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Special issue Invasive species in inland waters of Europe and North America: distribution and impacts
Sudeep Chandra and Almut Gerhardt (Guest Editors)
Research Article
Trinidad Ruiz Tllez * , Elsa Martn de Rodrigo Lpez, Gloria Lorenzo Granado, Eva Albano Prez,
Ricardo Morn Lpez and Juan Manuel Snchez Guzmn
Grupo de Investigacin en Biologa de la Conservacin, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. Elvas s/n. 06071
Badajoz, Spain
*Corresponding author
E-mail: truiz@unex.es(TRT)
Received: 15 October 2007 / Accepted: 12 February 2008 / Published online: 23 March 2008
Abstract
The recent invasion of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (C. Mart.) Solms (1883) in the Guadiana River Basin (Spain) is
described and the distribution of this Amazonian floating plant is analyzed from a geobotanical and chorological perspective.
Georeferenced locations of invasion in Spain and Portugal are presented and the relative growth rate (RGR) and doubling time
(DT) indexes defined by Gopal (1987) were calculated. The sexual reproductive cycles were determined in order to evaluate the
invasive capacity at these latitudes. Predictive models of the plant's potential distribution in the Guadiana River were constructed
based on expert knowledge and using a Geographic Information System, on the basis of the water's physico-chemical parameters.
Given the size of the potential area of distribution, it seems necessary to make provision for an important increase and
subsequent maintenance in the level of the means and logistics targeted at the prevention and control of this weed.
Key words: Eichhornia crassipes, GIS model, growth index, Portugal, Spain, Water hyacinth, aquatic weed
42
T.R. Tllez et al.
43
The Water Hyacinth in the Guadiana River Basin
Abiotic factors
44
T.R. Tllez et al.
River Guadiana ranged between 17.7C and tional dryland farming and livestock raising into
19C (datum taken by averaging the mean large areas of irrigation with the construction of
temperatures at several stations of the ICA very large hydraulic works. This led to agri-
Network Spain's nationwide water quality cultural practices of fertilizer use in which the
monitoring network selected to cover the input of nutrients is often non-sustainable and
affected section). Rather than a limiting growth, which have notably affected the water quality of
temperature is a factor favouring the plant's the Guadiana in its chemical composition.
growth in this part of the River Guadiana. With respect to luminance, E. crassipes is
Another determining factor for the growth of classified as heliophilous. Its fastest growth is at
E. crassipes is pH. This has to be between 6 and 240 000 lux, and its minimum requirement is
8. When the values move outside this interval, 24 000 lux, i.e., it can grow under a broad range
the plant can regulate pH of the medium within of light intensities (Franois 1980). In the River
this range with its growth frequently resulting in Guadiana, a good part of the riparian fringe that
the alkalinization of the water. Maximum growth would naturally exist along the banks (gallery
(number of plants and dry weight) is at pH 7, forest of black poplar, willows, alder, and ash)
with pH 3.24.2 being very toxic for the plant, has been lost. With the lack of shading these
4.24.3 inhibitory, and 4.34.5 possibly habitat are in direct sunlight thus the present-day
inhibitory (Berg 1961). The waters of the River conditions also favour the plant's propagation.
Guadiana have a pH between 7.25 and 8.1 (as The speed of the current must also be taken
measured with the multiparameter Seth Multiline into account. The floating form of the plant does
P4 meter), so that, as was the case with not take root so that it is exposed to the kinetic
temperature, the conditions are near optimal for action of the water current. To be able to
the growth and vegetative reproduction of constitute a stable population it requires the
E. crassipes. support of macrophytes or helophytes (rush or
With respect to nutrient concentrations, plants reed beds) on which to anchor. Since the current
growing where these are low are reported to take facilitates the dispersal of propagules and
on a paler hue of green and a purple colouration stolons, and hence the colonization of new areas,
in the roots (Lugo et al. 1979). Maximum growth it is an abiotic factor of considerable importance
of E. crassipes has been observed at N:21 mg/L, for the potential propagation of the infestation in
P:62 mg/L, and Fe:0.6 mg/L. Deficiency of N or a given territory. Indeed, in the present case this
P has less adverse effect than that of Ca. A lack factor was determinant in the plant's dispersal.
