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Chapter 6
Solutions
Denniston
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6th Edition
6.1 Properties of Solutions
Solution - homogeneous mixture
Solute - the substance in the mixture present
in lesser quantity
Solvent - the substance present in the largest
quantity
Aqueous solution - solution where the
solvent is water
Solutions can be liquids as well as solids and
gases
6.1 Properties of Solutions Examples of Solutions
amount of solution
Express concentration as a percentage by
multiplying ratio by 100% = weight/volume
percent or % (W/V)
W grams of solute
% = 100%
V milliliters of solution
6.2 Concentration Based on Calculating Weight/Volume
Percent
Calculate the percent composition or % (W/V) of
2.00 x 102 mL containing 20.0 g sodium chloride
Mass
W grams of solute
% = 100%
V milliliters of solution
moles solute
M=
L solution
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity from Moles
Calculate the molarity of 2.0 L of solution
containing 5.0 mol NaOH
Use the equation moles solute
M=
L solution
Substitute into the equation:
MNaOH = 5.0 mol solute
2.0 L solution
= 2.5 M
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Molarity From Mass
If 5.00 g glucose are dissolved in 1.00 x 102 mL of
solution, calculate molarity, M, of the glucose solution
Convert from g glucose to moles glucose
Molar mass of glucose = 1.80 x 102 g/mol
5.00 g x 1 mol / 1.80 x 102 g = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
Convert volume from mL to L
1.00 x 102 mL x 1 L / 103 mL = 1.00 x 10-1 L
Substitute into the equation: moles solute
M=
L solution
Mglucose = 2.78 x 10-2 mol glucose
1.00 x 10-1 L solution
= 2.78 x 10-1 M
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
Dilution is required to prepare a less
concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one
M1 = molarity of solution before dilution
M2 = molarity of solution after dilution
V1 = volume of solution before dilution
V2 = volume of solution after dilution
moles solute
M= moles solute = (M)(L solution)
L solution
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Dilution
In a dilution will the
number of moles of solute
change?
No, only fewer per unit
volume
Equivalents of PO43-?
1 mol PO43- = 3 equivalents of PO43-
6.3 Moles and Equivalents Calculating Ion Concentration
Calculate eq/L of phosphate ion, PO43- in a
solution with 5.0 x 10-3 M phosphate
Need to use two conversion factors:
mol PO43- mol charge
mol charge eq PO43
5.0 x 10-3 mol PO43- x 3 mol charge x 1 eq
1L 1 mol PO43- 1mol charge
1.5 x 10-2 eq PO43- /L
6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Solution Properties
Colligative properties - properties of
solutions that depend on the concentration
of the solute particles, rather than the
identity of the solute
Four colligative properties of solutions
1. vapor pressure lowering
2. boiling point elevation
3. freezing point depression
4. osmotic pressure
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure of a Liquid
Consider Raoults law in molecular
Solution Properties
terms
Vapor pressure of a solution
results from escape of solvent
molecules from liquid to gas
phase
Partial pressure of gas phase
solvent molecules increases
until equilibrium vapor
pressure is reached
Presence of solute molecules
hinders escape of solvent
molecules, lowering
equilibrium vapor pressure
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Vapor Pressure Lowering
Raoults law - when a nonvolatile solute is added
Solution Properties
to a solvent, vapor pressure of the solvent
decreases in proportion to the concentration of
the solute
Solute molecules (red below) serve as a barrier to
the escape of solvent molecules resulting in a
decrease in the vapor pressure
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression and
Solution Properties Boiling Point Elevation
Freezing point depression may be explained
considering the equilibrium between solid and
liquid states
Solute molecules interfere with the rate at which
liquid water molecules associate to form the solid
state
Boiling point elevation can be explained
considering the definition as the temperature at
which vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure
If a solute is present, then the increase in boiling
temperature is necessary to raise the vapor pressure
to atmospheric temperature
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Freezing Point Depression
Freezing point depression (DTf) - is proportional
Solution Properties
to the number of solute particles
Solute particles, not just solute
How does an electrolyte behave?
