the ash in solid form, a high ash
softening temperature would be required. A stoker-type furnace, which discharges a
solid-type ash, must utilize a coal with a high ash softening temperature or
"clinkers" will form in the firebox. Clinkers, which are large masses of fused ash.
can be very troublesome to discharge.
 5

COAT FIRING

since the old days of feeding coal into a furnace by hand, several major advances
bave been made that permit increasingty higher rat'es oi combustion'
The earliest in tirl history of steam boilers were mechanical stokers, and several
boilers. All such stokers are
rypes arc 5till being used for small- aud medium-sized
designec to continuously feed coal into the furnace by moving it on a grate within the
furnace and also to remove ash from the furnace-

U.S. St ndrd Siwe Designation

:00 r00
2't0 t40 5050403020 14l0 6 4
99.99
99.90
99.50
99.00
98.00
A/
95.00
90.00

80.00
a 70.00
50.00
d 50.00
40.00

JU

20
/,

j
0 05 0.1 0.2 0.5 I Z 5 l0 20 50 l0o
Sieve aperture, mm

Figure 'l-l Coal sieve analysis. (A) pulverized+oal smplc; (8) coal ra.nge for cyclone 6rirg; (C) coal as
fircd. Plot bascd on gldphlcd systcm proposed ia Ref. 26.

Pulveized-coalfring was intoduced in the 1920s ald reprcsented a major ilcrease

in combustion rates over mechanical stoken. It is widely used today. To prepare the
coal for use in pulverized fuing, it is cnshed and then ground to such a fine powder
that approximately 70 percent of it will pass a 20Gmesh sieve* (Fig. +l). It is suitable
for a wide variety ofcoal, parricularly the higher-grade ones. Advantages ofpulverized-
coal frring arc the ability to use any size coal; good variablc-load response; a lower
requirement for excess air for combustion, rcsulting in lower fan power consumption;
lower carbon loss; higher combustion tremperahres and improved hermal efficiency;
lower operation snd maintetrance costs; and the possibility of desip for multiple-fuel
combustion (oil, gas, and coal).

I Therc arc somc scven scretn, or sieve, standard.s in the Unircd Statca and Eumpe. Tbc ooc uscd bcrc
is the U.S. Standard Sicve, in which ttrc numbcr of opcnirgs per linar irch dcsiglatcs the mcsh. A lOG
mesh scren has 100 openings ro tbc inch, or 10,000 opedtgs
[Er 3quar inch. Tbc higbcr thc mcsh, Sc
frncr thc screcn. Tbc diamcar of tbc wirc dctcrmin6 ttic opcning sizc. Tbc U.S. Standard Sicvc msh aod
opcning sizr i! incb6 and millinrctcrs are givcn bclow.

Mqh 20

tn 1.0331 l.vzA 0.0165 0.01l7 0_m98 0.m59 0.@u 0.m?9 0.m17 0.m15
m 0.uo 0.595 0.4m o-29 o.zJo 0.149 0.105 0.w4 0.014 0.o9
 t
In the late 1930s cyclonc-furnace fring was introduced and bccame the third major
advance in coal firing. It is now a.lso widely used though for a lesser variety of uses
than is pulverized coal. In addition to those advartages already mentioned lor pul-
verized-coal firing, cyclone firing provides several other advaltages. These are the
obvious savings in pulverizing equipment because coal need only be crushed, reduction
in furnace size, and reduction in fly ash content of the flue gases. Coal size for cyclone-
furnace firing is accomplished in a simple cmsher and covers a wide band, with
approximately 95 percent of it passing a 4-mesh sieve (Fig. 4-l).
Most recently, fuidized-bed combustion has been ilroduced. In this rype of fuing,
cmshed particles of coal are injeaed into the ffuidized bed so that they spread across
an air disribution grid. The combustion air, blown through the grid, has an upward
velociry sufficient to cause the coal particles to become fluidized, i.e., held in sus-
pension as they burn. Unburned carbon leavi-ng tbe bed is collected in a cyclone,
spafirtor and returned back to tbe bed for another go at combustion. The main ad-
vantage of fluidized-bed combustion is the abiliry to desulfurize tbe fuel during com-
bustion in order to meet air qualiry standards for sulfiu dioxide emissions. (Other
methods are the use of low-sulfur coal, desulfurization of coal before it is bumed, and
removal of SO2 from the flue gases by the use of scrubbers, Desulfurization
is accomplished by the addition of limestone directly to the bed. Fluidized-bcd com-
bustion is stiil undergoing development and has other atractive fearures

