Topic 4 Acids and Alkalis

Unit 13 Looking at acids and alkalis

Activity 13.1 Investigating the properties of dilute acids (S)

Observations
A Action of acids on metal
Test for gas given off with a burning splint
Action of What is the gas
Observations
given off ?
Dilute hydrochloric acid The gas gives a pop sound. Hydrogen
Dilute sulphuric acid The gas gives a pop sound. Hydrogen

B Action of acids on metal carbonate

Test for gas given off with limewater
Action of What is the gas
Observations
given off ?
Dilute hydrochloric acid The limewater turns milky. Carbon dioxide
Dilute sulphuric acid The limewater turns milky. Carbon dioxide

C Action of acids on metal hydrogencarbonate

Test for gas given off with limewater
Action of What is the gas
Observations
given off ?
Dilute hydrochloric acid The limewater turns milky. Carbon dioxide
Dilute sulphuric acid The limewater turns milky. Carbon dioxide

D Action of acids on metal hydroxide

Does magnesium
Colour of the Name of the salt
Action of hydroxide dissolve
solution formed formed
in the acid ?
Dilute hydrochloric acid Yes Colourless Magnesium chloride
Dilute sulphuric acid Yes Colourless Magnesium sulphate

E Action of acids on metal oxide

Does copper(II)
Colour of the Name of the salt
Action of oxide dissolve in
solution formed formed
the acid ?
Dilute hydrochloric acid Yes Blue Copper(II) chloride
Dilute sulphuric acid Yes Blue Copper(II) sulphate
F Electrical conductivity of acids
Does the acid conduct
Action of Observations
electricity ?
Dilute hydrochloric acid The light bulb lights up. Yes
Dilute sulphuric acid The light bulb lights up. Yes

Summary
13 a) Metal + dilute acid salt + hydrogen .
b) Metal carbonate + dilute acid salt + water + carbon dioxide .
c) Metal hydrogencarbonate + dilute acid salt + water + carbon dioxide .
d) Metal hydroxide + dilute acid salt + water .
e) Metal oxide + dilute acid salt + water .
f) Dilute acids ( conduct / do not conduct ) electricity.

Question
14 Write a chemical equation for each of the following reactions.
Reaction between Chemical equation
Magnesium and dilute
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
hydrochloric acid
Magnesium and dilute sulphuric
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
acid
Sodium carbonate and dilute
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
hydrochloric acid
Sodium carbonate and dilute
Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
sulphuric acid
Sodium hydrogencarbonate and
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
dilute hydrochloric acid
Sodium hydrogencarbonate and
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)
dilute sulphuric acid
Magnesium hydroxide and
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
dilute hydrochloric acid
Magnesium hydroxide and
Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
dilute sulphuric acid
Copper(II) oxide and dilute
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
hydrochloric acid
Copper(II) oxide and dilute
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
sulphuric acid

Teachers note:
1 Students may test for hydrogen 5 minutes after the reaction between the magnesium ribbon and the
dilute acid has started.
2 The liberation of CO2 during the reaction between the carbonate / hydrogencarbonate and the
dilute
acid stops very quickly. Therefore remind students to get the limewater ready for testing before the
reaction.
 3 Replace limewater in reagent bottles with freshly prepared one from time to time because
limewater
changes on storage.
Activity 13.2 Studying the role of water in exhibiting acidic properties of citric acid (S)

Procedure
3 In the space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) any additional safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.
For example, students may investigate the reaction between magnesium ribbon and solid citric acid /
aqueous citric acid.
1 Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to the solid citric acid.
2 Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to aqueous.
3 Record any observations. Test any gas given off with a burning splint.

Students may also investigate the reaction between sodium carbonate and solid citric acid / aqueous citric
acid.

Observations
5 Record your observations.
Test Solid citric acid Aqueous citric acid
Reaction with magnesium No observable change Gas bubbles are given off.
Reaction with sodium carbonate No observable change Gas bubbles are given off.

Discussion

6 Deduce the role of water in exhibiting acidic properties of citric acid.

Aqueous citric acid shows the typical properties of an acid. However, solid citric acid cannot show these
properties. Therefore water must be present for an acid to show its acidic properties.

Summary
8 Summarize your findings.
Water must be present for an acid to show its acidic properties.

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 Students may test for hydrogen 5 minutes after the reaction between aqueous citric acid and
 magnesium ribbon has started.

3 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include the
following items:
Title
Purpose
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations
Discussion
Conclusion
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)

Activity 13.3 Investigating the properties of alkalis (S)

Observations
A Action of dilute solutions of alkalis on aqueous metal ions
13
Action of dilute sodium hydroxide on aqueous metal ions
Is the precipitate soluble
Is a precipitate formed ?
Solution Colour of the precipitate in excess NaOH ?
(Yes / No)
(Yes / No)
Aluminium nitrate
Yes White Yes
solution
Calcium nitrate solution Yes White No
Lead(II) nitrate solution Yes White Yes
Magnesium nitrate
Yes White No
solution
Iron(II) nitrate solution Yes Green No
Iron(III) nitrate solution Yes Reddish brown No
Copper(II) nitrate
Yes Pale blue No
solution
Zinc nitrate solution Yes White Yes

14
Action of ammonia solution on aqueous metal ions
Is the precipitate soluble
Is a precipitate formed ?
Solution Colour of the precipitate in excess NaOH ?
(Yes / No)
(Yes / No)
Aluminium nitrate
Yes White No
solution
Calcium nitrate solution No ----- -----
Lead(II) nitrate solution Yes White No
Magnesium nitrate
Yes White No
solution
Iron(II) nitrate solution Yes Green No
Iron(III) nitrate solution Yes Reddish brown No
Copper(II) nitrate
Yes Pale blue Yes
solution
Zinc nitrate solution Yes White Yes

B Action of solid calcium hydroxide on ammonium compound

15
Action of calcium hydroxide on ammonium chloride
Test for gas given off Observations
Smell Unpleasant and choking
Wet red litmus paper The red litmus paper turns blue.

The gas given off is ammonia .

Summary
16 a) Name the aqueous metal ions that will form precipitates with dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
Aluminium ion, calcium ion, lead(II) ion, magnesium ion, iron(II) ion, iron(III) ion, copper(II)
ion and zinc ion.
b) Name the aqueous metal ions that give precipitates soluble in excess sodium hydroxide
solution.
Aluminium ion, lead(II) ion and zinc ion.

17 a) Name the aqueous metal ions that will form precipitates with ammonia solution.
Aluminium ion, lead(II) ion, magnesium ion, iron(II) ion, iron(III) ion, copper(II) ion
and zinc ion.
b) Name the aqueous metal ions that give precipitates soluble in excess ammonia solution.
Copper(II) ion and zinc ion.

18 Ammonia is formed when an ammonium salt is heated with an alkali. It has an unpleasant
and
choking smell. It turns wet red litmus paper blue .