of Ca prevents the plant's vegetative reproduc- Our censuses of propagules in the Guadiana
tion (Desougi 1984), the minimum concentration (July-September 2005) found the greatest rate of
necessary being Ca:5 mg/L (Oki et al. 1978), propagule dispersal to be during September, with
with this element being essential for seed an average of 4.5 propagules in 15 minutes. The
formation (Talatala 1974). Nitrates are the main reason for the differences in dispersal rate in
nutrient responsible for the growth of this different months could be the highly variable
invading plant. Their concentration in the River flow regime of the Guadiana.
Guadiana in 2005 varied between 19.63 to 23.52 There have been interesting studies showing
mg/L in the zones of greatest infestation. that both the depth of the water and changes in
Phosphate concentrations were between 0.02 to water level are important for the growth of this
3.31 mg/L. Therefore, although the phosphate species. The plants have more roots when they
levels were not excessively high, nitrate levels are floating in deep water than in shallow water,
were optimal for growth of the water hyacinth in while the leaf area, and the summer growth of
this section of the infested basin. The mean the plant, are greater in the latter case (Oki and
calcium concentration was 48.58 mg/L (datum Ueki 1984). In rivers infested with E. crassipes
taken by averaging the mean calcium concen- and that are characterized by major fluctuations
trations at the aforementioned stations of the in water level, such as the Nile, there have been
ICA Network) 10 times greater than the some studies on the connection between
minimum required for the plant's vegetative variations in the populations and these ecological
reproduction. factors (Freidel et al. 1978). Major oscillations in
The presence of these nutrients in the river is its water levels are also a characteristic of the
linked to the intense agricultural activity in its Guadiana, not only because it is a Mediterranean
adjacent floodplain. These are fertile soils which river affected by strong summer droughts, but
in the 1960s were transformed from the tradi- also because of the great dams that have been
45
The Water Hyacinth in the Guadiana River Basin
46
T.R. Tllez et al.
47
The Water Hyacinth in the Guadiana River Basin
Figure 5. Map of areas on risk of being recovered by Eichhornia crassipes in the Guadiana River Basin.
48
T.R. Tllez et al.
distribution, it would seem necessary to make Acremonium zonatum and the attack of mites
provision for an important increase and (Charudattan et al. 1978; DelFosse 1976) and
subsequent maintenance in the level of the means weevils (Sanders et al. 1985), although it is
and logistics targeted at the prevention and unclear whether these arthropods are vectors of
control of this weed. the pathogens or the fungal spores are deposited
in the tunnels they create.
Management and control of the E. crassipes There are two pre-requisites for the
infestation integration of chemical control and the use of
insects and phytopathogens: that the concen-
Today there is a global agreement among tration of the chemical is sufficiently low to
scientists and managers that there is no totally leave the plant alive but with reduced vigour and
effective method to eradicate E. crassipes that the substance does not affect the insects, the
indicating the best option is integrated pathogenic agents, or their pathogenicity.
management and control of the weed. Each of Although there has been little attention paid to
the methods that have been studied and used the integration of chemical and biological
have their particular characteristics of time, control, Center et al. (1982) reported that in an
effort, cost, environmental consequences, and experimental study weevils were more effective
efficacy so that the combination of various in combination with a growth retardant. Great
agents has been proposed to best control the caution is needed in selecting which herbicides
plant (Gopal 1987). In the case of the infestation to use together with biological control. Roorda et
of the Guadiana, physical means have been used al. (1980) found that while 2,4-D amine, glypho-
to control the weed (i.e. mechanical removal). sate, and paraquat have very few effects on adult
The results have been positive although in no mites (mortality < 20% at concentrations of 500
sense has the possibility of the evolution of the 1000 mg/l) diquat, diazinon, endosulfan, and
populations been discarded. azinphos-methyl are toxic for both larvae and
At the end of World War II, chemical control adults.