Dissociate into ions
An equal concentration of NaCl will affect the
freezing point twice as much as glucose (a
nonelectrolyte)
Each solvent has a unique freezing point
depression constant or proportionality factor
DTf=kf m
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Boiling Point Elevation
Boiling point elevation (DTb) - is
Solution Properties
proportional to the number of solute
particles
An electrolyte will affect boiling point to
a greater degree than a nonelectrolyte of
the same concentration
Each solvent has a unique boiling point
elevation constant
DTb=kb m
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Molality
Solute concentration is expressed in
Solution Properties
mole-based units
Number of particles is critical, not the mass
of solute
Molality (m) = moles of solute per kg of
solvent
The denominator is in kg solvent, not in kg
solution
moles solute
Molality =
kg solvent
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
Some types of membranes appear impervious
Solution Properties
to matter, but actually have a network of small
holes called pores
These pores may be large enough to permit
small solvent molecules to move from one side
of the membrane to the other
Solute molecules cannot cross the membrane as
they are too large
Semipermeable membrane - allows
solvent but not solute to diffuse from one side
to another
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
Solution Properties
Osmosis - the
movement of
solvent from a
dilute solution to a
more concentrated
solution through a
semipermeable
membrane
Requires pressure
to stop this flow
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Osmotic Pressure
Solution Properties
Osmotic pressure () - the amount of
pressure required to stop the flow across
a semipermeable membrane
=MRT
Osmolarity - the molarity of particles in
solution
Osmol, used for osmotic pressure
calculation
6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Calculating Osmolarity
Solution Properties
Calculate the osmolarity of 5.0 x 10-3 M Na3PO4
Na3PO4 is an ionic compound forming electrolytes
1 mol Na3PO4 yields 4 product ions
[5.0 x 10-3 mol Na3PO4 / L] x 4 mol particles
1 mol Na3PO4
= 2.0 x 10-2 mol particles / L
2.0 x 10-2 mol particles / L = 2.0 x 102 osmol
6.4 Concentration-Dependent
Calculating Osmotic Pressure
Solution Properties
Calculate the osmotic pressure of a 5.0 x 10-2 M
solution of NaCl at 25C (298 K)
Definition of osmotic pressure, =MRT
M is osmolarity =
[5.0 x 10-2 mol NaCl / L] x 2 mol particles
1 mol NaCl
= 1.0 x 10-1 mol particles / L
Substitute into osmotic pressure equation:
= 1.0 x 10-1 mol particles x 0.0821 L x atm x 298K
Liter K x mol
= 2.4 atm
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Tonicity and the Cell
Living cells contain aqueous solution and these cells are
Solution Properties
also surrounded by aqueous solution
Cell function requires maintenance of the same osmotic
pressure inside and outside the cell
Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells higher
than inside results in a hypertonic solution causing
water to flow into the surroundings, causing collapse =
crenation
Solute concentration of fluid surrounding cells too low,
results in a hypotonic solution causing water to flow
into the cell, causing rupture = hemolysis
Isotonic solutions have identical osmotic pressures and
no osmotic pressure difference across the cell
membrane
6.4 Concentration-Dependent Tonicity and the Cell
Solution Properties
Blood Cells
- K+ too low:
- Death by heart failure
Fluids
Chapter 7
Energy, Rate, and Equilibrium
Denniston
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7.1 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics the study of energy,
work, and heat
applied to chemical change
Calculate the quantity of heat obtained from
combustions of one gallon of fuel oil
applied to physical change
Determine the energy released by boiling water
The laws of thermodynamics help us to
understand why some chemical reactions
occur and others do not
7.1 Thermodynamics The Chemical Reaction and Energy
Basic Concepts from Kinetic Molecular
Theory
Molecules and atoms in a reaction mixture are
in constant, random motion
Molecules and atoms frequently collide with
each other
Only some collisions, those with sufficient
energy, will break bonds in molecules
When reactant bonds are broken, new bonds
may be formed and products result
Change in Energy and
Surroundings
7.1 Thermodynamics
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + 211 kcal
Endothermic Reaction
Decomposition
22 kcal + 2NH3(g)
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
7.1 Thermodynamics Enthalpy
Enthalpy represents heat energy
Change in Enthalpy (DHo) energy difference
between the products and reactants of a chemical
reaction
Energy released, exothermic reaction, enthalpy
change is negative
In the combustion of CH4, DHo = -211 kcal
Energy absorbed, endothermic, enthalpy change is
positive.