Questions
19 Write an ionic equation for each of the following reactions.
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution with Ionic equation
Aluminium nitrate solution Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
Calcium nitrate solution Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca(OH)2(s)
Lead(II) nitrate solution Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)
Magnesium nitrate solution Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
Iron(II) nitrate solution Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
Iron(III) nitrate solution Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
Copper(II) nitrate solution Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
Zinc nitrate solution Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)

Ammonia solution with Ionic equation

Aluminium nitrate solution Al (aq) + 3OH-(aq) Al(OH)3(s)
3+

Lead(II) nitrate solution Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Pb(OH)2(s)

Magnesium nitrate solution Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
Iron(II) nitrate solution Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
Iron(III) nitrate solution Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
Copper(II) nitrate solution Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
Zinc nitrate solution Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)

20 Write a chemical equation for the reaction between solid calcium hydroxide and solid ammonium
chloride.
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)

Teachers note:
1 Make sure that students wear safety glasses in Part B of the activity.
2 Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas.
3 Remind students not to inhale ammonia deeply when detecting its smell because ammonia is
poisonous and has a choking smell.

Activity 13.4 Investigating the corrosive nature of concentrated acids and alkalis (T)

Observations
A Action of concentrated sulphuric acid on filter paper
8
Test Observations
Action of concentrated sulphuric acid on filter paper The paper turns brown and then a hole appears.

B Action of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution on meat

9
Test Appearance of chicken foot Observations after stirring

The chicken foot breaks up. A

The chicken foot becomes
Action of concentrated sodium mixture of skin and meat floats.
smaller. It turns reddish yellow
hydroxide solution on meat Small pieces of bones sink to the
and somewhat translucent.
bottom.

Action of distilled water on meat The chicken foot becomes white. No observable change

Discussion
10 Comment on the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on filter paper.
Concentrated sulphuric acid is very corrosive on filter paper.

11 Comment on the action of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution on meat.

Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is very corrosive on meat.

Summary
12 Concentrated sulphuric acid and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution are highly corrosive .

Teachers note:
1 Take care when putting the chicken foot into the concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. Otherwise,
 the solution may splash out.
2 Immerse the chicken foot in the concentrated sodium hydroxide solution completely.

Unit 14 The pH scale and strengths of acids and alkalis

Activity 14.1 Measuring the pH values of various substances using universal indicator (S)

Observations
5
Colour of universal indicator
Substance pH value of the substance
in the substance
Dilute hydrochloric acid ~1
Tap water ~6
Distilled water ~7
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution ~14
Ammonia solution ~10
Sodium hydrogencarbonate solution ~8
Dilute sulphuric acid ~1
Sodium chloride solution ~7
Window cleaner ~10
Lemon juice ~2
5 % soap solution ~9
Vinegar ~3

Summary
6 a) Which substances are acidic?
Dilute hydrochloric acid, tap water, dilute sulphuric acid, lemon juice and vinegar
b) Which substances are neutral?
Distilled water, sodium chloride solution
c) Which substances are alkaline?
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution, ammonia solution, sodium hydrogencarbonate solution,
window cleaner, 5% soap solution
d) Which substance is the most acidic?
Dilute hydrochloric acid / dilute sulphuric acid
e) Which substance is the most alkaline?
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution

Teachers note:
1 The pH value of a substance depends on its concentration. The pH values given are for reference only.
2 Students may find distilled water and sodium chloride solution to be slightly acidic due to the
atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in them.
3 The teacher may allow students to test other domestic substances as well. However, the teacher
should
warn students if the domestic substances tested are corrosive (e.g. drain cleaner, oven cleaner).
Activity 14.2 Distinguishing between a strong and a weak acid (S) Extension

Procedure
3 In the space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure;
b) the expected observations; and
c) any additional safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.
For example, students may compare the pH value and the electrical conductivity of the acids.
1 Put two pieces of pH paper on a spotting tile.
2 Take a drop of each acid with a glass rod and put it onto the pH paper.
3 Find out the pH value of each acid by matching the colour of each piece of pH paper with a pH colour
chart.

4 Test the electrical conductivity of each acid using the apparatus shown below.
5 Compare the brightness of the bulb in each case. (A multimeter may also be used to measure the
current flowing through the circuit.)
6 Record the results.
Observations

5 Record your observations.

Observations
Test
Acid solution A Acid solution B
pH value 4 1
Electrical conductivity Bulb glows dimly Bulb glows brightly

Discussion
6 Deduce which of the acid solutions provided is a strong acid and which is a weak acid.
Acid solution B has a lower pH value and conducts electricity better. The concentration of hydrogen ions in
acid solution B is higher than that in acid solution A. This is because B ionizes in water more completely
than A. Therefore acid solution B is a strong acid while acid solution A is a weak acid.

Summary
8 Summarize your findings.
Acid solution B is a strong acid and acid solution A is a weak acid.

Question
9 Both acid solutions are of the same concentration, yet they have different pH values. Suggest a
possible explanation for this.
B ionizes in water more completely than A. Therefore acid solution B contains a higher
concentration
of hydrogen ions. The pH value of acid solution B is thus lower than that of acid solution A.

Teachers note:
1 Use 0.1 M ethanoic acid as acid solution A and 0.1 M hydrochloric acid as acid solution B.
2 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
3 Remind students that for a fair comparison, all factors should be kept the same, except that
different
acids are used. These factors include:
a) the voltage of the d.c. supply;
b) the size, shape and nature of the electrodes;
c) the distance between the electrodes;
d) the depth by which the electrodes are immersed in the solution.
4 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include
the
following items:
Title
Purpose
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations
Discussion
Conclusion
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)
Unit 15 Neutralization
Activity 15.1 Measuring the temperature change of neutralization reactions (S)

Summary
8 During neutralization, heat energy is given out . Neutralization is an exothermic reaction.

Questions
9 a) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between dilute sodium hydroxide solution and dilute
hydrochloric acid.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
b) Write an ionic equation for the above reaction.
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l)

10 a) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between dilute potassium hydroxide solution and dilute
nitric acid.
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
b) Write an ionic equation for the above reaction.
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l)

11 a) Compare the temperature rise of the two reactions:

25 cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide solution + 25 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid;
25 cm3 of dilute potassium hydroxide solution + 25 cm3 of dilute nitric acid.
Are they the same or different?
Nearly the same

b) Explain briefly why this is so.

In the two reactions, the only chemical change is OH-(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l). Therefore the
energy changes should be the same if the concentrations and volumes of the chemicals used are
equal.

12 Suggest two ways to make the experimental results more accurate.

Use a lid to cover the polystyrene cup.
Put the polystyrene cup in a beaker.

Teachers note:
Remind students not to stir the reaction mixtures vigorously. Vigorous stirring may produce a measurable
temperature rise.

Activity 15.2 Preparing copper(II) sulphate crystals from the neutralization reaction between an acid
and an insoluble base (S / T) Extension

Summary
10 Describe the appearance of the copper(II) sulphate crystals obtained.
Blue crystals

Questions
11 Write a chemical equation for the reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and copper(II) oxide.
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

12 Why is the reaction between a metal and an acid NOT used to prepare copper(II) sulphate?
There is no reaction between copper and dilute sulphuric acid.

