Ch2 (1) Handouts 3e

Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation

Signals represented as sequences of Discrete-time signal may also be written as
numbers, called samples a sequence of numbers inside braces:
Sample value of a typical signal or sequence {x[ n]} = {K, 0.2, 2.2,1.1, 0.2, 3.7, 2.9,K}
denoted as x[n] with n being an integer in
the range n In the above, x[1] = 0.2, x[0] = 2.2, x[1] = 1.1,
x[n] defined only for integer values of n and etc.
undefined for noninteger values of n
The arrow is placed under the sample at
Discrete-time signal represented by {x[n]} time index n = 0
1 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 2 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

In some applications, a discrete-time
Graphical representation of a discrete-time sequence {x[n]} may be generated by
signal with real-valued samples is as shown periodically sampling a continuous-time
below: signal xa (t ) at uniform intervals of time

Here, n-th sample is given by Unit of sampling frequency is cycles per
x[n] = xa (t ) t =nT = xa ( nT ), n = K, 2, 1,0,1,K second, or hertz (Hz), if T is in seconds
The spacing T between two consecutive Whether or not the sequence {x[n]} has
samples is called the sampling interval or been obtained by sampling, the quantity
sampling period x[n] is called the n-th sample of the
Reciprocal of sampling interval T, denoted sequence
as FT , is called the sampling frequency: {x[n]} is a real sequence, if the n-th sample
1 x[n] is real for all values of n
FT = Otherwise, {x[n]} is a complex sequence
T
A complex sequence {x[n]} can be written Example - {x[n]} = {cos 0.25n} is a real
as {x[ n]} = {xre [ n]} + j{xim [n]} where sequence
xre [n] and xim [n] are the real and imaginary {y[n]} = {e j 0.3n} is a complex sequence
parts of x[n] We can write
The complex conjugate sequence of {x[n]} {y[n]} = {cos 0.3n + j sin 0.3n}
is given by { x * [ n]} = { xre [n]} j{xim [ n]} = {cos 0.3n} + j{sin 0.3n}
Often the braces are ignored to denote a where {yre [n]} = {cos 0.3n}
sequence if there is no ambiguity
{yim [n]} = {sin 0.3n}

Two types of discrete-time signals:
Example -
- Sampled-data signals in which samples
{w[n]} = {cos 0.3n} j{sin 0.3n} = {e j 0.3n} are continuous-valued
is the complex conjugate sequence of {y[n]} - Digital signals in which samples are
That is, discrete-valued
{w[n]} = {y * [n]} Signals in a practical digital signal
processing system are digital signals
obtained by quantizing the sample values
either by rounding or truncation

Example - A discrete-time signal may be a finite-
length or an infinite-length sequence
Amplitude
Amplitude
Finite-length (also called finite-duration or

finite-extent) sequence is defined only for a
time, t time, t
finite time interval: N1 n N 2
where < N1 and N 2 < with N1 N 2
Boxedcar signal Digital signal Length or duration of the above finite-
length sequence is N = N 2 N1 + 1
A length-N sequence is often referred to as

Example - x[n] = n 2 , 3 n 4 is a finite- an N-point sequence
length sequence of length 4 (3) + 1 = 8
The length of a finite-length sequence can

y[n] = cos 0.4n is an infinite-length sequence be increased by zero-padding, i.e., by
appending it with zeros

Example - A right-sided sequence x[n] has zero-
2 valued samples for n < N1
xe [n] = n , 3 n 4
0, 5 n 8
is a finite-length sequence of length 12 N1
n
obtained by zero-padding x[n] = n 2 , 3 n 4

with 4 zero-valued samples A right-sided sequence
If N1 0, a right-sided sequence is called a