In the decomposition of NH3, DHo=+22 kcal
Spontaneous and
Nonspontaneous Reactions
7.1 Thermodynamics
DSo is positive
DSo is negative
Spontaneous and
Nonspontaneous Reactions
7.1 Thermodynamics
Phase change
Melting
Vaporization
Dissolution
He(g) or Na(s)
H2O(l) or H2O(g)
7.1 Thermodynamics Free Energy
Free energy (DGo) represents the
combined contribution of the enthalpy and
entropy values for a chemical reaction
Free energy predicts spontaneity of
chemical reactions DGo = DHo - TDSo
Negative DGoAlways Spontaneous
Positive DGoNever Spontaneous T in Kelvin
Free Energy and Reaction
Spontaneity
7.1 Thermodynamics
Q = ms Ts SH s
7.2 Determination of Energy
Change in Reactions Heat Energy in Reactions
Specific heat of the solution along with the total
number of g solution and the temperature
change permits calculation of heat released or
absorbed during the reaction
S.H. for water is 1.0 cal/goC
To determine heat released or absorbed, need:
specific heat
total number of grams of solution
temperature change (increase or decrease)
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculation of Heat Energy in
Change in Reactions Reactions
Q is the product
ms is the mass of solution in the calorimeter
DTs is the change in temperature of the solution from
initial to final state
SHs is the specific heat of the solution
Calculate with this equation
Q = ms Ts SH s
Units are: calories = gram x C x calories/gram - C
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculating Energy Involved in
Change in Reactions Calorimeter Reactions
If 0.10 mol HCl is mixed with 0.10 mol KOH in a
coffee cup calorimeter, the temperature of 1.50 x
102 g of the solution increases from 25.0oC to
29.4oC. If the specific heat of the solution is 1.00
cal/goC, calculate the quantity of energy evolved in
the reaction
DTs = 29.4oC - 25.0oC = 4.4oC
Q = ms x DTs x SHs
= 1.50 x 102 g solution x 4.4oC x 1.00 cal/goC
= 6.6 x 102 cal
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculating Energy Involved in
Change in Reactions Calorimeter Reactions
Is the reaction endothermic or exothermic
0.66 kcal of heat energy was released to the
surroundings, the solution
The reaction is exothermic
What would be the energy evolved for
each mole of HCl reacted?
0.10 mol HCl used in the original reaction
[6.6 x 102 cal / 0.10 mol HCl] x 10 = 6.6 kcal
7.2 Determination of Energy Bomb Calorimeter and
Change in Reactions Measurement of Calories in Foods
Nutritional Calorie
(large C Calorie) =
1 kilocalorie (1kcal)
1000 calories
the fuel value of
food
Bomb Calorimeter
is used to measure
nutritional Calories
7.2 Determination of Energy Calculating the Fuel Value of
Change in Reactions Foods
1 g of glucose was burned in a bomb calorimeter. 1.25 x
103 g H2O was warmed from 24.5oC to 31.5oC.
Calculate the fuel value of the glucose (in Kcal/g).
