T&D feature headline

Frequency Response Analysis

for Condition Assessment of
Power Transformers
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) is recognised as a powerful tool for the detection
of mechanical deformations. Additionally, electrical failures such as short circuits
between turns and failures in other elements of the active part of transformers such
as core, clamping structure and leads, can be reliably detected and diagnosed.
This article summaries the foundations of the FRA method and illustrates its application
in the condition assessment of power transformers.

By Juan L. Velsqueza, Michael Krger, Alexander Kraetge, OMICRON Electronics GmbH

A
s a consequence from liberalisation, investment in new
transmission equipment has significantly declined over the last
15 years. Many transformers are well beyond their intended life
and are operated under increasing stress. As a result, business in the
electrical sector has dramatically changed and for that, it is imperative
to look for new opportunities and strategies to enable utilities to survive
in this changed world. As a reaction of the utilities to these changes,
new maintenance concepts such as condition based maintenance
(CBM), have been proposed (see Figure 1). The CBM is mainly based
on the on-line monitoring of key parameters and scheduling of the
maintenance tasks according to the condition records.

Figure 2 Failure statistics in power transformers

Figure 1 Evolution of maintenance strategies in the electrical sector.

CM: Corrective Maintenance, TBM: Time Based Maintenance,
CBM: Condition Based Maintenance, RCM: Reliability Cantered
Maintenance, AM: Asset Management, RM: Risk Management
In power transformers not all of the failure modes can be monitored
on-line. As an example, the published failure statistics are presented
in Figure 2. As can be appreciated, the failure modes can be grouped
in components. By on-line monitoring the detection of problems
in components such as insulation and OLTC can be achieved. But
problems in winding can only be detected when a defect is already
turned into a failure. For understanding this statement a typical failure
mechanisms in windings is illustrated in Figure 3. In this example, due
to an external short circuit, deformations in the clamping structure or
in the windings can take place, which at the same time will lead to
axial forces that might fatigue the solid insulation between turns or
discs. Subsequently, the damage in the insulation will lead to a short
circuit (failure).
Figure 3 Typical failure mechanism of windings
In order to avoid failures, the methods used as part of the condition
assessment should be able to detect deformations. Traditionally for
the detection of both radial and axial deformations, leakage reactance
measurements are carried out. However, the limitations of leakage
reactance measurements in the detection of deformations have
been proven. Therefore, the application of more effective methods
is imperative. The FRA method has been recognised as the unique
method capable of overcoming the limitations of the traditional ones
due to its sensitiveness to the detection of small geometrical changes
in the components of the active part of power transformers.
The literature gives evidence of successful applicability of the
FRA method in power transformers. Moreover, some efforts in the
direction of the standardisation have been carried out. Continued4
Frequency Response Analysis is a powerful
and sensitive method to test and evaluate
the condition of the windings, core and
internal structure of power transformers.
OMICRONs FRAnalyzer uses the SFRA
principle (sweep frequency), the international
industry standard. It is extremely small
and light-weight, for optimal application
in the field.
A unique, innovative connection technique short circuit testing, integrity verification
allows the highest level of repeatability of transformers after transport, condition
and reliability. The FRAnalyzer comes with assessment after high transient fault currents
easy-to-use software which supports the occurrence and many more applications.
user with integrated expert knowledge, to
Genuine innovation from OMICRON just
support the evaluation and analysis of the
made Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
test results.
simpler than ever - take a closer look!
OMICRON FRAnalyzer applications are
diversified such as: transformer check after
T&D feature headline

Continued from page

It is also worthy to mention that in the past the FRA method was subject
to sceptical judgements. Complaints regarding the repeatability and
reproducibility of the results were a common opinion. The work done
by the CIGRE WG A2.26 showed a good repeatability of the results
even with different FRA instruments. Figure 4 shows the FRA traces
measured at the same bushing with 9 different FRA instruments. A
good reproducibility up to approximately 1.5 MHz was obtained.
Types of measurements
There are different types of FRA measurements. According to the
CIGRE terminology, these measurements can be defined as end to
end (Figure 6), end to end short circuit, capacitive inter-winding
(Figure 7) and inductive inter-winding. The most common type is
the end to end, because this type provides information about both
windings and core. End to end short circuit is normally performed
for on-site measurements in which only problems in windings are of
interest. Inter-winding measurements have been recently introduced
and there is not much experience for the interpretation of these
measurements. Capacitive inter-winding measurements seem to be a
potential type of FRA measurement due to its higher sensitivity in the
detection of radial deformations.

