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Proc Zool Soc
DOI 10.1007/s12595-013-0089-9
REVIEW ARTICLE
Microalgae in Aquaculture: A Review with Special References
to Nutritional Value and Fish Dietetics
Sudeshna Sen Roy Ruma Pal
Received: 22 June 2012 / Revised: 25 November 2013 / Accepted: 10 December 2013
Zoological Society, Kolkata, India 2014
Abstract Microalgal biotechnology has gained consid-
erable importance in recent decades and its use is extending
day by day into several areas like nutraceutical research,
renewable energy source, production of essential biomol-
ecules like b-carotene, astaxanthin, PUFA, bio colorant
production, wastewater treatment, bioremediation and
aquaculture etc. Among all these, microalgae as a source of
nutrition have drawn the attention since long back and are
widely used in animal nutrition. Fishmeal is the preferred
protein ingredient of feed in aquaculture industry, con-
tributing significantly to the variable production cost.
However, decreasing fishmeal supply and increasing costs
threaten the sustainability and growth of the aquaculture
industry. Therefore, complete or partial substitution of
fishmeal with alternative proteins is needed to solve the
problem. Presently, microalgae are used worldwide as an
alternate protein source replacing fishmeal successfully. In
feeding trials with fish, many types of microalgae have
been found to be used for increasing growth (protein
accretion), feed utilization, physiological activity, stress
response, starvation tolerance, disease resistance, and car-
cass quality. In the present communication an attempt has
been taken to review the application of different microal-
gae in rearing of aquaculture animal especially the fishes.
Keywords Microalgae
Nutrition
Aquaculture

Dietetics
S. S. Roy
R. Pal (&)
Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge
Circular Road, Kolkata 700019, India
e-mail: rpalcu@rediffmail.com
G I C AL
LO S
O
O
O
CI E
TH E Z
TY
KO
L K A TA
Introduction
Microalgae play a vital role in aquatic food chain and are
popularly used in rearing of aquatic animals like mollusks,
shrimps and fishes at different growth stages (Borowitzka
1998). They are required for larvae nutrition during a brief
period of life cycle and are used either for direct con-
sumption or indirectly as prepared feed. In most instances,
the whole algae are used as feed or feed supplement. Live
algae also improve the water quality. Data on chemical
composition of algae give the basic information on the
nutritive potential of the algae biomass (Brown et al. 1997).
The popularity of microalgae as aquaculture feed is
increasing day by day due to their appropriate size, high
nutritional value, high growth rate, antioxidant property,
disease resistance power etc. The nutritional value of
microalgae is influenced by their size, shape, digestibility,
and biochemical compositions (Brown et al. 1997). They
are used as basic nutrients in one hand and as a source of
pigments to colour the skin on the other. Therefore, gross
chemical compositions of various microalgae have been
determined by various authors to reveal their nutritional
value for using them successfully as aquaculture feed.
Some of them are mentioned below.
Major Nutrient (Protein, Carbohydrate, Lipid)
Several microalgae containing high protein, carbohydrate
and lipid are considered as important feed ingredients.
Renaud et al. (1994) reported more protein in diatoms in
comparison to chlorophycean members. Spirulina, Scene-
desmus and Chlorella were considered as source of single
cell protein due to 4070 % protein content (Venkataraman
and Becker 1985). For microalgae, nutritional value of
123
 Proc Zool Soc

protein component (protein plus free amino acids) is con-
sidered to be high if their essential amino acid composition
is close to the requirement of the feeding animals (Webb
and Chu 1983). Carbohydrates play an important role in
digestibility of the total algal biomass (Percival and Turvey
1974). Carbohydrates of algae are found in the form of
starch, cellulose, sugars and other polysaccharides. Car-
bohydrate content of twelve species of microalgae was
reported by Renaud et al. (1994) belonging to Bacillario-
phyceae and Chlorophyceae.
Algal lipids are typically composed of glycerol, sugars
or bases, esterified to fatty acids having carbon numbers in
the range of C12C22, which may be either saturated or
unsaturated. Triglycerides are the most common storage
lipids and may constitute up to 80 % of the total lipid
fraction in cyanobacteria (Tornabene et al. 1983). Other
major algal lipids are lecithin, phosphatidyle glycerol and
inositol. In addition, more unusual compounds such as the
betaine lipids, chlorosulfolipids or various other sulfolipids
may be major components of some species or orders.