causal sequence

A left-sided sequence x[n] has zero-valued Size of a Signal
samples for n > N 2
Given by the norm of the signal
L p -norm
N2 1/ p
n
p
x p
= x[ n]
A left-sided sequence n =
If N 2 0, a left-sided sequence is called a where p is a positive integer
anti-causal sequence
The value of p is typically 1 or 2 or L 1-norm x 1
is the mean absolute value of {x[n]}
L2 -norm
L -norm x
x2
is the peak absolute value of {x[n]}, i.e.
is the root-mean-squared (rms) value of
{x[n]} x = x max
Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Operations on Sequences
Example
A single-input, single-output discrete-time
Let {y[n]}, 0 n N 1 , be an approximation of
{x[n]}, 0 n N 1 system operates on a sequence, called the
input sequence, according some prescribed
An estimate of the relative error is given by the
ratio of the L 2 -norm of the difference signal and rules and develops another sequence, called
the L 2 -norm of {x[n]}: the output sequence, with more desirable
1/ p
N 1 2 properties
y[ n] x[ n]
Erel = n = 0 x[n] Discrete-time
y[n]
N 1 2 system
x[ n] Input sequence Output sequence
21 n =0 22
Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra
Basic Operations
Operations on Sequences
Product (modulation) operation:
For example, the input may be a signal x[n] y[n]
corrupted with additive noise Modulator y[n] = x[n] w[n]
w[n]
Discrete-time system is designed to
generate an output by removing the noise An application is in forming a finite-length
component from the input sequence from an infinite-length sequence
In most cases, the operation defining a by multiplying the latter with a finite-length
particular discrete-time system is composed sequence called an window sequence
of some basic operations Process called windowing
Basic Operations Basic Operations
Time-shifting operation: y[n] = x[n N ]
Addition operation:
where N is an integer
x[n] + y[n]
If N > 0, it is delaying operation
Adder y[n] = x[n] + w[n]
w[n] Unit delay
x[n] z 1 y[n] y[n] = x[n 1]
Multiplication operation
If N < 0, it is an advance operation
A
Multiplier x[n] y[n] y[n] = A x[n] x[n] z y[n] y[n] = x[n + 1]
Unit advance

Time-reversal (folding) operation: Example - Consider the two following
y[n] = x[ n] sequences of length 5 defined for 0 n 4 :
{a[n]} = {3 4 6 9 0}
Branching operation: Used to provide {b[n]} = {2 1 4 5 3}
multiple copies of a sequence New sequences generated from the above
x[n] x[n] two sequences by applying the basic
operations are as follows:
x[n]

{c[n]} = {a[n] b[n]} = {6 4 24 45 0}
{d [n]} = {a[n] + b[n]} = {5 3 10 4 3} However if the sequences are not of same
length, in some situations, this problem can
{e[n]} = 3 {a[n]} = {4.5 6 9 13.5 0} be circumvented by appending zero-valued
2
samples to the sequence(s) of smaller
As pointed out by the above example, lengths to make all sequences have the same
operations on two or more sequences can be range of the time index
carried out if all sequences involved are of
same length and defined for the same range Example - Consider the sequence of length
of the time index n 3 defined for 0 n 2: { f [n]} = { 2 1 3}
Basic Operations
Basic Operations
Ensemble Averaging
We cannot add the length-3 sequence { f [n]} A very simple application of the addition
to the length-5 sequence {a[n]} defined operation in improving the quality of
earlier measured data corrupted by an additive
We therefore first append { f [n]} with 2 random noise
zero-valued samples resulting in a length-5 In some cases, actual uncorrupted data
sequence { f e [n]} = { 2 1 3 0 0} vector s remains essentially the same from
one measurement to next
Then
{g[n]} = {a[n]} + { f e [n]} = {1 5 3 9 0}