13 Suggest the starting materials you would use to prepare zinc sulphate.
The reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and zinc / zinc oxide / zinc carbonate.

Activity 15.3 Preparing sodium sulphate from an acid-alkali titration (S / T) Extension

Summary
19 Describe the appearance of the sodium sulphate crystals obtained.
Colourless crystals

Questions
20 Write a chemical equation for the reaction between dilute sodium hydroxide solution and dilute
sulphuric acid.
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

21 Why is methyl orange NOT added in step 10?

Otherwise, the salt obtained would be contaminated.

22 Why is the reaction between a metal and an acid NOT used to prepare sodium salts?
There is an explosive reaction between sodium and a dilute acid. The reaction should not be carried out
in the laboratory.

23 Suggest how you would prepare potassium nitrate crystals.

Neutralizing dilute potassium hydroxide solution with dilute nitric acid using the titration method.

Teachers note:
1 Make sure that students wear safety glasses throughout the activity as the concentrations of the
acid
and alkali used here are higher than those used in usual titrations. Beside, during the isolation of the
crystals, hot liquid may splash out.
2 During the isolation of the sodium sulphate crystals, crystals may not deposit if the solution is not
concentrated enough.
3 Remind students to label the solution with class and group number for identification purpose
before
setting it aside to cool and crystallize.

Activity 15.4A project

Investigating the pH value of the soil in the school flowerbed (S)
Worksheet 2 Measuring the pH value of the soil sample

Procedure
4 Put down
 a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) the safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.
Students may follow the procedure listed below:
1 Place two spatula measures of the soil sample in a test tube.
2 Add 5 cm3 of distilled water.
3 Stopper the tube and shake the contents well for about 30 seconds.
4 Filter the mixture into another test tube.

5 Add 2-3 drops of universal indicator in the filtrate.

a) Notice the colour of the universal indicator in the filtrate.
b) Find out the pH value of the filtrate.
c) Record the results.

Worksheet 3 Preparing a salt to regulate the pH value of the soil sample

Sources of information
1 State the sources of information for the activity.

To grow healthy plants, a soil must have the correct pH value. The information below is taken from a plant
pH preference list.
Name pH range Name pH range

Apple 5.0 6.5

Mint 7.0 8.0
Banana 6.5 7.0
Onion 6.0 7.0
Blackcurrant 6.0 8.0
Potato 4.5 6.0
Daffodil 6.0 6.5
Rhubarb 5.5 7.0
Rose 6.0 7.0
Strawberry 5.0 7.5
Lettuce 6.0 7.0

Procedure
4 Put down
a) the chemical reactions involved;
b) the step-by-step procedure; and
c) any additional safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.

Students may follow the procedure in Activity 15.3 when preparing the salt.
1 The following table summarizes the acidic / alkaline nature of some salts.
Salt of Example Acidic / alkaline nature of solution
A strong acid and a strong alkali NaCl , KNO3 Neutral
A strong acid and a weak alkali NH4Cl , (NH4)2SO4 Acidic
A weak acid and a strong alkali Na2CO3 , CH3COONa Alkaline

2 The following table shows the correct choice of indicators for different types of acid-alkali titrations.
Titration type Suitable indicator(s)
Strong acid strong alkali Methyl orange, phenolphthalein
Strong acid weak alkali / carbonate Methyl orange
Weak acid strong alkali Phenolphthalein

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the project starts.
Students should submit their designs in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for comment and
approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 Students may conduct internet search to obtain information. Remind them to evaluate the information before
adoptions.
3 The group report may include the following items:
Title
Purposes
Sources of information
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations and results
Discussion
Conclusion
Remind students to put down the observations and results for growing the kind of plant chosen in the
improved soil sample.
Unit 16 Concentration of solutions and volumetric analysis
Activity 16.1 Preparing acid solutions of known concentrations (S) Extension
Teachers note:
Deionized water may be used instead of distilled water.

Activity 16.2 Determining the concentration of a sodium hydroxide solution using standard dilute
hydrochloric acid (S) Extension

Results
14 The colour of the phenolphthalein in the sodium hydroxide solution is red .

15 The colour change of the indicator at the end point of the titration is from red to colourless .

Calculation
17 Write a chemical equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Questions
20 What does the colour change of the indicator indicate?
Sufficient acid has been added to neutralize the alkali.

21 Why is it necessary to do a trial?

To get an idea of the approximate amount of acid needed to neutralize the alkali. To obtain accurate
results, add the acid quickly until the volume added is 2 cm3 less than the volume obtained in trial.
Then add the acid drop by drop. Time can be saved in this way.

22 Suggest possible sources of error of the activity.

Error in taking burette readings
Error in detecting the colour change of the indicator

Teachers note:
1 It is not advisable to put sodium hydroxide solution in a burette with a glass stopcock. Any alkali left
in the burette after the activity may cause the stopcock to stick.
2 Clean the conical flask by washing it with water but not with the solution it is going to contain.
Otherwise, the additional amount of solutes present would affect the titration results. There is no need
to dry the conical flask after washing with water because the water will not change the amount of
solute present.
3 Deionized water may be used instead of distilled water.
Unit 17 Rate of reactions
Activity 17.1 Investigating the effect of surface area of a solid reactant on the rate of a reaction (S)
Extension

Procedure
2 In space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) any additional safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.
Students may follow the procedure listed below:
1 Weigh out approximately 20 g of large marble chips on a piece of filter paper using a direct reading
balance. Record the reading.
2 Using a measuring cylinder, place 40 cm3 of 1 M hydrochloric acid in a conical flask.
3 Put a plug of cotton wool in the mouth of the flask.
4 Weigh the flask plus its contents. Record the reading. Leave the flask on the balance.
5 a) Take out the cotton wool plug. Add the marble chips to the acid.
b) Record the mass of the flask plus its contents and start the stop watch at the same time.
c) Replace the cotton wool plug.
6 Record the mass of the flask plus its contents every 30 seconds until the reaction stops.

7 Crush some of the large marble chips to about 1/4 of the original size in a mortar.
8 Repeat the activity using approximately 20 g of the crushed marble chips. Record all the results.

Results
4 Record your data.

Mass of large marble chips = __________ g

Mass of conical flask + dilute hydrochloric acid = __________ g
Mass of conical flask + dilute hydrochloric acid + large marble chips = __________ g
 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
2 2 2 2 2
Time t (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Total mass at
time t (g)
Loss in mass (g)

Mass of crushed marble chips = _________ g

Mass of conical flask + dilute hydrochloric acid = _________ g
Mass of conical flask + dilute hydrochloric acid + crushed marble chips = _________ g

1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4
2 2 2 2 2
Time t (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Total mass at
time t (g)
Loss in mass (g)

Discussion
6 Based on the results obtained, discuss how the surface area of calcium carbonate affects the rate of its
reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.
The surface area of the crushed marble chips is greater than that of the large marble chips. In the reaction
with the same volume of dilute hydrochloric acid, the crushed marble chips take a shorter time to complete
the reaction, i.e. the reaction is faster. The rate of the reaction increases when the surface area of the marble
chips is increased.