DTs = 31.5oC - 24.5oC = 6.1oC
Surroundings of calorimeter is water with specific heat
capacity = 1.00 cal/g H2O oC
Fuel Value = Q = ms Ts SH s
= 1.25 x 103 g H2O x 6.1oC x 1.00 cal/g H2O oC
= 7.6 x 103 cal
7.6 x 103 cal x 1 Calorie / 103 cal = 7.6 nutritional
Calories
7.3 Kinetics
Thermodynamics determines if a reaction
will occur spontaneously but tells us
nothing about the amount of time the
reaction will take
Kinetics the study of the rate (or speed) of
chemical reactions
Also supplies an indication of the mechanism
step-by-step description of how reactants
become products
Kinetic Information
Kinetic information represents changes over
time, seen here:
7.3 Kinetics
disappearance of reactant, A
appearance of product, B
Alternative Presentation of
Kinetic Data
Rather than the graph shown before, this figure
7.3 Kinetics
endothermic reaction
Reaction takes place
slowly due to the large
activation energy
required
The energy of the
products is greater than
that of the reactants
Factors That Affect Reaction
Rate
7.3 Kinetics
N2+3H2 2NH3
7.3 Kinetics
rate = k[N 2 O 5 ]
Rate Equation
rate = k[A]n
This is called the rate equation (or rate law)
The exponent n is the order of the reaction
If n=1, first order
If n=2, second order
n must be determined experimentally
This exponent is not the same as the coefficient of the
reactant in the balanced equation
Rate Equation
For the equation A + B products
the rate equation is:
7.3 Kinetics
rate = k[A]n[B]m
What would be the general form of the
rate equation for the reaction:
CH4+2O2CO2+2H2O
Rate = k[CH4]n[O2]m
Knowing the rate equation and the order
helps industrial chemists determine the
optimum conditions for preparing a
product
Writing Rate Equations
Write the form of the rate equation for the
oxidation of ethanol (C2H5OH)
7.3 Kinetics
reaction is rapid
Reactant concentrations are
high
Product concentration
negligible
Forward reaction rate
decreases with time
Concentrations of reactants
are decreasing
Product concentration
increasing
Equilibrium occurs when the rate of reactant depletion is
equal to the rate of product depletion
Rates of forward and reverse reactions are Equal
Chemical Equilibrium
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
7.4 Equilibrium
k r [N 2 ]n [H 2 ]m
The exponents in the rate expression are
numerically equal to the coefficients
[NH 3 ]2
K eq =
[N 2 ][H 2 ]3
Keq is a constant at constant temperature
The Generalized Equilibrium-
Constant Expression for a Chemical
Reaction
7.4 Equilibrium
aA + bB cC + dD
A and B are reactants
C and D are products
a, b, c, and d are the coefficients of the
balanced equation
[C]c [D]d
K eq = a b
[A] [B]
Writing Equilibrium-Constant
Expressions
Equilibrium constant expressions can only be
7.4 Equilibrium
reactant
39 kcal + 2N2(g) + O2(g) 2NH3(g)
This reaction shift will shift to the right if heat
is added by increasing the temperature
Effect of Pressure
Pressure affects the equilibrium only if one
7.4 Equilibrium
Chapter 8
Acids and Bases and Oxidation-
Reduction
Denniston
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8.1 Acids and Bases
Acids: Taste sour, dissolve some metals,
cause plant dye to change color
Bases: Taste bitter, are slippery, are
corrosive
Two theories that help us to understand
the chemistry of acids and bases
1. Arrhenius Theory
2. Brnsted-Lowry Theory
Arrhenius Theory of Acids and
Bases
8.1 Acids and Bases
Pyridine:
C5H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) C5H5NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Aniline:
C6H5NH2(aq) + H2O(l) C6H5NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)
8.1 Acids and Bases Conjugate Acids and Bases
The acid base reaction can be written in
the general form:
HA + B A- + HB+
acid base
Notice the reversible arrows
The products are also an acid and base
called the conjugate acid and base
8.1 Acids and Bases
HA + B A- + HB+
acid base base acid
Conjugate Acid what the base
becomes after it accepts a proton.
Conjugate Base what the acid
becomes after it donates its proton
Conjugate Acid-Base Pair the acid and
base on the opposite sides of the
equation
8.1 Acids and Bases Acid-Base Dissociation
HA + B A- + HB+
The reversible arrow isnt always written
Some acids or bases essentially dissociate 100%
One way arrow is used
HCl + H2O Cl- + H3O+
All of the HCl is converted to Cl-
HCl is called a strong acid an acid that
dissociates 100%
Weak acid - one which does not dissociate
100%
8.1 Acids and Bases Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
Which acid is
stronger:
HF or HCN? HF
Which base is
stronger:
CN- or H2O? CN -
8.1 Acids and Bases Acid-Base Practice
Write the chemical reaction for the following acids
or bases in water.