N4e"f^-^wic4,\ S+olc*rzs
Fine cool burns
rn susPension

lttt/itt,
".' . .. :1.. . , .:. | ..., I

Dumpt ng
Feeder
grotes

loke

(ol Spre.,rder (sPrinhter ) stoher

0verl ire
oir ports

Ad jusloble
tuel gole

c. .r';.'.:1\'i :i:.i : )":j1i -':

:':.
Zoned plarJm chombcr

tb) ConvePr stoler

Tuyere
Side Yleu Section
{ci S'nqle-retolt underfeed sloker

Fig. l0-2, Spreodar, convoycr, ond ringlc'rclorl rlokcrr'

C Io rri [; ca,h'o - ol sl olz.,t .

See Fig. l0-2. Two broad classes are (l) overfeed, in which the
fuel is carried into the fumace above the stoker, and (Z) underfeed,
where the fuel is carried by the stoker undemeath. Ovbrfeed. stokers
are further classified into spreader and chain-grate stotersr-rl, f -t fiT -
JF('[e
Jlokrr a'.d t.-ao. Ii,., stokc,,r.
0'd"
 +

How does the underfeed stoker work?

Raw coal is pushed by a ram (Fig' l0-2c) into the fu.mage along
a

feed trough. The fresh coal pushed in- causes the coal in the fumace to
risc, exposing morc poal to tlre air coming from the tuyeres (openings)
in thc gratc iection.rTlre raw coal is heated by tlre furnacc lreat and the
irrconring air, and thus ignites and burns as it nroves tr1> toward tlte fuel
bcd outline. The burning coke then moves slowly to the ash discharge
end, pushed that way either by the pressure'of the incoming coal or the
nrotion of the grate.
Name some underfeed stoker types.
Thc nanre of each typc is detennined by thc nrcchanism used to
move the coal, such as single retort, multiple retorto .screw feed, or ram
T"-A.
Pulverlzed Coal

Before beirg supplied to the burner mechanism, coal must be reduced to small
particles srr.n th"i the surface-to-mass ratio is sufficient to ensure complete combus-
rion. In a direct-firing system, the dried, pulverized coal is lransported to the burner
by the primary air and mixed qdth the secondary air in the burner' The flow velocity
oi the coal-air mixture must be higb enough to keep 16e fuel particles suspended ir
the airsrream. This typica.lly requires a minimum flow velocity of 300 ftrzrnin
(1-5

m/s) for horizontal burners ot 2200 ft/mfi (11 m/s) for vertical burners. The air i-n

which the coal is suspended is called primary air' The additional air' called
secondary air, required io bring the air-to-fuel ratio to the required level is added at
the burner.
The most frequently used burners are circular or cell rype in design. Figure
4.1
Note oil attachmen! required to get a flare going
shows a burner of this design. the
after burner shutdown. The burners usually fire horizontally or at slight irclinations
and are often mounted in the cornen of the furnace walls so that fie fla-mes
can be
popular
directed i-n a circular pattern referred to as tangential fring' Another
arrangement is for the burners to be insened in the walls at opposite sides
of the
furnace. This arrangement is called opposed fring' Other firing methods are il-
lustrated in Fig. a.2.