While the additive noise vector is random The average data vector, called the
and not reproducible ensemble average, obtained after K
Let di denote the noise vector corrupting measurements is given by
the i-th measurement of the uncorrupted K K K
x ave = 1
xi = K1 (s + di ) = s + K1 di
data vector s: K
i =1 i =1 i =1
x i = s + di For large values of K, x ave is usually a
reasonable replica of the desired data vector
s
Basic Operations
Basic Operations
Example
Original uncorrupted data Noise
8 0.5
We cannot add the length-3 sequence { f [n]}
6
to the length-5 sequence {a[n]} defined
Amplitude
Amplitude
4 0
2
earlier
0
0 10 20 30
Time index n
40 50
-0.5
0 10 20 30
Time index n
40 50 We therefore first append { f [n]} with 2
8
Noise corrupted data
8
Ensemble average zero-valued samples resulting in a length-5
6 6
sequence { f e [n]} = { 2 1 3 0 0}
Amplitude
Amplitude
4 4
2 2 Then
{g[n]} = {a[n]} + { f e [n]} = {1 5 3 9 0}
0 0
-2 -2
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
Combinations of Basic Sampling Rate Alteration
Operations
Employed to generate a new sequence y[n]
with a sampling rate FT' higher or lower
Example - than that of the sampling rate FT of a given
sequence x[n]
F'
Sampling rate alteration ratio is R = T
FT
If R > 1, the process called interpolation

y[n] = 1x[ n] + 2 x[n 1] + 3 x[n 2] + 4 x[n 3] If R < 1, the process called decimation
Sampling Rate Alteration

Sampling Rate Alteration
In up-sampling by an integer factor L > 1,
L 1 equidistant zero-valued samples are An example of the up-sampling operation
inserted by the up-sampler between each 1
Input Sequence
1
Output sequence up-sampled by 3
two consecutive samples of the input

0.5 0.5
sequence x[n]:
Amplitude
Amplitude
x[n / L], n = 0, L, 2 L,L
0 0
xu [n] = -0.5 -0.5
0, otherwise
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
x[n] L xu [n]
Sampling Rate Alteration Sampling Rate Alteration

In down-sampling by an integer factor An example of the down-sampling
M > 1, every M-th samples of the input operation
sequence are kept and M 1 in-between 1
Input Sequence
1
Output sequence down-sampled by 3
samples are removed: 0.5 0.5
y[n] = x[nM ]
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
x[n] M y[n]
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry Based on Symmetry
Conjugate-symmetric sequence: Conjugate-antisymmetric sequence:
x[ n] = x * [ n] x[n] = x * [ n]
If x[n] is real, then it is an even sequence If x[n] is real, then it is an odd sequence
An even sequence An odd sequence


It follows from the definition that for a Any complex sequence can be expressed as
conjugate-symmetric sequence {x[n]}, x[0] a sum of its conjugate-symmetric part and
must be a real number its conjugate-antisymmetric part:
Likewise, it follows from the definition that x[ n] = xcs [n] + xca [ n]
for a conjugate anti-symmetric sequence where
{y[n]}, y[0] must be an imaginary number xcs [n] = 12 ( x[n] + x * [ n])
From the above, it also follows that for an
odd sequence {w[n]}, w[0] = 0 xca [n] = 12 ( x[ n] x * [ n])

Example - Consider the length-7 sequence Therefore {g cs [n]} = 12 {g [n] + g * [ n]}
defined for 3 n 3 : = {1.5, 0.5+ j 3, 3.5+ j 4.5, 4, 3.5 j 4.5, 0.5 j 3, 1.5}
{g [ n ]} = {0, 1+ j 4, 2+ j 3, 4 j 2, 5 j 6, j 2, 3}

Its conjugate sequence is then given by Likewise {g ca [n]} = 1 {g [n] g * [ n]}
2
{g * [ n ]} = {0, 1 j 4, 2 j 3, 4 + j 2, 5+ j 6, j 2, 3}
= {1.5, 0.5+ j , 1.5 j1.5, j 2, 1.5 j1.5, 0.5 j , 1.5}
The time-reversed version of the above is
{g * [ n ]} = {3, j 2, 5+ j 6, 4 + j 2, 2 j 3, 1 j 4, 0} It can be easily verified that gcs [n] = gcs
* [ n ]
and gca [n] = gca [ n]
*
Classification of Sequences
Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry
Based on Symmetry
A length-N sequence x[n], 0 n N 1,
Any real sequence can be expressed as a can be expressed as x[n] = x pcs [n] + x pca [n]
sum of its even part and its odd part:
where
x[ n] = xev [n] + xod [n] x pcs [n] = 12 ( x[n] + x * [ n N ]), 0 n N 1,
where
is the periodic conjugate-symmetric part
xev [ n] = 12 ( x[n] + x[ n]) and
x pca [n] = 12 ( x[n] x * [ n N ]), 0 n N 1,
xod [ n] = 12 ( x[ n] x[ n])
is the periodic conjugate-antisymmetric
49 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 50 part Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