Identify the conjugate acid base pairs.
1. HF (a weak acid)
2. H2S (a weak acid)
3. HNO3 (a strong acid)
4. CH3NH2 (a weak base)
Note: The degree of dissociation also defines weak
and strong bases
8.1 Acids and Bases The Dissociation of Water
Pure water is virtually 100% molecular
Very small number of molecules dissociate
Dissociation of acids and bases is often called
ionization
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Called autoionization
Very weak electrolyte
8.1 Acids and Bases Hydronium Ion
H3O+ is called the hydronium ion
In pure water at room temperature:
[H3O+] = 1 x 10-7 M
[OH-] = 1 x 10-7 M
What is the equilibrium expression for:
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
+
K eq = [H 3O ][OH ] -
1 x 10-14 = [H3O+][OH-]
Calculating pH from Acid
Scale for Acids and Bases
8.2 pH: A Measurement
Molarity
What is the pH of a 1.0 x 10-4 M HCl solution?
HCl is a strong acid and dissociates in water
If 1 mol HCl is placed in 1 L of aqueous
solution it produces 1 mol [H3O+]
1.0 x 10-4 M HCl solution has [H3O+]=1.0x10-4M
pH = -log[H3O+]
= -log [H3O+]
= -log [1.0x10-4]
= -[-4.00] = 4.00
Calculating [H3O+] from pH
Scale for Acids and Bases
8.2 pH: A Measurement
What is the [H3O+] of a solution with pH = 6.00?
pH = -log[H3O+]
4.00 = -log [H3O+]
Multiply both sides of equation by 1
-4.00 = log [H3O+]
Take the antilog of both sides
Antilog 4.00 = [H3O+]
Antilog is the exponent of 10
1.0 x 10-4 M = [H3O+]
Calculating the pH of a Base
Scale for Acids and Bases
8.2 pH: A Measurement
What is the pH of a 1.0 x 10-3 M KOH solution?
KOH is a strong base (as are any metal hydroxides)
1 mol KOH dissolved and dissociated in aqueous
solution produces 1 mol OH-
1.0 x 10-3 M KOH solution has [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-3 M
1 x 10-14 = [H3O+][OH-]
Solve equation for [H3O+] = 1 x 10-14 / [OH-]
[H3O+] = 1 x 10-14 / 1.0 x 10-3 = 1 x 10-11
pH = -log [1 x 10-11]
= 11.00 pH = -log[H3O+]
Calculating pH from Acid
Scale for Acids and Bases
8.2 pH: A Measurement
Molarity
What is the pH of a 2.5 x 10-4 M HNO3 solution?
We know that as a strong acid HNO3
dissociates to produce 2.5 x 10-4 M [H3O+]
pH = -log[H3O+]
pH = -log [2.5 x 10-4]
= 3.60
Scale for Acids and Bases
Calculating [OH-] from pH
8.2 pH: A Measurement
More basic
1.0 x 10-2 2.00 1.0 x 10-2 12.00
1.0 x 10-3 3.00 1.0 x 10-3 11.00
1.0 x 10-4 4.00 1.0 x 10-4 10.00
1.0 x 10-5 5.00 1.0 x 10-5 9.00
1.0 x 10-6 6.00 1.0 x 10-6 8.00
1.0 x 10-7 7.00 1.0 x 10-7 7.00
Flask contains a
solution of unknown
concentration plus
indicator
8.3 Reactions Between Relationship Between pH and
Acids and Bases Color in Acid-Base Indicators
Determine the Concentration of a
8.3 Reactions Between
Acids and Bases Solution of Hydrochloric Acid
Place a known volume of acid whose concentration
is not known into a flask
Add an indicator, experience guides selection, here
phenol red is good
Known concentration of NaOH is placed in a buret
Drip NaOH into the flask until the indicator
changes color
8.3 Reactions Between Determine the Concentration of a
Acids and Bases Solution of Hydrochloric Acid
Indicator changes color
equivalence point is reached
Mol OH- = Mol H3O+ present in the unknown acid
Volume dispensed from buret is determined