Coal & Primary Air

Ring Dampers

Adiustable Air vanes

Burner Throal

Bumer B
Combustion Eumer A
Zone

Fuel A
Pulverized-Coal
Distribution Vanes
Coal Nozzle Fuel C
Air c Fuer D
Air
Burner D
Burner C

Figu .l-l
(a) Bwcr for horizootal firiog of oal. (Rcproducd vit-h Pmi$ion (b)
lrom Combqtion-Fwil Pwer S-vslaru, Coobutioo Eng-, Inc-, Windpr' Conn,'
19E1.) Figw 4.1 (b) Ro* pallem for horizontal (wall) firirg (Reproduced wilh Pemi
sioq from Combwtion-Frcil Power Ststew' Combutioo Eng.. Ioc ' Win<isc
Com., 1981.)
 o

Explain pulverized-coal firing.

Coal is ground to almost the fineness of flour, and then flows by
means of air and coal (in suspension) through ducts or pipes into the
furnace to burn like gas or oil (Fig. l0-4). The grinding of the coal

Preheoted secondory orr

Fig. l0-,4, Pulvcri:ad cool-burning ryrlcm.

exposes the fuel elements in the coal to rapid oxidation (burning) as the
ignition temperature is reached. More complete burning is thus possible
- than with fuel-bed burning.
fu thes: 6ne phrticles enter the furnace and become exposed to
radiant heat, the temperature rises, and the volatile matter of the coal is
distilled off in the form of a gas. Enough primary air is introduced at
the burner to intimately mix with the stream of coal particles, which thus
support combustion. The volatile matter burns first and then heats the
remaining carbon to incandescence. Secondari, air is introduced arouncl
the burner, which supplies the oxygen to complete the combustion of
carbon particles in flames several feet long.

Row moleriol
inlel
Vone operoling
Pulverired mechonism
mo!eriol
oullel
Adjusto bl e
vones
Access doors

Tensioning
\Reiecl hopper
device

Adjusloble -
Thrust ring reiect chule

Air porl ring

Grinding roll Primory

oir inlel
Grinding iing
Seol oir
Grinding toble inlel

Drrve unil

Tromp
iron lrop

Flg. lo{. Bowl mill pulvcrircr,

A bowl mill (Fig. l0-6j'has a grinding ring canied by a revolving

bowl whose rim speed is about 1,200 fpm. Stationary rolls, preloaded by
springs, aie set so they do not contact the ring. When incoming coal
reaches the spinning bowl, centrifugal force throws it against the grinding
rim and into contact with the rolls. The ground coal is thrown from the
rim into annular passages, rvhere heavy particles are rejected to the grind-
ing ring by deffection plates, The remaining coal particles are carried
along in the cxhauster-induced airstream into the classifier section. Ad'
justable vanes on tbe classifier set the fineness of a pulverized coal.
 Cold (Temperrng) Air Hot Air from
lrom Forced Draft Fan Boiler Air Heater

Tempering Air
Damoer

Eoiler
Froni Wall

Bin
Gate

TFeeder

Control
Pulverizer Damper

Primary
Air Fan
Basement Floor

Figur +t Purverized-coar dirccr-firing sysrem. (counery Babcxk and witcox.)

hen ce gre a re r s afe ry, r o wer *.". *$iJJjll{1,Jj.,"::"#

Sreater plant cleanliness. As its name implies, it continuously processes
:fl:il:il o.u":'.I
il5
the storage receiving bunker through
th"e coal fiom
a reeoei, purverizer, andprimary-air fan, to the
frtmace bumers (Fig'4-8)' (Anothervenion
oittris system, Iess used, praces the fan
on the outlet side of the purverizer.)
Fuel flow is suited to load demand by a combination
of controls on the feeder aad on the primary-air
fan in order to give air-fuel ratios
suitable lor the various sterm-generator
loads. The con'ol operating range on any o'e
syrt.r i, onJy about 3 to l. L^rge sream gene-ton are provided
5,.:,i:qgverizer
wru more thatr one purverizer system,
each feeding a number of burners, io that a
w-ide contol range is possible
by varying n. nurni., of purverizen and the road on
each.