Lipids are highly significant at various growth stages of
many aquaculture animals including marine fish larvae,
bivalves, mollusks etc. The major cellular lipids of blue
green algae include monogalactosyldiglyceride, dig-
alactosyldiglyceride and sulfoquinovosyldiglyceride (Nic-
hols 1970). Choi et al. (1987) reported complete lipid
profile of Scenedesmus obliquus with 11.7 % total lipid and
neutral lipid, glycolipid and phospholipid fractions at 7.24,
2.45 and 1.48 % level on a dry weight basis, respectively.
The present group has also reported the lipid content and
fatty acid profiles of 21 fresh water and brackish water
algae from Sunderban area (Sen Roy et al. 2009; Barman
et al. 2012).
The protein, carbohydrate and lipid contents of some
major algae are summarized in Table 1.
Amino Acid
The amino acid pattern of almost all algae compares
favorably with that of other food proteins, with minor
deficiencies in sulfur containing amino acids methionine
and cystein (Becker 2004). Webb and Chu (1983) reported
high arginine content in Tetraselmis suecica, T. chuii and
Pavlova lutheri, hence, considered them as superior in
nutritional quality. Elaborate literature are available on
amino acid profile of different algae viz. Spirulina maxima
(Paoletti et al. 1980), Spirulina platensis (Becker and
Venkataraman 1984), Scenedesmus obliquus (El-Fouly
et al. 1980), C. ellipsoidea (Priestly 1976), C. vulgaris (El-
Fouly et al. 1980), Dunaliella bardawil (Ben-Amotz and
Avron 1980), D. salina (Becker 1994), Aphanizomenon
flos-aquae (Becker 1994). Spirulina platensis showed
almost similar amino acid profile as egg, better in some
cases depending on the culture condition (Becker and

Table 1 Protein, carbohydrate and lipid contents of few microalgae

Algae Protein (%) Carbohydrate (%) Lipid (%) Reference

Spirulina platensis 5065 814 49 Venkataraman and Becker (1985), Becker (1994)
Chlorella sp. 5158 1217 1422 (Trubachev et al. (1976), Aaronson et al. (1980), Becker (1994),
Renaud et al. (1994)
Scenedesmus sp. 5056 1052 1214 Hindak and Probil (1968), Becker (1984, 1994)
Dunaliella sp. 4957 432 68 Eddy (1956), Parson et al. (1961)
Synechococcus sp. 63 15 11 Trubachev et al. (1976)
Euglena sp. 3961 1418 1420 Collyer and Fogg (1955), Becker (1994)
Prymnesium sp. 2845 2533 2238 (Ricketts 1966)
Anabaena sp. 48 2530 47 Becker (1994)
Chlamydomonas sp. 4356 2.917 1422 Becker (19940, Renaud et al. (1994)
Porphyridium sp. 2839 5057 Becker (1994)
Spirulina maxima 6071 1316 67 Becker (1994)
Spirogyra 620 3364 1121 Becker (1994)
Tetraselmis 52 15 1645 Becker (1994), Brown (1991)
Pavlova 2429 69 914 Brown (1991), Becker (1994)
Enteromorpha intestinalis 6.15 30.58 7.13 Chakraborty and Santra (2008)
Rhizoclonium riparium 21.09 15.34 3.37 Chakraborty and Santra (2008)
Lola capillaris 40.87 22.32 4.05 Chakraborty and Santra (2008)
Ulva lactuca 8.44 35.27 4.36 Chakraborty and Santra (2008)
Catenella repns 8.42 28.96 5.29 Chakraborty and Santra (2008)
Polysiphonia mollis 16.59 25.81 5.79 Chakraborty and Santra (2008)

123
Proc Zool Soc
Table 2 List of a few microalgae used in fish aquaculture
Algae Fish
Nannochloropsis oculata, Tetraselmis tetrahele Rotifers and
and Skeletonema costatum shrimp larvae
Spirulina, Haematococcus Shrimp, salmon
Tetraselmis, Isocrysis, Chlorella Rotifers and
shrimp larvae
Hydrodictyon, Scenedesmus Tilapia
Spirulina, Haematococcus Red Sea Bream
Venkataraman 1984). A much recent report has been made
by Chakraborty and Santra (2008) on free amino acid
content of eight benthic algal genera viz. Enteromorpha
intestinalis, Rhizoclonium riparium, Catenella repens,
Ulva lactuca, Dictyota ceylinica, Polysiphonia millis,
Gellidiella acerosa and Lola capillaries (Table 2).