was the main approach for controlling The present trend is the study of a broad
E. crassipes. In the 1960s, various research spectrum of aspects concerning the biological
articles reported on use of herbicides for the control of E. crassipes the effect of nutrients
control of infestations of E. crassipes. Since then on this control (Coetzee et al. 2006), the
various types of herbicides have come on the photosynthetic and biomass productivity of
market showing different degrees of plants affected by biocontrol (Ripley et al.
effectiveness and environmental consequences. 2006), and integrated control with insects and
Those most used have been amitrol, 2,4-D phytopathogens (Jimnez and Balandra 2007). At
amine, diquat, glyphosate, and paraquat (Gopal a general level, in countries where E. crassipes
1987). No chemical control agents have been infestation affects hundreds of thousands of
used in the recent infestation of the Guadiana hectares, integrated control may include several
since Spanish legislation does not presently different measures. For example, the pathogen
permit the use of any herbicide in natural water Cercospora rodmanii can be integrated into
courses. control programs with arthropods such as
The strategy that is presently the centre of Neochetina and sub-lethal doses of chemical
interest for dealing with alien plant weeds is herbicides (Charudattan 1985). In these
biological control. Indeed, Neochetina treatments, the chemical herbicide is used solely
eichhorniae and Orthogalumna terebrantis have to put the plant under slight stress, so that the
a sympatric distribution and a synergic relation- mites or other insects would not be affected as
ship (DelFosse 1977) in weakening E. crassipes. they would be with conventional treatments
They are therefore the most widely used and the (Wright and Center 1984). The arthropod
two species have similar temperature population is most likely to survive the herbicide
requirements. treatment, and will then cause even greater
Insects and other arthropods contribute to damage to the plant by affecting the new shoots.
increased incidence of diseases by damaging the This would also make the plant more susceptible
leaf tissues or by transmitting pathogenic agents. to diseases, which was the reason for the use of
In the case of E. crassipes, a strong correlation mycoherbicides such as C. rodmanii to maximize
has been observed between the presence of the stress on the plant (Charudattan 1985).
49
The Water Hyacinth in the Guadiana River Basin
Notwithstanding the different measures put type and the Zaragoza type, both designed
into practice in different countries around the specifically for the Spanish situation. The
world, the goal of controlling E. crassipes has Huelva-type barriers are placed diagonally
not been attained with much less the eradication across the channel. They are held to the banks,
occuring at present. For that reason, there have with 30-mm corrugated steel posts and welded
been attempts in the last few years to approach rings secured by padlocks and steel cables. They
the control of the plant by putting it to practical consist of elliptical cross-section floats, attached
use, which would also contribute to reducing the to a 40-cm deep wire mesh, with a weighted
cost of its elimination. In the United States of tether to ensure its permanent submersion. The
America, Australia, and South Africa, where the Zaragoza-type barriers are fixed. They are
plant is the cause of great environmental secured by two cast concrete blocks with anchor
problems, there are many centres that specialize rings. Their cylindrical floater design, gives
in its use, and there have been frequent practically null slew and fast vertical oscillation,
recommendations to integrate physical control providing an excellent guarantee of containment
with different forms of using the extracted at sites with a strong current. Altogether, two
biomass. thousand meters of the first and five thousand
Different applications have been found for and two hundred meters of the second have been
E. crassipes. It makes suitable feed for many used. The mechanized extraction techniques used
animals, and can be a source of protein for man. were crane trucks equipped with a grapple,
Its use has been recommended in farming as backhoes with bucket, and thirty five meters
fertilizer and compost for mushroom culture, and boom cranes. Sites of difficult access were
even to improve harvests of certain cereals. It cleaned by manual extraction from motor boats.
has been tested as source of pulp for the On the other hand (GIC 2006), to initiate pilot
production of paper, and there have been trials was recommended in order to investigate
descriptions of its potential for phytoremediation on its use as livestock feed, as fertilizer-compost,
in wastewater treatment (Zimmles et al. 2006; and as a source of energy. Given that the
Evel et al. 2006), including its subsequent use expectations of its use could indirectly
after having been grown in wastewater to encourage expansion of the plant, these pilot
produce biogas (Verma et al. 2006). trials must be performed by enterprises under the
For the case of the Guadiana the measures coordinated direction of organisms of Public
carried out to date by Spain's Ministry of the Administration and under controlled conditions.