Flgurc +10 Multifucl burncrs for pu.lvaizcd coal, oil, nd gzs. (Councsy Bob<xk and Wilcor.)
 t(t

Prrmo ry otr.----7
ond

l'..
t\ //t.4
I )ffi,
'\
i,,"'
Fonroil Mulligle intertube Plon vievr ol furnoce
(o) Verticol Firtng (b) Torqmlol Firtng

Primory oir Primory orr

ond cool ond cool
)

SEcondory oir Secondory oir

Mulliple inlerlube Circu lor

(c) Horizonlol Firing

Secondory

Primory
S econdory
ond cool
oir

Primory oir
ond cool

(d) Cyclone Firing (e) 0pposed -inclined Firing

Figure4.2 Firing methods for pulverized coal: (a) verticrl firing: tb) tugential
ndng: tc) horizontrl firing: {d) sclonc frring: (e) oppoled-inclined firing' (Frorh
Chemiial Engineeing Hundhok.by R- H' Perry md C H Chilton Copyright l9?3'
Gd with the pemission qf \"(qQ6c'Hill Bmk Compuy' Ncw York )

from the oth-er

The cyclone frring scheme [see Fig' 4'2(d)] differs substantially
iutfT"i mixture and secondary air are. tangentially
approaches. In this scheme, tft"
so that tie material follows a
introduced into a cylindrical combustion chamber
Lgtn *a diameter is designed so that when the exit of
n"f.Jp",ft The chamber
thechamberisreached,thecombusrionprocessisessentiallycomplete'onlyhot
gases enter the main bodyof the furnace. dlag lmolten ash) forms in the water-cooled
I.ramic surface of the combustion chamber and is drained'
In most pulverized coal furnaces, rhe burner direction or altitude can be
charrgedtodirecttheenergydepositiontodifferentregionsoftheboiler.Ifthe
more
tu*Jrc are directed do*nJard. ihe euaporation section of the boiler receives
heat. If the burners are dkected upward, more heat is transferred to the superheat
and reheat sections of the boiier.

In this furnaceidesign, what might be termed deliberate slagging

is used. The burner teceiv-es crushed (not pulverized) coal in a stream of
high-velocity air tangent to the circular
burner housing, which forms a primary Primory oir
ond cool
water{ooled furnace. Coal thrown to
the rim of the furnace by centrifugal
force and held by a coafing of molten
ash is scrubbed by fast-moving air. Sec'
ondary air enters at.high velocity also,
and parallel to the path of the primary
coal-air mixture. The coal in the sticky
slag film burns as if it were in a fuel
bed. Volatiles3re distilled off,'and car-
bon is burned out to leave ash. Com' Flg. lGI0. CYclonr burncr whlrlr
bustion of volatile matier begins in the crurhrd ool bgclnrl rloggcd wollr.
burner chamber and is completed in
the secondary furnace into whlch the bumer chamber discharges' Molten
ash, under clntrifugal force, clings to the burner<hamber walls and the
slig'ht inclination c"auses slag tolischarge continuously. The nature of
thi-s burning tends to reduci greatly the amount of ash carried in sus-
pension, anC hence flyash emission is negligible .
 !.