For a real sequence, the periodic conjugate- A length-N sequence x[n] is called a
symmetric part, is a real sequence and is periodic conjugate-symmetric sequence if
called the periodic even part x pe [n] x[n] = x * [ n N ] = x * [ N n]
For a real sequence, the periodic conjugate- and is called a periodic conjugate-
antisymmetric part, is a real sequence and is antisymmetric sequence if
called the periodic odd part x po [n]
x[n] = x * [ n N ] = x * [ N n]

A finite-length real periodic conjugate- Example - Consider the length-4 sequence
symmetric sequence is called a symmetric defined for 0 n 3 :
sequence {u[n]} = {1 + j 4, 2 + j 3, 4 j 2, 5 j 6}
A finite-length real periodic conjugate- Its conjugate sequence is given by
antisymmetric sequence is called a {u * [n]} = {1 j 4, 2 j 3, 4 + j 2, 5 + j 6}
antisymmetric sequence
To determine the modulo-4 time-reversed
version {u * [ n 4 ]} observe the following:

u * [0 4 ] = u * [0] = 1 j 4 Therefore
u * [1 4 ] = u * [3] = 5 + j 6 {u pcs [n]} = 1 {u[n] + u * [ n 4 ]}
2
u * [2 4 ] = u * [2] = 4 + j 2
= {1, 3.5 + j 4.5, 4, 3.5 j 4.5}
u * [3 4 ] = u * [1] = 2 j 3
Hence Likewise
{u * [ n 4 ]} = {1 j 4, 5 + j 6, 4 + j 2, 2 j 3} {u pca [n]} = 1 {u[n] u * [ n 4 ]}
2
= { j 4, 1.5 j1.5, 2, 1.5 j1.5}

Based on Periodicity Based on Periodicity
A sequence ~ x [n] satisfying x~[n] = ~
x [n + kN ] Example -
is called a periodic sequence with a period N
where N is a positive integer and k is any
integer
Smallest value of N satisfying x~[n] = ~ x [n + kN ]
is called the fundamental period
A sequence not satisfying the periodicity
condition is called an aperiodic sequence
Classification of Sequences:
Energy and Power Signals
Total energy of a sequence x[n] is defined by The average power of an aperiodic

x = 2 sequence is defined by
x[n] K
Px = lim 2 K1+1 x[ n]
2
n = K n= K
An infinite length sequence with finite sample
values may or may not have finite energy Define the energy of a sequence x[n] over a
A finite length sequence with finite sample finite interval K n K as
values has finite energy
x,K
K
= x[ n]
n= K
2


Then
Px = lim 2 K1+1 x. K Example - Consider the causal sequence
K
defined by
The average power of a periodic sequence

x[n] = 3(1) , n 0
n
x~[n] with a period N is given by
N 1 0, n<0

1 2
Px = x~[n] Note: x[n] has infinite energy
N
n =0
Its average power is given by
The average power of an infinite-length
sequence may be finite or infinite 1 K 9( K + 1)
Px = lim 9 1 = lim = 4.5
K 2 K + 1 n = 0 K 2 K + 1
Classification of Sequences: Other Types of Classifications