Calculate acid concentration:
Volume of Hydrochloric Acid: 25.00 mL
Volume of NaOH added: 35.00 mL
Concentration of NaOH: 0.1000 M
Balanced reaction shows that HCl and NaOH react 1:1
8.3 Reactions Between Determine the Concentration of a
Acids and Bases Solution of Hydrochloric Acid
35.00 mL NaOH x 1L NaOH x 0.1000 mol NaOH
103 mL NaOH 1L NaOH
= 3.500 x 10-3 mol NaOH
3.500 x 10-3 mol NaOH x 1 mol HCl
1 mol NaOH
= 3.500 x 10-3 mol HCl
this amount of HCl is contained in 25.00 mL
3.500 x 10-3 mol HCl x 103 mL HCl
25.00 mL HCl 1 L HCl
= 1.400 x 10-1 mol HCl / L HCl = 0.1400 M HCl
8.3 Reactions Between Determine the Concentration of a
Acids and Bases Solution of Hydrochloric Acid
Alternative strategy to solve the acid concentration
(Macid)(Vacid) = (Mbase)(Vbase)
(Macid) = (Mbase)(Vbase)
(Vacid)
(Macid) = (0.1000 M) (35.00 mL)
(25.00 mL)
= 0.1400 M HCl
8.3 Reactions Between Calculating the Concentration of
Acids and Bases Sodium Hydroxide
Calculate [NaOH] if 25.00 mL of this solution were
required to neutralized 45.00 mL of 0.3000 M HCl
Alternative strategy to solve the acid concentration
(Macid)(Vacid) = (Mbase)(Vbase)
(Mbase) = (Macid)(Vacid)
(Vbase)
gain of electrons
gain of hydrogen
loss of oxygen
Example: Cl + e- Cl-
Reduction half reaction
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl-
Oxidizing Agent Reducing Agent
Is reduced Is oxidized
Gains electrons Loses electrons
Causes oxidation Causes reduction
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Applications of Oxidation and
Reduction
Corrosion - the deterioration of metals
caused by an oxidation-reduction
Processes
process
Example: rust (oxidation of iron)
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Combustion of Fossil Fuels
Example: natural gas furnaces
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Applications of Oxidation and
Reduction
Bleaching
Processes
Respiration
Processes
electrical energy
Lets consider the following reaction:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Is Zn oxidized or reduced?
Oxidized
Copper is reduced
Voltaic Cells
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
Zn Zn2+ + 2e- Reduction
Oxidation cathode electrode where
anode electrode reduction occurs
where oxidation occurs
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction Voltaic Cell Generating
Processes Electrical Current
Silver Battery
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction
Smaller
Safer
More dependable
Electrolysis
8.5 Oxidation-Reduction
Chapter 9
The Nucleus, Radioactivity and
Nuclear Medicine
Denniston
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9.1 Natural Radioactivity
Radioactivity process by which atoms
emit energetic particles or rays
Radiation the particles or rays emitted
comes from the nucleus
Nuclear symbols what we use to designate
the nucleus
Atomic symbol
Atomic number
Mass number
9.1 Natural Radioactivity
Nuclear Symbols
mass number
11
number of
protons and
neutrons
5 B
atomic symbol
atomic number
number of protons
Writing Nuclear Symbols
9.1 Natural Radioactivity
11
5 B
This defines an isotope of boron
In nuclear chemistry often called a
nuclide
This is not the only isotope of boron
boron-10 also exists
How many protons and neutrons does
boron-10 have?