CYCLONF FUF.I!ACES

Cyclon:-furnace frdng, cievelo)cd in ihe 19,i0s, fepier.irs ihe most signincant step
rn ccai fring since ihe iniro,l'uc'.icn ol pulvedzeci-coal firing in the 1920s if is now
wideiy used to burn poorer grades of coal ,irar contain a high ash ccntent with a
rnrnimum of 5 percenr to as high as 25 perceni, and a high volatile matler, more lhan
l5 p--rcent, to obtain the necessa.? high rates of combustion. A wide ftInge of moisrure
is allowable wirh precirying. One limitation is that ash should not conlain a high sulfur
content or a high FerOy'(CaO + N{gO) ratio. Such a coal has a tendency to lorm hrgh
ash-fusion tempraiure materials such as iron and iron sulfide in the slag, which negates
$e rnain advantage of cycione firing.
The main advantage is the remova.i oi much of the ash, airout 60 percent, as
moiten siag that is ccllected on the cyclone walls by cenU-iF.rgal acticn and drained
off the bonom to a slag-disintegrating tank beiow. Thus only 40 percent ash leaves
with the flue gases, compared with about 80 percent for pulverized-coal firing. This
materially reduces erosion and foulirg ol steam-generatot surfaces as well as the size
of dust-removal precipiiators or bag houses at si.am-generator exit- Other
advantages are that onll'a-ushed coal is useci and no puivenzaiion equipment is neeCed
a-qd that tlre boiler size is reduced. Cyclone-furnace firing uses a mnge of coal sizes
averaging 95 percent passing a 4-mesh screen (region B, Fig. +l).
i}le disadvantages are higber forced-draft fan pressures and therefore higher power
requirements, the inabiliry to use the coa-ls menticned above, and the formation of
reladvely more oxides of nitrogen, NO,, which arc ak pcllutants, in rhe combustion
proceSs.
The cyclone is essentialJy a water-cooled honzontal cylinder Grg. a-11) located
ouride the mail bciier furnace, il which the cmshed coal is ied and fireC with very
high rates of neat release. Cornbustion oi tle coai is completed before the resultilg
hor ga,ses enter tjte boiler fi:rnace. The crushed coal is led into the cycione bumer at
ieft along with primary aii, wirich is about 20 percent of combustion or secondary a-ir.
The pnmary air enters the burner tangentially, ',hus imoarting a cenU-ifugal motion to
ihe coel. The secondary air is a.lso admirted Ungeniialiy at the top of the cycione at
high speed, imparting furlher centrifugal motion. A sma1l quanlily ol ak, called terriary
air, is admined at the center.
The wb.kllng motion of air and coai results in la;ge heat-release-rate volumetric
densities, bet-*'"*n 450,0C0 and 800,000 Bftt/G ' ft3) lairout 4700 to 8300 kW/mr),
and high cornbustion tempratures, more than 30N0"F (1650'C). These high iempr-
a:ures melt the ash into a llquid slag that covers the surface ofthe cyclone and evenhraliy
drains through the slag-tap opening to a slag lank at',he bottom of the boiier furnace,

Energency StandbY Gas Bumers

Orl Burner

Srondary I'ir

Crushed Cel lnlet

Ter-iiary Air

Primary Air

Raiial Bume.

Oil Burner

Replaceable 7
Y/ear Linen

Reeitia ni
Slag'l-ao CpeninE

Pqu:t 4-11 F. cvclone fumae (Countn Eakxk ani V ilcax.)

 whc;e it rs solidifled and broken for removal. Thc slag Iayer that forms on the walls
ol the cycione provrdes insulation agatnst too_nruch ltcat ioss lhrough the walls and
contributes io the efficiency oi cycione firing.lThe high temperaturcs also explain the
iarge pro,Jucrion oi NO, in the gaseous conbusticn products. These gases leave the
c',;l.ri,e ih;cu:lr rhe iiiioai. ai ri_:.iii arrri inier t.ire main boiier iurnace. Thus combuslion
takes piace rn rhe relatively small cyclone, and the main boiler furnace has the sole
iunction ol heat transler lrom the gases to the water-tube walis. Cyclone fumaces are
also suiuble lor fuel-oil and gaseous-fuel firing.
Initial ignition is done by small retractable oil or gas burners in the secondary air
POrts.
Like pulverized-coal systems, cyclone firing systems can be ofthe bin, or storaee,
or direct-firing rypes, though the bin rype is more widely used, especially for most
biruminous coals, than in the case ol pulverized coal. The cycione system uses either
one-wall, or opposed-wall, firing, the laner being preiened lor iarge steam generators.
The size and number of cyclones per boiler depend upon the boiler size and the desired
load response because the usual load range lor good performance of any one cyclone
is fiom 50 to 100 percent ol its rated capacity. Cyciones vary in size from 6 to l0 lt
in diameter with heat inputs between 160 to 425 million Bnth (about 47,000 to 125,Offi
kW), re spectively
The cyclone component requiring the most maintenance is the burner, which is
subjected to erosion by the high velocity ol the coal. Erosion is minimized by the use
of tungsten carbide and other erosion-resistant materials for the bumer liners, which
are usually replaced once a year or so.