Polysaccharide
Microalgae have become particularly interesting because
of their polysaccharide contents. The first reports about
agaragar production in Japan can be dated back to the year
1658, although cultivation was only successful from the
middle of the last century (Pulz and Gross 2004). Proper
exploration can be dated back to the 1950s when Lewis
(1956) screened a number of Chlamydomonas spp. for
extracellular polysaccharide production. The most useful of
these is C. mexicana, which yields up to 25 % of its total
organic production as polysaccharides. Later Ramus (1972)
reported large quantities of extracellular polysaccharides
(EPS) production in green and blue-green algae and uni-
cellular red algae Porphyridium cruemtum and P. aerugi-
neum respectively. The principal sugars found in the
polysaccharides of some microalgae commonly used in
aquaculture like, Pyramimonas virginica, Pseudoisochrysis
paradoxa, C. vulgaris, P. lutheri and Isochrysis galbana,
are glucose, mannose, ribose/xylose, rhamnose and fucose
with glucose being the major constituent and accounted for
2886 % of the total carbohydrates, while mannose was a
substantial component in all cases (Chu et al. 1982).
Extracellular carbohydrate polymer (EPS) production has
been reported for Anabaena cylindrica (Lama et al. 1996),
Nostoc (Flaibani et al. 1989) and Spirulina (Tseng and
Zhao 1994). The ten monosaccharides commonly found in
cyanobacterial water soluble polysaccharides are: the
hexoseglucose, galactose and mannose, the pentose
ribose, arabinose and xylose, the deoxyhexosefucose and
rhamnose and the acidic hexoseglucuronic and galact-
uronic acid (De Philippis et al. 2000). Sulfated galactans
are the most abundant polymers in red seaweeds, including
Reference
Lim (1991)
Broun (1980), Appler (1985), Zeinhom (2004), El-Hindawy et al.
(2006), Regunathan and Wesley (2006)
Villegas et al. (1990)
Appler (1985), El-Hindawy et al. (2006), Olvera-Novoa et al. (1998)
Mustafa et al. (1994)
carrageenans, agarans, and DL-galactan hybrids (Zibetti
et al. 2005; Estevez et al. 2004, 2008).
Fatty Acid
Fatty acid compositions of microalgae were first studied in
the 1940s (Millner 1948). So far, more than 100 microalgal
species have been analyzed for their fatty acid composi-
tion. These fatty acids are essential components of the diet
of humans and animals and are becoming important feed
additives in aquaculture (Borowitzka 1988). Triglycerides
are the most common storage lipids constituting up to 8- %
of the total lipid fraction (Becker 2004). It has been found
that S. platensis may serve as a valuable source of c
linolenic acid and about 2030 % of its fatty acids consist
of this compound (Becker 2004). Cyanobacterial lipids
tend to have 2560 % of PUFA and are rich in essential
fatty acids such as the C:18 linoleic (18:2) and linolenic
(18:3) acids and their C-20 derivatives, eicosapentaenoic
acids (20:5) and arachidonic acid (20:4) (Borowitzka
1988). Whereas, pure cultures of green algae contain pri-
marily C:16, C:18 fatty acids with a high degree of un-
saturation (Thompson 1996). Kenyon (1972) reported
complete fatty acid profile of 34 strains of unicellular blue
green algae belonging to the genera Synechococcus, Ap-
hanocapsa, Gloeocapsa, Microcystis and Chlorogloea.
Volkman et al. (1989) reported PUFA (EPA) in four genera
of diatoms viz. Chaetoceros calcitrans, Chaetoceros
gracilis, Skeletonema costatum and Thalassiosira pseudo-
nana (4.611.1 % of the total fatty acids), the cryptomonad
Chroomonas salina (10.9, 11.9 %) and the prymnesiophyte
P. lutheri (19.7 %). He also reported high amount of DHA
in C. salina and Nitzschia sp. and also high percentage of
EPA (44.6 %) (Kates and Volcani 1966; Ben-Amotz et al.
1985). The major fatty acids in Nannochloropsis are 14:0,
16:0, 20:4x6 and 20:5x5 (Schneider and Roessler, 1994)
and is commonly used as aquaculture feed. Lipid contents
of seaweeds Sargasaam wightii (0.1591.551 %), S. hor-
neri (1.381.96 %), Gracillaria sp. (0.783.97 %), Cate-
nella linum (1.28.6 %) have also been studied by many
123

workers (Sasikumar 2000; Hossain et al. 2003). The red
alga P. cruentum is one of the richest natural sources of
arachidonic acid which constitutes about 36 % of the total
fatty acid. As the x-3 fatty acids in fish oils derive from the
marine phytoplankton, on which the oceanic food chains
are based, the production of marine microalgae particularly
of biomass with high x-3 fatty acids was of great interest
(Yongmanitchai and Ward 1991).