5 protons, 5 neutrons
9.1 Natural Radioactivity
Three Isotopes of Carbon
Each nucleus contains the same number of protons
Only the number of neutrons is different
With different numbers of neutrons the mass of
each isotope is different
9.1 Natural Radioactivity
Unstable Isotopes
Some isotopes are stable
The unstable isotopes are the ones that produce
radioactivity
To write nuclear equations we need to be able to
write the symbols for the isotopes and the
following:
alpha particle
beta particles
gamma rays
9.1 Natural Radioactivity
Alpha Particles
0
1 e 0
-1
9.1 Natural Radioactivity
Gamma Rays
g
9.1 Natural Radioactivity Properties of Alpha, Beta, and
Gamma Radiation
Ionizing radiation produces a trail of ions
throughout the material that it penetrates
The penetrating power of the radiation
determines the ionizing damage that can
be caused
Alpha particle < beta particle < gamma rays
9.2 Writing a Balanced Nuclear
Equation
Nuclear equation used to represent
nuclear change
In a nuclear equation, you do not balance
the elements, instead...
the total mass on each side of the reaction
arrow must be identical
the sum of the atomic numbers on each side of
the reaction arrow must be identical
9.2 Writing a Balanced Alpha Decay
U Th + He
Nuclear Equations
238 234 4
92 90 2
238 = 234 + 4
mass number
92 = 90 + 2
atomic number
Beta Decay
9.2 Writing a Balanced
Nuclear Equations
Upon decomposition, nitrogen-16
produces oxygen-16 and a beta particle
In beta decay, one neutron in nitrogen-
16 is converted to a proton and the
electron, the beta particle is released
16
7 N O + e
16
8
0
-1
Positron Emission
9.2 Writing a Balanced
Nuclear Equations
A positron has same mass as an electron, or beta
particle, BUT opposite charge (+)
Unlike beta decay, the product nuclide has the
same mass number as the parent BUT the
atomic number has decreased by one
11
6 C B+ e
11
5
0
1
11
6 C B+
11
5
0
1
Gamma Production
9.2 Writing a Balanced
Nuclear Equations
Gamma radiation occurs to increase the
stability of an isotope
The energetically unstable isotope is called a
metastable isotope
The atomic mass and number do not
change
Usually gamma rays are emitted along
with alpha or beta particles
99 m
Tc
43
99
43Tc +
9.2 Writing a Balanced Predicting Products of Nuclear
Nuclear Equations Decay
To predict the product, simply remember
that the mass number and atomic number
are conserved
239
92 UX+ e 0
-1
99
42 Mo 99m
43 Tc + e
0
-1
9.6 Biological Effects of
Radiation
Radiation Exposure and Safety
The Magnitude of the Half-Life
Isotopes with short half-lives have one major
disadvantage and one major advantage
Disadvantage: larger amount of radioactivity per
unit time
Advantage: if accident occurs, reaches
background radiation levels more rapidly
9.6 Biological Effects of Radiation Exposure and Safety
Shielding
Alpha and beta particles need low level
Radiation
Time of Exposure
Radiation
Computers and
television are coupled
Radiation
Gives a continuous
and instantaneous
record of the voyage
of the isotope
throughout the body
Gives increased
sensitivity
CT scanner is an
example
The Geiger Counter
9.7 Measurement of
The Curie
Radiation
The Roentgen
Radiation
The Rem
Roentgen Equivalent for Man
Radiation
Chapter 10
An Introduction to Organic
Chemistry:
The Saturated Hydrocarbons
Denniston
Topping
Caret
6th Edition
10.1 The Chemistry of Carbon
Why are there so many organic compounds?
1. Carbon forms stable, covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms
Consider three allotropic forms of elemental carbon
Graphite in planar layers
Diamond is a three-dimensional network
Buckminsterfullerene is 60 C in a roughly spherical
shape
Why are there so many
organic compounds?
2. Carbon atoms form stable bonds with
other elements, such as:
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Halogen
Presence of these other elements
confers many new physical and
chemical properties on an organic
compound
Why are there so many
organic compounds?
3. Carbon atoms form H2C CH2
double or triple bonds
with: H2C O
Other carbon atoms
(double & triple) H2C NH
Oxygen (double only)
Nitrogen (double & triple) double bonds
These combinations act HC CH
to produce a variety of
organic molecules with HC N
very different properties
triple bonds
Why are there so many
organic compounds?