A sequence x[n] is said to be bounded if
An infinite energy signal with finite average
x[n] Bx <
power is called a power signal
Example - A periodic sequence which has a
finite average power but infinite energy Example - The sequence x[n] = cos 0.3n is a
bounded sequence as
A finite energy signal with zero average
power is called an energy signal x[n] = cos 0.3n 1
Example - A finite-length sequence which
has finite energy but zero average power
Other Types of Classifications Other Types of Classifications

A sequence x[n] is said to be absolutely
summable if A sequence x[n] is said to be square-
x[n] < summable if
x[n] <
n = 2
Example - The sequence n =

Example - The sequence
n
y[n] = 0.3 , n 0 sin 0.4 n
h[ n] = n
0, n < 0
is an absolutely summable sequence as is square-summable but not absolutely
1 summable
0.3n = 1 0.3 = 1.42857 <
65 n =0 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 66 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra
Basic Sequences Basic Sequences
1, n = 0 Real sinusoidal sequence -
Unit sample sequence - [n] = x[ n] = A cos(o n + )
0, n 0
1
where A is the amplitude, o is the angular
frequency, and is the phase of x[n]
n
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Example - = 0.1
1, n 0
o
Unit step sequence - 2
[ n] =
0, n < 0
1
Amplitude
0
1
-1
-2
n 0 10 20 30 40
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time index n

Exponential sequence - xre [n] and xim [ n] of a complex exponential
x[ n] = A n , < n < sequence are real sinusoidal sequences with
where A and are real or complex numbers constant (o = 0 ), growing (o > 0 ), and
j decaying (o < 0 ) amplitudes for n > 0
If we write = e( o + jo ) , A = A e , Real part Imaginary part
1 1
then we can express
0.5 0.5
x[ n] = A e je( o + jo ) n = xre [n] + j xim [n],

Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
where -0.5 -0.5
xre [n] = A eon cos(o n + ), -1

0 10 20 30 40 -1
0 10 20 30 40
o n
xim [ n] = A e sin(o n + ) x[ n] = exp( + j 6 )n 1
69 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 70 12 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Real exponential sequence - Sinusoidal sequence A cos(o n + ) and
x[n] = A n , < n < complex exponential sequence B exp( jo n)
where A and are real numbers are periodic sequences of period N if o N = 2r
= 1.2 = 0.9
where N and r are positive integers
50 20
40
Smallest value of N satisfying o N = 2r
15
is the fundamental period of the sequence

Amplitude
Amplitude
30
10
20
10 5 To verify the above fact, consider

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
x1[n] = cos(o n + )
x2 [n] = cos(o (n + N ) + )
Now x2 [n] = cos(o (n + N ) + )
= cos(o n + ) cos o N sin(o n + ) sin o N If 2/o is a noninteger rational number, then
which will be equal to cos(o n + ) = x1[n] the period will be a multiple of 2/o
only if Otherwise, the sequence is aperiodic
sin o N = 0 and cos o N = 1 Example - x[ n] = sin( 3n + ) is an aperiodic
These two conditions are met if and only if sequence
o N = 2 r or 2 = N
o r

= 0.1
0
=0 2
0
2
1
Amplitude
1.5
0
Amplitude
1
-1
0.5
-2
0 10 20 30 40
0 Time index n
0 10 20 30 40
Here o = 0.1
Time index n
Here o = 0
2 r
Hence N = = 20 for r = 1
2 r 0.1
Hence period N = = 1 for r = 0
0

Property 1 - Consider x[ n] = exp( j1n) and Property 2 - The frequency of oscillation of
y[n] = exp( j2n) with 0 1 < and A cos(o n) increases as o increases from 0
2k 2 < 2(k + 1) where k is any positive to , and then decreases as o increases from
integer to 2
If 2 = 1 + 2k , then x[n] = y[n] Thus, frequencies in the neighborhood of
= 0 are called low frequencies, whereas,
frequencies in the neighborhood of = are
Thus, x[n] and y[n] are indistinguishable
called high frequencies
Basic Sequences
Basic Sequences
Frequencies in the neighborhood of = 2 k
Because of Property 1, a frequency o in are usually called low frequencies
the neighborhood of = 2 k is Frequencies in the neighborhood of
indistinguishable from a frequency o 2 k = (2k+1) are usually called high
in the neighborhood of = 0 frequencies
and a frequency o in the neighborhood of v1[n] = cos(0.1 n) = cos(1.9 n) is a low-
= (2 k + 1) is indistinguishable from a frequency signal
frequency o ( 2 k + 1) in the v2[ n] = cos(0.8 n) = cos(1.2 n) is a high-
neighborhood of = frequency signal
Basic Sequences The Sampling Process