Summary
8 Summarize your findings.
The rate of the reaction between calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid increases when the surface
area of the calcium carbonate (marble chips) is increased.

Question
9 Referring to the curves obtained, identify the stage of the reaction at which the rate is fastest.
The reaction is fastest at the start of the reaction as the slope of the curve is steepest.

10 What is the shape of the curve when the reaction is complete?

The curve goes flat.

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 It is important that students keep other variables constant, except the surface area of the marble
chips.
3 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include
the
following items:
Title
Purpose
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations
Discussion
Conclusion
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)

Activity 17.2 Investigating the effect of concentration of a reactant on the rate of a reaction (S)
Extension

Procedure
2 In the space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) any additional safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.
Students may follow the procedure listed below:
1 Using a measuring cylinder, place 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate solution in a 100 cm3 beaker.
2 Mark a cross on a piece of paper. Put the beaker on top of the paper.
3 Using a measuring cylinder, measure out 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid.
4 a) Add the acid to the sodium thiosulphate solution and start the stop watch at the same time.
b) Swirl the beaker to mix the solutions.
5 a) Look down at the cross through the beaker.
b) Stop the stop watch when the cross can no longer be seen from above. Record the time taken.

6 a) Repeat the activity using a different concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution as shown in the
table under step 4.
b) Record the time for the cross to disappear in each case.

Results
4 Record your data.
Volume of thiosulphate Volume of water added Time for the cross to
1 / time (s-1)
solution (cm3) (cm3) disappear (s)
50 0
40 10
30 20
20 30
10 40
Discussion
6 Based on the results obtained, discuss how the concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution affects
the rate of its reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.

The more concentrated thiosulphate solutions take shorter times to reach the opaque stage, i.e. their
reactions with dilute hydrochloric acid are faster.

Summary
8 Summarize your findings.
The rate of the reaction between sodium thiosulphate solution and dilute hydrochloric acid increases when
the concentration of the thiosulphate solution is increased.

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 It is important that students keep other variables constant, except the concentration of the sodium
thiosulphate solution. The total volume of the reaction mixture should be the same in each case.
3 The volume of the original thiosulphate solution can be taken to be its relative concentration.
4 Ensure good ventilation in the laboratory as poisonous sulphur dioxide gas will be given off.
5 Remind students to keep the paper with the cross dry.
6 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include
the
following items:
Title
Purpose
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations
Discussion
Conclusion
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)

Activity 17.3 Investigating the effect of concentration of a reactant on the rate of a reaction using
data-logger with pressure sensor (S / T) (Optional) Extension

Procedure
10 In the space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) any additional safety precautions.
Students can repeat the experiment with 20 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid of different concentrations.

Discussion
13 Based on the results obtained, discuss how the concentration of dilute hydrochloric acid affects the rate
of its reaction with magnesium.
The more concentrated acids take shorter times to complete the reactions with magnesium, i.e. their
reactions are faster.

Summary
15 Summarize your findings.
The rate of the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and magnesium increases when the concentration
of the acid is increased.

Question
16 What are the benefits and limitations of using data-logger system in this investigation?
Benefits:
Quick and accurate results can be obtained.
Continuous monitoring of the reaction process is possible.
Limitations:
The procedure is more complicated than traditional methods.
It is more difficult to handle data-logger system.

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 Remind students to wear safety glasses throughout the experiment as the experiment involves a
pressure change inside glass apparatus. The glassware may break in case it cannot withstand the
pressure change.
3 Use sandpaper to clean the magnesium ribbons before use.
4 When pressing the stopper gently against the suction flask during the reaction process, the
pressing
force should be gentle and kept constant throughout the experiment. Otherwise, the pressure sensor
may detect and record a change of pressure due to that.
5 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include
the
following items:
Title
Purpose
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations
Discussion
Conclusion
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)

Activity 17.4 Investigating the effect of concentration of a reactant on the rate of a reaction using
data-logger with light sensor (S / T) (Optional) Extension

Procedure
10 In the space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) any additional safety precautions.
1 Students can repeat the activity with sodium thiosulphate solution of different concentrations and
investigate the time required to reach the same level of turbidity in each case.
2 Sodium thiosulphate solution of different concentrations can be prepared by mixing various
amount of
thiosulphate solution with distilled water while keeping the total volume of the mixture to be 4 cm3 in
each case.
3 The volume of the original thiosulphate solution can be taken to be its relative concentration.
Discussion
13 Based on the results obtained, discuss how the concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution affects
the rate of its reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.
The more concentrated thiosulphate solutions take shorter times to reach a certain level of turbidity, i.e.
their reactions with dilute hydrochloric acid are faster.

Summary

15 Summarize your findings.

The rate of the reaction between sodium thiosulphate solution and dilute hydrochloric acid increases when
the concentration of the thiosulphate solution is increased.

Question
16 What are the benefits and limitations of using data-logger system in this investigation?
Benefits:
Quick and accurate results can be obtained.
Continuous monitoring of the reaction process is possible.
Limitations:
The procedure is more complicated than traditional methods.
It is more difficult to handle data-logger system.

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 It is important that students keep other variables constant, except the concentration of the sodium
thiosulphate solution. The total volume of the reaction mixture should be the same in each case.
3 Ensure good ventilation in the laboratory as poisonous sulphur dioxide gas will be given off.
4 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include
the
following items:
Title
Purpose
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations
Discussion
Conclusion
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)

Activity 17.5 Investigating the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction (S) Extension
Procedure
2 In the space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) any additional safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.
Students may follow the procedure listed below:
1 Place 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate solution in a 100 cm3 beaker.
2 Record the temperature of the solution.
3 Mark a cross on a piece of paper. Put the beaker on top of the paper.
4 a) Add 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to the sodium thiosulphate solution and start the stop watch
at the same time.
b) Swirl the beaker to mix the solutions.
5 Record the time taken for the cross to disappear.
6 Place 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate solution in a 100 cm3 beaker.
7 Heat the solution to about 35 .
8 a) Repeat steps 3 4.
b) Record the temperature of the reaction mixture immediately after adding the acid.
9 Record the time taken for the cross to disappear.
10 Repeat the activity at about 45 , 55 and 65 .

Results
4 Record your data.
Temperature of
Time for the cross to disappear (s) 1 / time (s-1)
reaction mixture ()

Discussion

6 Based on the results obtained, discuss how temperature affects the rate of the reaction between sodium
thiosulphate solution and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Reaction mixtures of higher temperatures take shorter times to reach the opaque stage, i.e. the
reactions are faster.