Figure 4 FRA results measured with different instruments at the same

bushing as in Figure 5 but with standardised technique
(a) Connection diagram for end to end FRA test
FRA FOUNDATIONS
The root of the FRA method is the low voltage impulse method (LVI)
which had its first application in 1966. The motivation for the LVI
method was to assist in determining whether transformers under
short circuit test had passed or failed. The LVI method is also known as
impulse frequency response analysis (IFRA). Due to the disadvantages
of the IFRA method from the point of view of signal processing,
noise and repeatability, measurements directly in frequency domain
are preferred. The method in frequency domain is known as Sweep
Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA), which was invented between
1975 and 1977. As illustrated in Figure 5, SFRA consists of applying
a frequency variable low-level sinusoidal signal U at one end of
(b) End to end open circuit and short-circuit FRA plots
a winding and from this point a reference signal U1 is measured.
Figure 6 End to end FRA tests
Simultaneously the output or response signal U2 is measured.

(a) Connection diagram for capacitive inter-winding test

Figure 5 Measurement setup for SFRA measurements

The transfer function H is computed according to (1):

(1)

There are a number of possible methods of presenting the results of

measurements made using the SFRA method. The most widespread
is to plot a graph of the amplitude and the phase against frequency.
The amplitude and phase plots are obtained from the equations (2)
and (3) respectively.
(b) Inductive and capacitive inter-winding FRA plots

(2) (3) Figure 7 Inter-winding FRA tests

3 Transmission & Distribution April/May 2009

 feature headline T&D

Assessment of FRA plots Deformations in windings are mainly related to changes in the
SFRA is a comparative measurement method. This means that results capacitances of the winding. Axial deformations can be seen as
of an actual test are compared to a reference or baseline. changes in the series capacitance (Cs), while radial deformations
Three methods are commonly used to assess the measured traces: between HV and LV windings change the capacitance CHL.
1. Time-based (current FRA results will be compared to previous
results of the same unit)
2. Type-based (FRA of one transformer will be compared to
another of the same design)
3. Phase comparison (FRA results of one phase will be compared
to the results of the other phases of the same transformer)
The preferred method is the time-based comparison. Unfortunately
the so called fingerprint is, in the majority of the cases, not available.
Nevertheless, by a simple comparison of the FRA plots of the phases
or by type-based comparison, a successful assessment of the results
can be achieved. A time-based comparison for assessment of
transportation is shown in Figure 8(a) while in Figure 8(b) a type
based comparison of 5 transformers is illustrated.

Figure 9 Illustration of the parameters RLC of a transformer

For the interpretation it is necessary to distinguish between the effects
of the core and the windings. According to the equivalent circuit
shown in Figure 10, the magnetic components of the transformer
consist in two parts: the core and the windings. The core behaviour
prevails at very low frequencies, while the windings effects (copper
losses, leakage inductances and other parasitic capacitances) could
be neglected. On the other hand, the winding behaviour prevails as
the frequency goes higher.
(a) Time-based comparison for transportation assessment

b) Type based comparison (5 sister units)

Figure 8 Time-based and type-based comparison of FRA plots
Figure 10 Classical equivalent circuit of a power transformer

FRA IN THE DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS OF FAILURE MODES
The failure detection capabilities of the FRA method are based on
the sensitiveness of the transfer function to changes in the electrical
parameters of the transformer shown in Figure 9. The electrical
failures are characterised by changes in the winding resistance and
in the leakage reactance. It is for this reason that electrical failures
can be easily detected by the traditional diagnostic methods.
In Figure 11 a typical FRA plot is described with reference to the
parameters of the equivalent circuit of a transformer. At low
frequencies, from 20 Hz till 1 kHz (or more, depending on the
transformer), the magnetising inductance domains the response.
The first resonance point is typically due to the parallel resonance
created by the magnetising inductance and the parallel or parallel
capacitances of the transformer. Continued4

Figure 11 Understanding FRA plots with reference to the physical parameters of a transformer

www.powertrans.com.au Transmission & Distribution 4

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In Figure 12 the effects of electrical failures and

mechanical deformations in the FRA plots are presented.
In Figure 12(a) by means of phase-based comparison, an
electrical failure (in this case short circuit between turns)
was detected. As expected, the effects of the electrical
failures take place at low frequencies. In Figure 12(b)
the phase-based comparison allowed the detection of
a failure in the winding. In this case, a combination of
deformations and short circuits took place.

CONCLUSIONS
The FRA is a powerful method for the condition
assessment of power transformers. The method consists
of measuring (in time or in frequency domain) the transfer (a) Detection of electrical failures in the FRA plot
function of the windings. Thanks to the advantages of
the frequency domain measurements (SFRA) over the
time domain (IFRA), SFRA is nowadays the preferred
method. Even while this method is relatively new, there
are many cases studies around the world that give
evidence of its potential.

In the early days of this method there was a bit of

reluctance because of the lack of knowledge about the
technique; but as time goes by, it has been seen that a
basic interpretation of the results is not a major issue
and by just understanding the effect of the parameters
of the transformer in the FRA plots and by simple (time-
based, phase-based or construction-based) comparisons,
a judgement about the integrity of the transformer can (b) Detection of major failures in the FRA plot
be undertaken.
Figure 12 Detection of failures by means of phase based comparison of
FRA measurements

5 Transmission & Distribution April/May 2009