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Abstract
The accurate measurement of both air velocity and volumetric airow can be accomplished using a Pitot tube, a
dierential pressure transducer, and a computer system which includes the necessary hardware and software to convert
the raw transducer signals into the proper engineering units. The incorporation of sensors to measure the air tem-
perature, barometric pressure, and relative humidity can further increase the accuracy of the velocity and ow mea-
surements. The Pitot tube measures air velocity directly by means of a pressure transducer which generates an electrical
signal which is proportional to the dierence between the pressure generated by the total pressure and the still air
(static pressure). The volumetric ow is then calculated by measuring the average velocity of an air stream passing
through a passage of a known diameter. When measuring volumetric ow, the `passage of a known diameter' must be
designed to reduce air turbulence as the air mass ows over the Pitot tube. Also, the placement of the pitot tube in the
passage will inuence how accurately the measured ow tracks the actual ow through the passage. Calibrating the
measurement system in a wind tunnel can further increase the accuracy of the velocity and the ow measurements. This
objective of this paper is to provide the eld engineer with single, concise source of information on ow measurement
using a Pitot tube. # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Air ow measurement; Pitot tube
0019-0578/98/$see front matter # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0019 -0 578(98)00036 -6
258 R. Klopfenstein Jr./ISA Transactions 37 (1998) 257263
acquisition system requires a pressure sensor inside diameter of the air horn can be calculated
which can be interfaced to the computer. Several [Eq. (8)].
companies manufacture dierential pressure sen-
sors that exceed the performances of tube-type Q VA A 8
manometers at low pressure readings. These devi-
ces also have the advantage in that the optical where
reading errors are eliminated and it is not neces-
sary to apply manometer correction factors to Q volumetric air ow (m3/s)
pressure readings. These sensors provide an elec- VA average air stream velocity (m/h)
trical signal that is proportional to sensed pressure. A area of air horn passage (m2)
The output of these pressure sensors is usually 05
volts D.C., 010 volts D.C., or 420 mA D.C. The Once the inside diameter is determined, the velo-
420 mA mode is selected when the sensor is loca- city produced at the maximum volumetric ow
ted some distance (more than 4-6 m) from the sig- must be calculated. Using the inside horn diameter
nal conditioning equipment. Any of these types of and the maximum airow rate, the air mass velo-
transducer signals can be connected to most data city can be calculated. It should be veried that
acquisition systems. The 420 mA D.C. mode this velocity stays well below the speed of sound so
might require some auxiliary equipment to convert that the gas compression constant of the Pitot
signals into a form compatible with the data tube remains very close to 1. Also, a calculation
acquisition system hardware. It will also be neces- should be made to verify that the velocity pressure
sary to incorporate sensors to monitor air tempera- generated by the Pitot tube at the maximum ow
ture, barometric pressure, and relative humidity rate does not exceed the maximum pressure rating
into the computerized data acquisition system. of the pressure sensing device.
The accuracy of the Pitot tube velocity mea-
surements is inuenced by the maintenance of a
5. Air ow measurement laminar air ow over the Pitot tube sensing tip.
Fig. 3 illustrates a `standard' air horn inlet design
The volumetric airow of an air mass can be that helps maintain laminar airow as it enters the
determined by measuring the velocity of that air air horn [2]. All dimensions are based on the inside
mass as it ows through a passage of a known diameter of the air passage through air horn. It is
diameter. When a Pitot tube is used to measure
the air stream velocity, the air passage must be
designed to reduce the air turbulence of the air
stream as it passed through the passage or air
horn.
The rst parameter that must be specied dur-
ing the air horn design process is the operating
range (minimum and maximum) of the volumetric
airow measurement. The next parameter to be
specied is the minimum air mass velocity owing
through the air horn. The minimum velocity
should be high enough to provide a reliable read-
ing from the pressure-sensing device at the mini-
mum ow rate and low enough to maintain
velocities in the subsonic range at the highest
volumetric airow rate.
Using the volumetric air ow equation and the
minimum air mass velocity through the horn, the Fig. 3. Air horn inlet conguration.
R. Klopfenstein Jr./ISA Transactions 37 (1998) 257263 261
also recommended that the sensing tip of the Pitot 7. Calibration techniques
tube be located at least one diameter (d) from each
end of the air horn. If the airow rates measured by the air horn/
Pitot tube unit must be traceable to NIST stan-
dards, the air ow unit (air horn and Pitot tube)
6. Pitot tube placement can be calibrated using a wind tunnel whose
instrumentation is calibrated and traceable to the
When measuring the velocity of an air stream, NIST. The horn/Pitot tube unit is mounted onto
the Pitot tube is placed into the air stream so that the wind tunnel so that all air owing through the
the sensing tip points directly into the moving air wind tunnel ows through the unit being cali-
stream. To obtain the most accurate readings, the brated. The wind tunnel calibration procedure
sensing tip of the Pitot tube must be parallel to the produces a calibration curve that plots the pres-
direction of ow of the moving air stream. sure drop across the total and static ports of the
When the Pitot tube is used in conjunction with Pitot tube against the ow rate which generated
a passage of a know diameter to measure volu- that pressure drop. The calibration curve should
metric ow, the radial placement of the Pitot tube be generated with a minimum of 10 points. The
inuences the accuracy of the ow calculations. As more calibration points, the closer the calibration
the air mass ows through a closed pipe (air horn), curve ts the actual ow response curve. The cali-
friction is generated where the air mass contacts bration curve should also include the barometric
the pipe wall. This frictional drag reduces the pressure, temperature, and relative humidity of the
velocity of the air stream near the pipe wall. The air mass used to calibrate the air horn unit.