Summary
8 Summarize your findings.
The rate of the reaction between sodium thiosulphate solution and dilute hydrochloric acid increases when
the temperature of the reaction mixture increases.

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 It is important that students keep other variables constant, except the temperature of the reaction
mixture.
3 Ensure good ventilation in the laboratory as poisonous sulphur dioxide gas will be given off.
4 Remind students to keep the paper with the cross dry.
5 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include
the
following items:
Title
 Purpose
Apparatus and chemicals
Safety precautions
Procedure
Observations
Discussion
Conclusion
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)

Topic 5 Chemical Cells and Electrolysis

Unit 19 Simple chemical cells
Activity 19.1 Building simple chemical cells (S)

Results
18 Complete the following table.
Direction of
Voltage Positive Negative
Experiment Chemical cell electron flow in the
(V) electrode of cell electrode of cell
conducting wires

Dipping two
different metal From magnesium
A Copper strip Magnesium strip
strips into an strip to copper strip
electrolyte

Placing a filter
paper soaked with
an electrolyte From magnesium
B Copper strip Magnesium strip
between two strip to copper strip
different metal
strips

Using a lemon and From magnesium

C two different metal Copper strip Magnesium strip
strips strip to copper strip

Summary
19 a) Usually, a chemical cell consists of two different metals and an electrolyte .
b) When a magnesium strip and a copper strip are used as the electrodes of a chemical cell, the
copper strip acts as the positive electrode and the magnesium strip acts as the negative
electrode.
c) Electrons flow from ( magnesium / copper ) to ( magnesium / copper ) in the conducting
wires.
 Questions
20 What is the role of the lemon juice in the lemon cell?
As an electrolyte.

21 What other fruits can be used to replace the lemon in the activity?
An orange or grapefruit can be used.

Teachers note:
1 The teacher may use an orange or grapefruit instead of lemon.
2 A juicier lemon should give a slightly higher voltage reading.
3 The teacher may also use a data-logger with a voltage sensor to measure the voltages of the
chemical
cells.

Unit 20 Oxidation and reduction

Activity 20.1 Investigating redox reactions (S)

Observations
A Action of bromine water on iron(II) sulphate solution
20
Test Observations
Fe3+(aq) + NaOH(aq) Reddish brown precipitate forms
2+
Fe (aq) + NaOH(aq) Green precipitate forms
Fe2+(aq) + Br2(aq) + NaOH(aq) Reddish brown precipitate forms

B Action of chlorine water on sodium sulphite solution

21
Test Observations
SO42-(aq) + BaCl2(aq) White precipitate forms
2-
SO3 (aq) + BaCl2(aq) No observable change
2-
SO3 (aq) + Cl2(aq) + BaCl2(aq) White precipitate forms

C Action of sodium sulphite solution on acidified potassium dichromate solution

22 The colour of the acidified potassium dichromate solution changes from orange to green .

D Action of iron(II) sulphate solution on acidified potassium permanganate solution

23 The colour of the acidified potassium permanganate solution changes from purple to
colourless .

E Action of iron(III) sulphate solution on potassium iodide solution

24 The colour of the potassium iodide solution changes from colourless to brown .
Discussion
A Action of bromine water on iron(II) sulphate solution
25 a) What happens to the iron(II) ions in the reaction?
The iron(II) ions are oxidized to iron(III) ions.
b) What evidence do you have for this?
The reaction mixture gives a reddish brown precipitate with dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
This shows the presence of iron(III) ions.
c) What happens to the bromine water?
The bromine is reduced to bromide ions.

B Action of chlorine water on sodium sulphite solution

26 a) What happens to the sulphite ions in the reaction?
The sulphite ions are oxidized to sulphate ions.
b) What evidence do you have for this?
The reaction mixture gives a white precipitate with barium chloride solution. This shows the
presence of sulphate ions (SO42-).
c) What happens to the chlorine water?
The chlorine is reduced to chloride ions.

C Action of sodium sulphite solution on acidified potassium dichromate solution

27 a) What happens to the dichromate ions in the reaction?
The dichromate ions are reduced to chromium(III) ions.
b) What evidence do you have for this?
The reaction mixture becomes green. (Chromium(III) ions are green in colour.)
c) What happens to the sulphite ions?
The sulphite ions are oxidized to sulphate ions.

D Action of iron(II) sulphate solution on acidified potassium permanganate solution

28 a) What happens to the permanganate ions in the reaction?
The permanganate ions are reduced to manganese(II) ions.
b) What evidence do you have for this?
The potassium permanganate solution is decolourized.
c) What happens to the iron(II) ions?
The iron(II) ions are oxidized to iron(III) ions.

E Action of iron(III) sulphate solution on potassium iodide solution

29 a) What happens to the iodide ions in the reaction?
The iodide ions are oxidized to iodine.
b) What evidence do you have for this?
 The reaction mixture becomes brown. This shows the presence of iodine.
c) What happens to the iron(III) ions?
The iron(III) ions are reduced to iron(II) ions.

Summary
30 In the redox reaction between bromine water and iron(II) sulphate solution:
a) The iron(II) ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to iron(III) ions.
b) The bromine is ( oxidized / reduced ) to bromide ions.

31 In the redox reaction between chlorine water and sodium sulphite solution:
a) The sulphite ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to sulphate ions.
b) The chlorine is ( oxidized / reduced ) to chloride ions.

32 In the redox reaction between sodium sulphite solution and acidified potassium dichromate solution:
a) The dichromate ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to chromium(III) ions.
b) The sulphite ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to sulphate ions.

33 In the redox reaction between iron(II) sulphate solution and acidified potassium permanganate
solution:
a) The permanganate ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to manganese(II) ions.
b) The iron(II) ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to iron(III) ions.

34 In the redox reaction between iron(III) sulphate solution and potassium iodide solution:
a) The iodide ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to iodine .
b) The iron(III) ions are ( oxidized / reduced ) to iron(II) ions.

Questions
35 In the redox reaction between bromine water and iron(II) sulphate solution:
a) The oxidizing agent is bromine water .
The reducing agent is iron(II) sulphate solution .
b) Write an ionic half-equation for the oxidation process.
Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e-
Write an ionic half-equation for the reduction process.
Br2(aq) + 2 e- 2Br-(aq)
Write a balanced redox equation for the reaction.
2 Fe2+(aq) + Br2(aq) 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2Br-(aq)

36 In the redox reaction between chlorine water and sodium sulphite solution:
a) The oxidizing agent is chlorine water .
The reducing agent is sodium sulphite solution .
b) Write an ionic half-equation for the oxidation process.
 SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e-
Write an ionic half-equation for the reduction process.
Cl2(aq) + 2e- 2Cl-(aq)
Write a balanced redox equation for the reaction.
SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl2(aq) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

37 In the redox reaction between sodium sulphite solution and acidified potassium dichromate solution:
a) The oxidizing agent is acidified potassium dichromate solution .
The reducing agent is sodium sulphite solution .
b) Write an ionic half-equation for the oxidation process.
SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e-
Write an ionic half-equation for the reduction process.
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e- 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
Write a balanced redox equation for the reaction.
Cr2O72-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 3SO32-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42-(aq) + 4H2O(l)