An arbitrary sequence can be represented in Often, a discrete-time sequence x[n] is
the time-domain as a weighted sum of some developed by uniformly sampling a
basic sequence and its delayed (advanced) continuous-time signal xa (t ) as indicated
versions below
The relation between the two signals is

x[ n] = 0.5 [n + 2] + 1.5 [n 1] [n 2]
+ [n 4] + 0.75 [ n 6] x[ n] = xa (t ) t =nT = xa (nT ), n = K, 2, 1, 0,1, 2,K
The Sampling Process The Sampling Process

Consider the continuous-time signal
Time variable t of xa (t ) is related to the time
variable n of x[n] only at discrete-time x (t ) = A cos(2 fot + ) = A cos( ot + )
instants tn given by The corresponding discrete-time signal is
2 o
tn = nT = n = 2 n x[ n] = A cos(o nT + ) = A cos(
T
n + )
FT T
= A cos(o n + )
with FT = 1 / T denoting the sampling
frequency and where o = 2 o / T = oT
T = 2 FT denoting the sampling angular is the normalized digital angular frequency
frequency of x[n]
The Sampling Process
The Sampling Process The three continuous-time signals
g1 (t ) = cos(6 t)
If the unit of sampling period T is in
seconds g 2 (t ) = cos(14 t)
g3 (t ) = cos(26 t)
The unit of normalized digital angular
frequency o is radians/sample of frequencies 3 Hz, 7 Hz, and 13 Hz, are
The unit of normalized analog angular sampled at a sampling rate of 10 Hz, i.e.
frequency o is radians/second with T = 0.1 sec. generating the three
The unit of analog frequency f o is hertz sequences
g1[n] = cos(0.6 n) g 2 [n] = cos(1.4 n)
(Hz)
g3[n] = cos(2.6 n)
The Sampling Process

Plots of these sequences (shown with circles) The Sampling Process
and their parent time functions are shown This fact can also be verified by observing that
below:
1
g 2 [n] = cos(1.4 n) = cos((2 0.6) n ) = cos(0.6 n)
0.5
g3[n] = cos(2.6 n) = cos((2 + 0.6)n ) = cos(0.6 n)

Amplitude
-0.5 As a result, all three sequences are identical

-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
and it is difficult to associate a unique
time
continuous-time function with each of these
Note that each sequence has exactly the same sequences
87
sample value for any given n 88
Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Since there are an infinite number of
The above phenomenon of a continuous- continuous-time signals that can lead to the
time signal of higher frequency acquiring same sequence when sampled periodically,
the identity of a sinusoidal sequence of additional conditions need to imposed so
lower frequency after sampling is called that the sequence {x[n]} = {xa (nT )} can
aliasing uniquely represent the parent continuous-
time signal xa (t )
In this case, xa (t ) can be fully recovered
from {x[n]}
Example - Determine the discrete-time
signal v[n] obtained by uniformly sampling The sampling period is T = 1 = 0.005 sec
200
at a sampling rate of 200 Hz the continuous- The generated discrete-time signal v[n] is
time signal thus given by
va (t ) = 6 cos(60 t) + 3 sin(300 t) + 2 cos(340t) v[ n ] = 6 cos( 0.3 n) + 3 sin(1.5n) + 2 cos(1.7 n)
+ 4 cos(500t ) + 10 sin(660t ) + 4 cos( 2.5 n) + 10 sin( 3.3 n)
= 6 cos( 0.3n ) + 3 sin(( 2 0.5 ) n ) + 2 cos(( 2 0.3 ) n)
Note: va (t ) is composed of 5 sinusoidal
+ 4 cos(( 2 + 0.5 ) n) + 10 sin(( 4 0.7 ) n)
signals of frequencies 30 Hz, 150 Hz, 170
Hz, 250 Hz and 330 Hz