Pigments
One of the most obvious and interesting characteristic of
the algae is their vast range of pigment content like,
chlorophylls, carotenoids, phycobiliproteins, xanthophylls
etc. Most of them are important in aquaculture. Lipophilic
pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids constitute
35 % of the dry algal biomass (Venkataraman and Becker
1985). Chlorophylls are of mainly five types viz. a, b, c, d
and e and amount usually to about 0.51.5 % of dry weight
(Becker 1994). Recently, Kumar et al. (2009) evaluated the
pigment composition of 18 marine microalgae of the Indian
coast and reported maximum chlorophyll a, b as well as
total chlorophyll in most of the species of Chlorophyta
followed by Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta. The nutritional
and therapeutic relevance of certain carotenoids is due to
their ability to act as provitamin A, that is, they can be
converted into vitamin A (Gouveia and Empis 2003; Gar-
ca-Gonzalez et al. 2005). Moreover, carotenoids have
intrinsic anti-inflammatory properties owing to their
quenching action on reactive oxygen species. The average
carotenoid concentration of algae is 0.12 % of the dry
weight though exceptions are there (Becker 1994). The
most well-known b-carotene rich microalga is Dunaliella
salina (14 % of DW) (Metting 1996) and astaxanthin rich
microalga is Haematococcus pluvialis (1.53 % of DW)
(Todd Lorenz and Cysewski 2000) and their price ranging
from US$ 300 to US$ 3000/kg are quite popularly used in
developed countries (Ben-Amotz 2004; Hejazi and Wijf-
fels 2004). The main commercial producers of phycobili-
proteins (phycoerythrin and phycocyanin), are
cyanobacterium Arthrospira and rhodophycean member
Porphyridium (Viskari and Colyer 2003; Bermejo Roman
et al. 2002). Other important carotenoids include lutein,
lutein 5,6-epoxide, antheraxanthin, zeaxanthin, violaxan-
thin, neoxanthin etc. (Borowitzka and Borowitzka 1988).
Vitamins
Microalgae are good source of different vitamins which are
essential in aquaculture. A number of vitamins are present
in rather higher concentrations in algae than that of other
traditionally considered rich conventional sources (Brown
and Farmer 1994; Venkataraman et al. 1994). Complete
123
Proc Zool Soc
vitamin profiles of several algae are done over the years
viz. Spirulina platensis (Becker and Venkataraman 1984),
S. maxima (Jaya et al. 1980), Scenedesmus obliquus
(Becker 1984; Jaleel and Soeder 1978), S. quadricauda
(Cook 1960), C. pyrenoidosa (Fisher and Burlew 1953),
Aphanizomenon flos aquae (Becker 1994) etc. Brown et al.
(1999) reported the vitamin content of few Australian
microalgae like Nannochloropsis, Pavlova, Strichococcus,
Tetraselmis, Chaetoceros, Thalassiosira and Isochrysis.
Concentrations of other vitamins typically show a two- to
four-fold difference between species (Seguineau et al.
1996; Brown et al. 1999). Based on these data Brown
(2002) suggested that a carefully selected, mixed-algal diet
should provide adequate concentrations of the vitamins for
aquaculture food chains.
Microalgae in Fish Aquaculture
Gladue and Maxey (1994) commented that due to con-
current trends of increasing consumption of seafood with
decreasing natural harvests, a larger portion of seafood
must be derived from aquaculture in the fast approaching
21st century. Fishmeal has long been used as a source of
protein in formulating artificial fish feed. But due to the
non-availability as well as the increasing cost of fishmeal,
it has become essential to search for an alternate source of
protein to prepare a balanced feed for fish. A large number
of research works have been carried to evaluate various
alternate protein sources as partial or complete dietary
replacement of fishmeal for different fish species, like,
salmon, rainbow trout, chinnok salmon-Onorhynchus spp.