38 In the redox reaction between iron(II) sulphate solution and acidified potassium permanganate
solution:
a) The oxidizing agent is acidified potassium permanganate solution .
The reducing agent is iron(II) sulphate solution .
b) Write an ionic half-equation for the oxidation process.
Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e-
Write an ionic half-equation for the reduction process.
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Write a balanced redox equation for the reaction.
MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

39 In the redox reaction between iron(III) sulphate solution and potassium iodide solution:
a) The oxidizing agent is iron(III) sulphate solution .
The reducing agent is potassium iodide solution .
b) Write an ionic half-equation for the oxidation process.
2I-(aq) I2(aq) + 2e-
Write an ionic half-equation for the reduction process.
Fe3+(aq) + e- Fe2+
Write a balanced redox equation for the reaction.
2Fe3+(aq) + 2I-(aq) 2 Fe2+(aq) + I2(aq)

Teachers note:
The iodine liberated complexes with iodide ions to form soluble triiodide ions (brown in colour).
I2(aq) + I-(aq) I3-(aq)
Usually only a yellow colour is observed as only a very small amount of iodine is liberated.
Activity 20.2 Comparing the action of nitric acid of different concentrations on magnesium and
copper (S / T) Extension

Observations
5
Reactions with nitric acid of different concentrations
Metal
Very dilute nitric acid Dilute nitric acid Concentrated nitric acid

A colourless gas is given

A colourless gas is
off ; it gives a pop
Magnesium given off ; it turns A brown gas is given off.
sound with a burning
brown in air.
splint.

A colourless gas is
Copper No observable change given off ; it turns A brown gas is given off.
brown in air.

Discussion
6 a) What is the gas given off when magnesium reacts with very dilute nitric acid?
Hydrogen
b) Is there any reaction between copper and very dilute nitric acid?
No
c) Does very dilute nitric acid react like a typical acid?
Yes

7 In the reaction between dilute nitric acid and magnesium / copper, colourless nitrogen monoxide (NO)
gas is given off.
When nitrogen monoxide gas mixes with air, it changes to brown nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas.
a) Oxidation number of nitrogen in NO3-= +5
Oxidation number of nitrogen in NO = +2
b) What is the change of the oxidation number of nitrogen in the reactions?
From +5 to +2
c) Does dilute nitric acid act as a typical acid or an oxidizing agent?
It acts as an oxidizing agent.

8 In the reaction between magnesium / copper and concentrated nitric acid, brown nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) gas is given off.
a) Oxidation number of nitrogen in NO3- = +5
Oxidation number of nitrogen in NO2 = +4
b) What is the change of the oxidation number of nitrogen in the reactions?
From +5 to +4
c) Does concentrated nitric acid act as a typical acid or an oxidizing agent?
It acts as an oxidizing agent.

Summary
9 Very dilute nitric acid acts as an ( acid / oxidizing agent ) when it reacts with metals high in the
reactivity series. Hydrogen gas is given off in the reactions.
10 Dilute nitric acid and concentrated nitric acid act as ( acids / oxidizing agents ) when they react
with
metals.
Question
11 Write an ionic equation for each of the following reactions.
Reaction between Ionic equation
Magnesium and very dilute nitric acid Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium and dilute nitric acid 3Mg(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq) 3Mg2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
Copper and dilute nitric acid 3Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq) 3Cu2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
Magnesium and concentrated nitric acid Mg(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Copper and concentrated nitric acid Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Unit 21 Electrolysis
Activity 21.1 Electrolysis of acidified water (T) Extension

Observations
7
Observations Test for gas What is the gas product?
The gas relights the glowing
At anode Gas bubbles are given off. Oxygen
splint.
The gas give a pop sound
At cathode Gas bubbles are given off. Hydrogen
with the burning splint.

Discussion
8 a) What kinds of ions are present in the acidified water?
Hydrogen ions, sulphate ions and hydroxide ions
b) What kind of ions is discharged at the anode during the electrolysis?
Hydroxide ions
c) What kind of ions is discharged at the cathode during the electrolysis?
Hydrogen ions

Summary
9 During the electrolysis of acidified water, hydroxide ions are discharged at the anode to form
oxygen gas ; hydrogen ions are discharged at the cathode to form hydrogen gas .

Questions
 10 a) Write an ionic half-equation to show what happens at the anode.
4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-
b) Write an ionic half-equation to show what happens at the cathode.
2H+(aq) + 2e- H2 (g)

11 Why is acidified water used in the activity instead of pure water?

Pure water ionizes slightly and is thus a very poor conductor of electricity. When dilute sulphuric
acid
is added, the resulting solution becomes a good conductor of electricity.

12 What happens to the concentration of the sulphuric acid after the electrolysis?
The concentration of the sulphuric acid increases.

13 Explain why carbon electrodes are NOT used in this activity.

Oxygen may react with carbon to give carbon dioxide. Besides, carbon electrodes will
disintegrate as
electrolysis goes on.

Teachers note:
When gases are collected in the arms of the voltameter, the acidified water is displaced and may
overflow from the top of the middle tube. To avoid that, use a dropper to suck the water away from time to
time.
Activity 21.2 Investigating factors affecting the order of discharge of ions during electrolysis
position of ions in the electrochemical series (S) Extension

Observations
11
At anode At cathode
Solution
Observations / test Product Observations / test Product

A gas which gives a pop

Very dilute sodium A gas which relights a
Oxygen sound with a burning Hydrogen
chloride solution glowing splint is given off.
splint is given off.

Very dilute A gas which gives a pop

A gas which relights a
potassium sulphate Oxygen sound with a burning Hydrogen
glowing splint is given off.
solution splint is given off.

Very dilute
A gas which relights a Reddish brown coating
copper(II) sulphate Oxygen Copper
glowing splint is given off. produced.
solution

Very dilute A gas which gives a pop

A gas which relights a
magnesium nitrate Oxygen sound with a burning Hydrogen
glowing splint is given off.
solution splint is given off.
Discussion
Order of discharge of cations
12 Consider the products formed at the cathode. Complete the following table.

Kinds of ions which move Product formed at

Solution
towards the cathode the cathode

Very dilute sodium chloride solution Sodium ions, hydrogen ions Hydrogen

Very dilute potassium sulphate solution Potassium ions, hydrogen ions Hydrogen

Very dilute copper(II) sulphate solution Copper(II) ions, hydrogen ions Copper

Very dilute magnesium nitrate solution Magnesium ions, hydrogen ions Hydrogen

13 a) What is the product formed at the cathode during the electrolysis of very dilute solutions of
sodium, potassium and magnesium salts?
Hydrogen
b) During the electrolysis of very dilute solutions of sodium, potassium and magnesium
salts, what
kind of ions is preferentially discharged at the cathode?
Hydrogen ions

c) Where are sodium, potassium and magnesium ions found in the electrochemical series when
compared with hydrogen ions?
The positions of the ions in the series are higher than that of hydrogen ions.
d) What is the product formed at the cathode during the electrolysis of very dilute
copper(II)
sulphate solution?
Copper
e) What kind of ions is preferentially discharged at the cathode during the electrolysis of
very dilute
copper(II) sulphate solution?
Copper(II) ions
f) Where are copper(II) ions found in the electrochemical series when compared with
hydrogen ions?
The position of copper(II) ions in the series are lower than that of hydrogen ions.