= 6 cos( 0.3 n) 3 sin( 0.5 n) + 2 cos( 0.3 n) + 4 cos( 0.5 n) Note: An identical discrete-time signal is
10 sin( 0.7 n) also generated by uniformly sampling at a
= 8 cos( 0.3 n) + 5 cos( 0.5 n + 0.6435) 10 sin( 0.7 n) 200-Hz sampling rate the following
continuous-time signals:
Note: v[n] is composed of 3 discrete-time
wa (t ) = 8 cos( 60 t) + 5 cos(100 t + 0.6435) 10 sin(140 t)
sinusoidal signals of normalized angular
frequencies: 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7 g a (t ) = 2 cos( 60 t) + 4 cos(100 t) + 10 sin( 260 t)
+ 6 cos( 460 t) + 3 sin( 700 t)

2o On the other hand, if T < 2o , the
Recall o = normalized digital angular frequency will
T
foldover into a lower digital frequency
Thus if T > 2o , then the corresponding o = 2o / T 2 in the range < <
normalized digital angular frequency o of because of aliasing
the discrete-time signal obtained by Hence, to prevent aliasing, the sampling
sampling the parent continuous-time frequency T should be greater than 2
sinusoidal signal will be in the range < < times the frequency o of the sinusoidal
No aliasing signal being sampled
Generalization: Consider an arbitrary The condition to be satisfied by the
continuous-time signal xa (t ) composed of a sampling frequency to prevent aliasing is
weighted sum of a number of sinusoidal called the sampling theorem
signals A formal proof of this theorem will be
xa (t ) can be represented uniquely by its presented later
sampled version {x[n]} if the sampling
frequency T is chosen to be greater than 2
times the highest frequency contained in
xa (t )

Ch2 (1) Handouts 3e

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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:

Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation

Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:

3 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 4 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:

Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:

Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:

Finite-length (also called finite-duration or

A length-N sequence is often referred to as

The length of a finite-length sequence can

13 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 14 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:

obtained by zero-padding x[n] = n 2 , 3 n 4

If N1 0, a right-sided sequence is called a

Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:

19 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 20 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Basic Operations Basic Operations

Basic Operations Basic Operations

Basic Operations Basic Operations

33 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 34 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

If R > 1, the process called interpolation

Sampling Rate Alteration

two consecutive samples of the input

xu [n] = -0.5 -0.5

Sampling Rate Alteration Sampling Rate Alteration

samples are removed: 0.5 0.5

41 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 42 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

An even sequence An odd sequence

Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences

Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences

Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences

51 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 52 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences

53 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 54 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences

59 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 60 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

Classification of Sequences: Other Types of Classifications

Other Types of Classifications Other Types of Classifications

Example - The sequence n =

Unit step sequence - 2

Basic Sequences Basic Sequences

x[ n] = A e je( o + jo ) n = xre [n] + j xim [n],

where -0.5 -0.5

xre [n] = A eon cos(o n + ), -1

Basic Sequences Basic Sequences

is the fundamental period of the sequence

10 5 To verify the above fact, consider

Basic Sequences Basic Sequences

Basic Sequences Basic Sequences

Basic Sequences The Sampling Process

The relation between the two signals is

The Sampling Process The Sampling Process

The Sampling Process

g3[n] = cos(2.6 n) = cos((2 + 0.6)n ) = cos(0.6 n)

-0.5 As a result, all three sequences are identical

The Sampling Process The Sampling Process

The Sampling Process The Sampling Process

93 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra 94 Copyright 2005, S. K. Mitra

The Sampling Process The Sampling Process

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