Wolls formed by refroctory

Ilrqh centrr lugcrl ids protected woter tr.tbes Loyer
o nci secondcl ry e very o1""",' ond of molten sloo fornrs on
iriglr pcrrticle re times wcll inlo whidh cool 6rrlicles
become embedded

/ ---Exhousl ond Scondory

burnout region

\roo hole for slogqtnq rtn

Secondory Tongenliol
Long onnulr,rr well cltr inlets - velocities
s trrred regton 60 - 11,0 m,zs
betrveen wol{ flow
ond centrcl flow'cg'on
for wcrd exle.nol Dalh
- [66]<word
rn.tOC_l Cf.SIrC
I i\-J,orS o'
]__ rniddln'pcth
1_ f orwcrd internol Ooth
crcvr( e lutoroql well stirred reqibn

Principles of Operction of Cyclone Combustors

 l4
_ _ -:.::: ::tr :lr,i:-5T:,:l;
We have already noted various attempts at reducing pollutants in the flue gas of
powerciant siram generaiois. The most common aie the postcombustion processes
iliat utiiize such devices as electrostatic precipitators and baghouses lor paniculate
nattei anil sciubbers for suliur dioxicie , Others are Drocesses concurrenl
v,'iih ccribusticri such as c,.'cicne-fi-irnace conbustion, in which much ol the ash, and
,r'.;,c; iie ,:aiiiruiaie matier, is removed ouring the combustion process. Otners, stril,
ai-e precornbustion processes in which "clean" gaseous or iiquid fuels, produced lrom
coai by gasification or iiquefaction and free of sulfur and ash, are used as steam-
generator fuels .
Fluidlzed-bed combustion is of the concurent type. It diflen from the cyclone
imace in that sulfur is removed during the combustion process. In addition, fluidized-
beC combustion occurs al lower temperarures, resulting in lower production of NO,
as weil as .ire avoida:rce of siaggirrg problems with some coals.
The fiuidized-bed combustor has been under development since the 1950s with
the aim of perfecting the process and comparing its reliabiliry and economy with SOz
postcombustion scnrbbing. Fiuidized beds have been in use lor many decades in
chernjcal-industry applicatid-n-s where intimate mixing and contact between reactants
are desiied. Such contact in a fluidized turbulent state ircreases heat and mass transfer
ald rrduces ti.ine ol reaction, pla-ot sizc, ald power requirement. Fluidized be,ds have
even b-,en pmposd for use rn nuciear-power reactors Wben used for coal,
"
ffuidized-bed combustion resuits i-n high combustion efficiency and low combustion
r6'- -qnh r +c

Flarcd top

Corc
sheli

t'n*a-
I
[o ) (6)

Flgtrt 4-12 Scberoric of a Euidiz:d bed: (a) particlc h collapsed srak, (b) paniclcs i-n fluidizc<t srrt.

in fiuiriized-bed combustion, crushed coal, berrveen l/4 utd 3/4 in ma-rimum (6

to 20 mm), is injected into the bed just above an air-ciisrriburion grid in the bonom
ol the beC fig. a-13). The air flows upwards through the grid lrom the air plenum
into the bed, which now becomes the lurnace where combustion of the swiriing mixrure
rakes place. The products of combustion leaving the bed contain a large proponion of
unburned carbon particies ftat are collected in a cycione separator, which separates
these paricles lrom the gas by imparting a cent-ifugal acceleradon on the mlxture.
They are then rerurned back to the fluidized bec ro compiete their combustion. The
'ooiier water tubes are located in the furnace.
As irrciicate C previously, the mosr imporrant advantase of fluidized-bed combustion
is the concurreni removai of the sulfur dioxide that resuhs
normally lrom the combusrion
ol the sulfur conteni ol ihe coal. Desulfurization is accomplished by the addition of
limestone diiectiy to the bed together with the crushed coal. Limestone is a sedimentary
rock cornposed mostly of caicium carbonaie (caCo3) and somerimes some magnesium
carbonate (!{gCO:). Limestone absorbs the sulfur dioxide with the heip of some oxygen
irom the excess rir. according to