14 Write down a rule to predict the relation between the order of discharge of cations at the cathode
during electrolysis and their positions in the electrochemical series.
If the position of a cation in the electrochemical series is higher than that of the hydrogen ion, the
hydrogen ion is preferentially discharged. If the position of a cation in the electrochemical series is
 lower than that of the hydrogen ion, the cation is preferentially discharged.

Order of discharge of anions

15 Consider the products formed at the anode. Complete the following table.

Kinds of ions which move Product formed at

Solution
towards the anode the anode

Very dilute sodium chloride solution Chloride ions, hydroxide ions Oxygen

Very dilute potassium sulphate solution Sulphate ions, hydrogen ions Oxygen

Very dilute copper(II) sulphate solution Sulphate ions, hydrogen ions Oxygen

Very dilute magnesium nitrate solution Nitrate ions, hydrogen ions Oxygen

16 a) What is the product formed at the anode during the electrolysis of the solutions?
Oxygen
b) What kind of ions is preferentially discharged at the anode during the electrolysis of the
solutions?
Hydroxide ions

17 Write down a rule to predict the relation between the order of discharge of anions at the
anode during
electrolysis and their positions in the electrochemical series.
Anions with positions higher in the electrochemical series are preferentially discharged.

Summary
18 a) i) Cations at higher positions of the electrochemical series than hydrogen ions ( gain / lose )
electrons ( more / less ) readily than hydrogen ions. During the electrolysis of very dilute
solutions containing salts of these cations, hydrogen ions are preferentially discharged.
ii) Cations at lower positions of the electrochemical series than hydrogen ions
( gain / lose )
electrons ( more / less ) readily than hydrogen ions. During the electrolysis of very dilute
solutions of salts containing these cations, these cations are preferentially discharged.
b) Anions at lower positions of the electrochemical series than hydroxide ions ( gain /
lose )
electrons ( more / less ) readily than hydroxide ions. During the electrolysis of very dilute
solutions of salts containing these anions, hydroxide ions are preferentially discharged.
 Questions
19 Why are carbon electrodes used in electrolysis?
Carbon electrodes are inert.

20 Write ionic half-equations to show what happen at the anode and cathode during electrolysis.

Ionic half-equation to show what Ionic half-equation to show

Solution
happens at the anode what happens at the cathode

Very dilute sodium chloride

4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- 2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)
solution
Very dilute copper(II)
4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
sulphate solution

Teachers note:
The teacher may assign different groups to electrolyse different solutions. Results from different groups of
students can be pooled together for discussion.

Activity 21.3 Investigating factors affecting the order of discharge of ions during electrolysis
effect of concentration of ions in the solution (S) Extension

Observations
7
At anode At cathode
Colour of
universal
Ions
Solution indicator
present Observations / test Product Observations / test Product around each
electrode

Na+ Cl-
Very The gas relights a Oxygen The gas gives a Hydrogen Red around
 dilute
the anode ;
sodium pop sound with a
H+ OH- glowing splint. blue around
chloride burning splint.
the cathode
solution

Colourless
Dilute The gas turns blue
+
Na Cl - The gas gives a around the
sodium litmus paper red
Chlorine pop sound with a Hydrogen anode ; blue
chloride H+ OH- and then bleaches
burning splint. around the
solution it.
cathode

Discussion
8 a) During the electrolysis of very dilute sodium chloride solution and dilute sodium chloride
solution, what kinds of ions move towards the anode?
Chloride ions and hydroxide ions
b) During the electrolysis of very dilute sodium chloride solution, what kind of ions is
preferentially
discharged at the anode?
Hydroxide ions
c) During the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution, what kind of ions is
preferentially
discharged at the anode?
Chloride ions

9 Write down a rule to predict the relation between the order of discharge of ions during electrolysis and
the concentration of ions.
An ion of higher concentration is preferentially discharged.

Summary
10 a) During the electrolysis of sodium chloride solutions, two anode products are possible. These
are
oxygen and chlorine .
b) The factor which decides the kind of ions that is preferentially discharged is
concentration .

11 a) When sodium chloride solution is very dilute, hydroxide ions are preferentially discharged.
b) When the sodium chloride solution is more concentrated, chloride ions are preferentially
discharged.
 Questions
12 a) In the electrolysis of very dilute sodium chloride solution, what is the colour of the
universal
indicator around each electrode?
Red around the anode; blue around the cathode
b) Explain the observations in (a).
Water ionizes continuously to replace the hydroxide ions discharged at the anode. Thus
there is an
excess of hydrogen ions near the anode. The solution there becomes acidic. Water ionizes
continuously to replace the hydrogen ions discharged at the cathode. Thus there is an excess of
hydroxide ions near the cathode. The solution there becomes alkaline.

13 a) In the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution, what is the colour of the universal
indicator
around each electrode?
Colourless around the anode; blue around the cathode
b) Explain the observations in (a).
Chloride ions are discharged at the anode. Some of the chlorine gas given off dissolves
in the
solution near the anode. The solution there thus has a bleaching effect and bleaches the universal
indicator near the anode. Water ionizes continuously to replace the hydrogen ions discharged at
the cathode. Thus there is an excess of hydroxide ions near the cathode. The solution there
becomes alkaline.

Teachers note:
The teacher may assign different groups to electrolyse different solutions.

Activity 21.4 Investigating factors affecting the order of discharge of ions during electrolysis
effect of the nature of the electrodes (S) Extension

Observations
7
At anode At cathode
Process
Observations Product Observations Product
Electrolysing
copper(II) sulphate Colourless gas A reddish brown solid
Oxygen Copper
solution using bubbles are given off. deposits on the cathode.
carbon electrodes
Electrolysing
copper(II) sulphate The anodes dissolves A reddish brown solid
Copper(II) ions Copper
solution using gradually. deposits on the cathode.
copper electrodes
Summary
8 a) During the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution using carbon electrodes:
i) Hydroxide ions discharge at the anode to give oxygen gas.
ii) Copper(II) ions discharge at the cathode to give a deposit of copper metal on the
cathode.
b) During the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution using copper electrodes:
i) Copper metal leaves the anode to give copper(II) ions.
ii) Copper(II) ions discharge at the cathode to give a deposit of copper metal
on the
cathode.

Questions
9 For the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution using carbon electrodes:
a) Write an ionic half-equation to show what happens at the anode.
4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-
b) Write an ionic half-equation to show what happens at the cathode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
c) Has the colour of the solution changed? Explain your observations.
The blue colour of the solution fades out because the concentration of copper(II)
ions decreases.