4. Carbon atoms can be arranged with these
other atoms; is nearly limitless
Branched chains
Ring structures
Linear chains H2
C
CH3CH2CH2CH3 H2C CH2
H2C CH2
H in front of plane H H
Staggered form of ethane
Comparison of Ethane and
Butane Structures
Names and Formulas of the First
Ten Straight-Chain Alkanes
Comparison of Physical Properties of
Five Isomers of Hexane
Compare the basic linear structure of hexane
All other isomers have one or more carbon atoms
branching from the main chain
Branched-chain forms of the molecule have a much
smaller surface area
Intermolecular forces are weaker
Boiling and melting points are lower than straight chains
Physical Properties of
Organic Molecules
1. Nonpolar
2. Not water soluble
3. Soluble in nonpolar organic solvents
4. Low melting points
5. Low boiling points
6. Generally less dense (lighter) than water
7. As length (molecular weight) increases, melting
and boiling points increase as does the density
Properties of Alkanes
200
150
100
50
0
Melting Point
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Boiling Point
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
Number of Carbons in Chain
Properties of Alkanes
H H
H C H H C or CH3
H H
An alkyl group is an alkane with one hydrogen
atom removed
It is named by replacing the -ane of the alkane
name with -yl
Methane becomes a methyl group
Alkyl Groups
HH CH3 CH2
HCCH CH2 CH3
HH C2H5
Names and Formulas of the First
Five Alkyl Groups
Alkyl Group Classification
Alkyl groups are classified according to the
number of carbons attached to the carbon
atom that joins the alkyl group to a molecule
All continuous chain alkyl groups are 1
Isopropyl and sec-butyl are 2 groups
Iso- Alkyl Groups
Propane: removal of a hydrogen generates
two different propyl groups depending on
whether an end or center H is removed
CH3 CH2 CH3
Rule 1 applied
Find the longest chain in each molecule
A=7 B=8
A CH3
CH2CH2CH CH2CH3
B CH3
CH2
CH3CH2CH2 CH2
CH3
CH3CH2CH CH2CH CH3
IUPAC Names for Alkanes
CH3
CH2 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH CH3
Name : 4-ethyl-2-methylhexane
IUPAC Names for Alkanes
Hyphenated and number prefixes are
not considered when alphabetizing
groups
Name the compound below
5-sec-butyl-4-isopropylnonane
CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH CH CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
IUPAC Names for Alkanes
When a branch/substituent occurs more
than once
Prefix the name with
di
tri
tetra
Then list the number of the carbon branch for
that substituent to the name with a separate
number for each occurrence
Separate numbers with commas
e.g., 3,4-dimethyl or 4,4,6-triethyl
IUPAC Names for Alkanes
Name
CH3 CH2CH3
CH3CH CH CH2CH CH2CH3
CH3
5-ethyl-2,3-dimethylheptane
ethyl>dimethyl
Practice: IUPAC Name
Name
CH
1
3 CH 3
CH CH 3
CH
2
2 CH2
CH3C3 CH
4 CH
5 C6 CH CH
2 2 2 3
CH3 CH
7
2CH
8
2
CH
9
2
CH
10
3
6-ethyl-6-isobutyl-3,3-dimethyldecane
Structural Isomers
Constitutional/Structural Isomers differ in how
atoms are connected
Two isomers of butane have different physical
properties
The carbon atoms are connected in different
patterns
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH3
Butane Isobutane
Bp 0.4 oC Bp 12 oC
Mp 139 oC Mp 145 oC
10.3 Cycloalkanes
Cyclopropane
Cyclobutane
Cyclohexane
H Br
H + Br2 heat or H
light
+HBr
Petroleum Processing
Fraction Boiling Pt Range Carbon Typical uses
C size
Gas -164-30 C1-C4 Heating, cooking
Gasoline 30-200 C5-C12 Motor fuel
Kerosene 175-275 C12-C16 Fuel for stoves,
diesel and jet
engines
Heating oil Up to 375 C15-C18 Furnace oil
Lubricating 350 and up C16-C20 Lubrication, mineral
oil oil
Greases Semisolid C18-up Lubrication,
petroleum jelly
Paraffin Melts at 52-57 C20-up Candles, toiletries
(wax)
Roofing, asphalt