(Higgs et al. 1979; Tacon et al. 1984; Fowler 1991; Stef-
fens 1994; Stickney et al. 1996; Bureau et al. 2000), Java
and Nile tilapiaOryochromis spp. (Jackson et al. 1982;
Wee and Wang 1987; El-Sayed 1998), Indian major carp
Labeo rohita (Hasan et al. 1991, 1994, 1997; Hasan and
Das 1993), India major carpCirrhinus mrigala (Hasan
et al. 1988) and common carpCyprinus carpio (Atack
et al. 1979; Capper et al. 1982; Hossain and Jauncey 1989;
Yilmaz et al. 2003) etc.
During 1980s1990s, microalgal feeds were used in
relatively small amounts in aquaculture, mainly for the
production of larvae, juvenile shell and finfish as well as for
raising the zooplanktons required for feeding of juvenile
fishes and other animals etc. (Benemann 1992; Coutteau
and Sorgeloos 1992; Duerr et al. 1998). Possibility of
partial replacement of fishmeal with algae has also been
considered by several workers (Broun 1980; Appler 1985;
Zeinhom 2004; El-Hindawy et al. 2006), especially in
tropical areas where they are found in abundant amounts.
Spirulina and Haematococcus were used in substantial
amount (100 t year-1) as fish, shrimp and salmon feed
during that period. A report was made by Lim (1991) about
Proc Zool Soc
co-culture of N. oculata, T. tetrahele and S. costatum to
feed rotifers and shrimp larvae in singapore. Tetraselmis
tetrahele and I. galbana improved the food value of rotifers
(B. plicatilis) as live food for the milkfish fry (Villegas
et al. 1990). Their high dietary value was related to higher
algal protein and fat levels especially x-3 hufa, compared
to B. plicatilis cultured on Chlorella.
In feeding trials with fish, many types of microalgae
have been found to increase growth (protein accretion),
feed utilization, physiological activity, stress response,
starvation tolerance, disease resistance, and carcass quality
(Mustafa and Nakagawa 1995). For example, when tested
in fish diets, Spirulina led to enhanced growth and
improved protein digestibility (Mustafa et al. 1994), stress
and disease resistance (Henson 1990; Olvera-Novoa et al.
1998), improved carcass quality (Belay et al. 1996; Floreto
et al. 1996), and induced early maturation thereby leading
to a shorter breeding cycle and period of cultivation (Braun
1988). Microalgae biomass was also tested as a carotenoid
source for shrimp broodstock (Regunathan and Wesley
2006) and as a protein or lipid source to partially replace
fish meals or fish oil in fish feeds (Olvera-Novoa et al.
1998; Belay et al. 1996; Patnaik et al. 2006). Blue-green
algae are common components in the diet of Oreochromis
niloticus and O. mossambicus (Fryer and Iles 1972; Mor-
iarty and Moriarty 1973; Trewevas 1983; Getachew 1987;
Vonshak 1997). Ulva meal has been successfully used as a
feed ingredient for tilapia. Recent studies have shown
incorporation of Ulva meal may enhance carcass compo-
sition (Guroy et al. 2007; Azaza et al. 2008).
The present group also tested a number of microalgal
biomass mix as value added feed employing different algal
genera like S. platensis, S. subsalsa, Phormidium valde-
rianum, Phormidium tenue, N. ellipsosporum, N. minima,
Rhizoclonium fontinale, Rhizoclonium riparium, Spirogyra
sp., Enteromorpha intestinalis, U. lactuca for Prawn, Rohu,
Tilapia and Gold fish (Khatoon et al. 2009, 2010a, b; Sen
Roy et al. 2011; Mukherjee et al. 2011).The main objective
was to use non-conventional local algal genera as supple-
mented feed for lowering the production cost of algae
based fish feed. The algae based value added feed resulted
in both growth and reduced PL stage for Prawn, better
growth performance, carcass quality for Rohu and Tilapia
and vibrant skin color for Gold Fishes.
Conclusions
Use of algal biomass in aquaculture technology is of fun-
damental importance if algal biotechnology is to play a
central role in aquaculture industry. The aquatic habitat and
the appropriate size of the microalgae are consumed
directly by the fishes or indirectly via zooplanktons.
Considering the present status of progress made in appli-
cation of algal feed in fish dietetics, it would be realistic to
believe that algal biomass would play a positive role in
enhancement of growth performances of edible fishes, their
disease resistance and the skin color especially of the
colored fishes. As the nutraceutical properties of different
algal genera can be exploited in aquaculture industry, it is
therefore necessary to investigate thoroughly the role of
both micro- and macroalgal biomass as feed supplement
for different aquaculture animals in a cost effective way.
Acknowledgments The first author is thankful to West Bengal State
Council of Science and Technology for financial support.
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