velocity of the air stream increases as the centerline
of the air horn is approached (Fig. 4). The prole
shown in Fig. 4 will be maintained as long as the 8. Software implementation
ow of the air stream remains laminar; that is, the
velocity remains below the magnitude where tur- If the air horn/Pitot tube assembly is not cali-
bulence is generated at the airwall interface. brated and the sensing tip of the Pitot tube is
Since the volumetric ow calculations [Eq. (8)] located at the average velocity point in the air
are based on the average airow velocities, the horn, the computer system reads the various phy-
ideal radial placement of the Pitot tube is at the sical parameters and then calculates the air ow
average velocity point in the velocity prole (Fig. 4). through the air horn using Eqs. (2)(8). It will be
With the Pitot tube located at the average velocity necessary for the computer system to monitor the
point in the air stream, the calculated air ow parameters representing the air temperature, rela-
magnitude [Eqs. (2) and (8)] will approximate the tive humidity, barometric pressure, and the pres-
actual volume of air owing through the air horn. sure drop across the total and static ports of the
Pitot tube. The cross-sectional area of the air horn was calibrated (atmospheric pressure, air tem-
is entered as a constant. perature, and relative humidity
The incorporation of calibration information The next grouping of data contains air density
into the ow rate calculations is not straightfor- corrections for air velocity calculations. These
ward. The calibration factors can not be applied values are calculated using Eqs. (3)(7). The nal
directly to the airow calculation because of the data items describe the cross-sectional area of the
non-linear relationship between the velocity pres- air horn.
sure and the air ow rate. The airow data provided by the calibration
One technique that will overcome this non-lin- laboratory is listed in the rst two columns. Each
ear relationship problem uses a look-up table calibration point represents the velocity pressure
which contains correction factors that compensate generated by the calibrated wind tunnel ow rate.
for deviations from the ideal air horn construction The third column contains the calculated air velo-
and Pitot tube placement within the air horn. A city using the velocity pressure from column 2 and
horn factor is generated for each velocity pressure calibration site environmental information from
(ow rate) point recorded during calibration. The upper portion of table. The fourth column contains
linearization software reads the velocity pressure the calculated ow rate using column 3 air velocities
from the air horn and uses that value as an index and the cross-sectional area of the air horn. Finally,
into the horn factor lookup table to retrieve the an air horn correction factor is generated for each
proper horn factor. The linearization software has test point by dividing the calibrated ow rate in
provisions to interpolate (straight line) between column 1 by the calculated ow rate in column 4.
discrete velocity pressure calibration points. The air horn correction factor is used during ow
Tables 1 and 2 illustrates the technique used to rate calculations to compensate for deviations
generate the air horn correction factors. The from the standard air horn/Pitot tube construc-
upper portion of the table contains data which tion. The airow factor is multiplied by the calcu-
describes the environment in which the air horn lated airow to generate compensated airow.
Table 1
41 mm diameter horn factor calculations
Table 2
145 mm diameter horn factor calculations
The dierences in the horn factor (calibration author's opinion that the use of an appropriately
factor) between the 41 mm (Table 1) and the designed air horn is the best way to measure rela-
145 mm (Table 2) air horns illustrate the eects of tive small air ow (m3/h). This method is
non-ideal placement of the Pitot tube. The air enhanced with the use of a computerized data
horns are calibrated with the Pitot tubes placed on acquisition system that has access to the air tem-
the centerline of the air horn bores. The centerline perature, barometric pressure, and the relative
location of the Pitot tube simplies the verication humidity. The computer system also makes it easy
of the Pitot tube placement. The centerline of the to use table look up and interpretation techniques
smaller air horn is closer to the average velocity to apply the calibration data.
point (Fig. 3) that that of the larger air horns.
Because the location of the Pitot tube in the smal-
ler air horn is closer to the average velocity point, References
its horn factor is closer to 1.
[1] R. Miller, Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook,
McGrawHill, New York, 1996.
9. Conclusions [2] E. Ower, R. Pankhurst, The Measurement of Air Flow,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977.
There are many methods to measure the velo- [3] F. Jones, Techniques and Topics in Flow Measurement,
city and ow rates of an air stream. It is the CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995.