10For the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution using copper electrodes:

a) Write an ionic half-equation to show what happens at the anode.
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
b) Write an ionic half-equation to show what happens at the cathode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
c) Has the colour of the solution changed? Explain your observations.
The blue colour of the solution does not change. The rate at which copper deposits on the
cathode
is equal to the rate at which the copper anode dissolves. The concentration of copper(II)
ions in the electrolyte remains the same.

Teachers note:
1 Students need to note if there is any change in the colour of each solution after electrolysis. Give them
a beaker of the original copper(II) sulphate solution for easy comparison.
2 Remove the copper deposit on carbon electrodes by rubbing with sandpaper or by soaking in
dilute
HCl for 23 hours.
Activity 21.5 Electroplating with nickel (S) Extension

Procedure
2 In the space provided, put down
a) the step-by-step procedure; and
b) any additional safety precautions.
You are encouraged to use diagrams.
Students may follow the procedure listed below:
1 Use sandpaper to clean the copper object to be plated (for example, a key).
2 Using tongs, dip the copper object into a beaker of detergent solution. The detergent solution removes
any grease from the object.
3 a) Rinse the object with distilled water.
b) Rest it on a paper towel. Do not touch the surface of the object with fingers.
4 Set up the apparatus as shown below, making the copper object the cathode and a piece of nickel the
anode.

5 a) Adjust the power supply so that the lamp is well lit.

b) Allow the current to flow for 10 minutes.
6 Switch off the power supply.
7 Remove the copper object with a pair of tongs and rinse it with distilled water.
8 Leave it to dry on a paper towel.

Observations
4 Record your observations.
The nickel anode dissolves gradually. The copper object becomes silvery in appearance.

Summary
7 Summarize your findings.
When an object is to be electroplated, it is made the cathode of the electrolytic cell. The plating metal is
made the anode.

Questions
8 a) Write an ionic half-equation to show what happens at each electrode.
Anode: Ni(s) Ni2+(aq) + 2e-
Cathode: Ni2+(aq) + 2e- Ni(s)
b) How is the reaction different from that occurs when a carbon electrode is used?
Hydroxide ions will be discharged.

9 Suppose you need to electroplate silver onto a copper object. Suggest the electroplating solution
and
electrodes you would use.
Electroplating solution: dilute aqueous solution of a silver salt
Anode: silver metal
Cathode: copper object

Teachers note:
1 It is advisable to arrange a session for discussion and planning one week before the experimental
session. Students should submit their plans in advance so that the teacher has sufficient time for
comment and approval. The laboratory technician can prepare the necessary materials as well.
2 Composition of the nickel plating solution:
NiSO47H2O (280 g dm-3)
NiCl26H2O (45 g dm-3)
H3BO3 (30 g dm-3)
MgSO47H2O (30 g dm-3)
3 Nickel(II) chloride or sodium chloride can be used to increase the conductivity of the solution and
facilitate the dissolution of the anode.
4 Magnesium sulphate improves the conductivity of the solution, and helps to produce an even
deposit
of nickel on the cathode.
5 In order to obtain a smooth and bright deposit, additives known as brighteners and leveling agents
are
added to the electroplating bath, e.g. coumarin, thiourea and saccharin in nickel plating industry.
6 To obtain good results in electroplating experiments performed in the laboratory, the
electroplating
solutions should be prepared from reagent grade chemicals and distilled water. Filter the solution to
eliminate any insoluble particulate impurities. Carry out a dummy plating to remove metal ions other
than the one deposited, at a current density lower than 0.05 A cm-2 for a few minutes.
7 In nickel plating, the pH value of the electroplating solution can be adjusted by adding 10%
sulphuric
acid or nickel(II) carbonate. (The pH value of the solution should be monitored accurately with a pH
meter.)
 8 Stirring of the solution and moving the cathode during electroplating can produce a better deposit.
9 The teacher may also ask students to submit laboratory reports in groups. The report may include
the
following items:
Title Discussion
Procedure Safety precautions
Purpose Conclusion
Observations
Apparatus and chemicals
(see sample report on pages 131-134.)
Sample Report
Activity 13.2 Studying the role of water in exhibiting acidic properties of citric acid (S)

Purpose
To study the role of water in exhibiting acidic properties of citric acid. To do this, investigate whether solid
citric acid and its aqueous solution show the following characteristic acidic properties:
react with metal to give hydrogen;
react with carbonate to give carbon dioxide.

Apparatus and chemicals

5 dry test tubes in rack with stoppers
Test tube stopper fitted with delivery tube
Spatula
Distilled water
Matches / gas lighter
Solid citric acid
Magnesium ribbons (2 cm long)
Sodium carbonate solid
Limewater
Wooden splints

Safety precautions
1 Wear safety glasses.
2 Do not touch chemicals with bare hands.
3 Beware of cuts caused by sharp edges of magnesium ribbons when cleaning them with sandpaper.
4 Put used magnesium and other chemicals into special containers as instructed by teacher.

Procedure
1 Some citric acid solids were put into each of four dry test tubes.
2 5 cm3 of distilled water were added to two of the tubes separately.
A Reaction with magnesium
3 The magnesium ribbons were cleaned with sandpaper before use.
4 a) A piece of magnesium ribbon was added to the solid citric acid.
b) An inverted stopper was put over the open end of the tube immediately.
c) A burning splint was used to test for any gas given off. All observations were recorded.
5 a) A piece of magnesium ribbon was added to the aqueous citric acid.
b) An inverted stopped was put over the open end of the tube immediately.
c) A burning splint was used to test for any gas given off. All observations were recorded.

B Reaction with sodium carbonate

6 a) A spatula measure of sodium carbonate was added to the solid citric acid.
b) Limewater was used to test for any gas given off.
c) All observations were recorded.
7 a) A spatula measure of sodium carbonate was added to the aqueous citric acid.
b) Limewater was used to test for any gas given off.
c) All observations were recorded.
Observations
A Reaction with magnesium
Reaction with magnesium Observations
Solid citric acid No observable change

Gas bubbles evolved ; the gas gave a

Aqueous citric acid
pop sound with a burning splint

B Reaction with sodium carbonate

Reaction with sodium carbonate Observations
Solid citric acid No observable change

Gas bubbles evolved ; the gas turned

Aqueous citric acid
limewater milky

Discussion
1 Aqueous citric acid reacts with magnesium to give hydrogen while solid citric acid does not.
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
2 Aqueous citric acid reacts with sodium carbonate to give carbon dioxide while solid citric acid does
not.
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
3 Aqueous citric acid shows the typical properties of an acid. However solid citric acid does not show
these properties.
4 When solid citric acid dissolves in water, the molecules ionize to give hydrogen ions H+(aq).
Hydrogen
ions are responsible for all the acidic properties.

Conclusion
Water must be present for an acid to show its acidic properties.