CaCo3 + So. + CaSo. + Co, (+8)

;o?*
 iJt

The iate of this rcaction is marimum ar bed temperalures betrr,een 1500 and 1600-F
(8i5 to 370'C), rhough a practical range of operation of fluidized beds of 1380 to
l7-10"F (750 to 95C'C) is common.
The calcium sulfate CaSO" produced in this process is a dry rvaste product that
is eiiher regenerated or ciisposeci oi. Technical problens ior handling this calcium
suliate are urjder srudy, Reductions in suifur dioxide emissions ol up to 90 percent
iave bten achieved rn i'luidizeci-bed pilot pians.
There are other advaltages as a result of the low combustion temperatures of
fluidized-bed cor'rbustors. They allow inferior grades ofcoal to be used without slag-
ging problems; the carbon and ash carryover in the flue gases does not reach temper-
atures ai which rhey become soft anC foul heat transfer surfaces; the low tempemture
combustion results in substantial reductions in the emission of orides of nitrogen NO,,
a serious air pollutant; and cheaper alioy materials are possible, resulting in economy
of construction.
Another advantage is the absence of pulverization equipment, resulring in further
economies. Also, a fluidized-bed combustor can be desigSed to incorporate the boiler
within rhe bed, resuiting in volumerric heat-transfer rates that are 10 to 15 rimes higier
and surface heat-transfer rates tttat are 2 to 3 times higher than a conventional boiler.

Flue gas and dusl

/lo Patticulate
removal sYstem
,'/
Drm-:

Fumace wateryalls
Primary cyclone

Submerged tube bank

Cyclone fines
rccycle feed line
Coal and Iimestone
ie.d hopp.r Cnd pl:te Fluidized bed
(Combuslion zone)
Tran:pori air supply

Plenum chamber
Air fan

Bed drain tube

Figrre .1--13 Schematic of a fluidized-bed+ombustioo steam generator. (Courtes,'t Combution Engireering

Inc.)

A fluidized-bed steam generator is therefore much more comPact than a conventional

one of de same caPacil,v.
t'hat
In addition, reductions in sulfur dioxide (and u-ioxide) in the flue gas means
lowei stack-gas tomperarures ca11 be tolerated because less acid is fonned as a result
of the condensation ol water vapor. Lower spck-gas te mprafures rcsult in an
increase

in overall plant elficiencY.

The problems facing the development of fluidized-bed combustors include those
tha! are associated with feeding the coal and limestone into lhe bed, the confol of
carbon carryover with the flue gases, the regeneration or diSPSa,l of ca-lcium sulfate,
variable-
the quenching oi combusrion by rhe cooler water tubes within the bed, and
ioad operation.
Fluiciized-bed combustors may be used with either a conventional steam Power-
plaLrt (Rankine cycle) or a combined gas-stearn powerplant (Bralton-Rankine)
cycle
In the conventional powerPlant application, the bed can be of lhe atmos'
pher[c, or pressurized, rype. Atmospheric beds utilize both forced- and induced-draft
fans. Pressurized beds use comPressors to supply combustion air at pressures of
up to
10 bar, which results in slightly higher heat-u^ansfer rates. Electrostatic
precipitaton'
steam
fly-mh removal, ak preheaters, and other auxiliaries as are found in conventional
generaton are used. [n the combined gas-steam cycle plessurized beds are used' They
receive compressed air from lhe gas-rurbine cycle compressor'
By the end ol 1981 more than 20 ffuidized-bed-combustion waler-tube st3aln
generators were contracled for woridwide. Their ratings extended up to 330,000
Ib-rtr (abour 42k"Js) capaciry, 2450 psig (about 170 bar), and 10ffi"F (about 540"C)
srean ccnditions. They now ale considered by some as competiiive with conventionaj
stean generators with gas scrubbing when high-sulfur coals or wasie fuels are bumed'