Environment have managed to retain the The present situation can be described as
infestation within a seventy five km section of under control with no spread of the plant to the
the river. An urgent procedure plan of action Alqueva Reservoir in Portugal. The guidelines
was set up. This plan is based fundamentally on set out in the Convention on Biological Diversity
physical methods with manual and mechanized have been put into effect. These guidelines
extraction of the plant and the installation of require that once the establishment of an exotic
physical barriers to prevent the spread of the invasive species has been detected, the States
plague downstream. Environmental awareness involved individually or conjointly apply the
measures were also taken through various precautionary principle and adopt measures (i.e.
communications media to obtain the collabo- eradication, containment, and control) to
ration of citizens in preventing the plague. In mitigate detrimental effects.
synthesis, to the date more than two hundred of
thousand metric tons of biomass have been Acknowledgements
extracted, with notable maxima in the campaign
of 2005. This has meant an approximate total Authors wish to thank R. Chatwin for the translation of the
cost of more than eight million euros. original manuscript. This work was funded by Junta de
Extremadura, Consejera de Infraestructuras y Desarrollo
In order to prevent propagation, an important Tecnolgico (3PR05A099) and Convenio de Colaboracin
dam (Montijo) was drained dry through its de la Universidad de Extremadura y Confederacin
bottom gates, and the plants that were left Hidrogrfica del Guadiana, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.
stranded were collected. Steel gratings of
minimal aperture were installed to prevent
propagation via the two large irrigation canals
leaving this reservoir, and barriers were put in
place. Two types of barrier are in use, the Huelva
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T.R. Tllez et al.
51
The Water Hyacinth in the Guadiana River Basin
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Annex 1.Presence of the natural populations of Eichhornia crassipes plants in the Iberian Peninsula.
Location coordinates
Location Habitat Dates of records Reference
Latitude Longitude
SPAIN
La Aljaima (River
3644'N 0440'W River Before 2004 GIC 2005
Guadalhorce)
PN Doana (Almonte, Garca-Murillo et al.
3715'N 0631'W Wetland Before 2004
Huelva) 2004
River Algar (Altea) 3830'N 0010'E River July 1998 Piera et al. 1999
Bolulla 3840'N 0010'E Stream July 1988 Carretero 1989
Valverde de Mrida 3850'N 06 10W River October 2004 GIC 2005
San Pedro de Mrida 3850'N 0620'W River May 2005 GIC 2005
Valdetorres 3850'N 0630'W River May 2005 GIC 2005
Son Navata (Felanitx) 3928'N 0306'E Pond August 2005 Majol 2006
Mrida 3850'N 0600'W River May 2005 GIC 2005
Yelbes 3900'N 0550'W River May 2005 GIC 2005
Medelln 3900'N 0600'W River October 2004 GIC 2005
Villagonzalo 3900'N 0610'W River May 2005 GIC 2005
Partida de Patos 3950'N 0000'E River June 1992 Tirado et al. 1994
Navalmoral de la Mata 3950'N 0530'W Pond November 1997 Rico 2001
Talayuela (Arroyo
3960'N 0527'W Stream October 2005 GIC 2006
Fresnedoso & Santa Mara)
Ulls de lArispe (Ebro
4040'N 0035'E Wetland Beginning of 1990 Dana et al. 2004
Delta)
Squia de la Plana 4000'N 0000'E River November 1992 Tirado et al. 1994
Laguna de Arnao Gonzlez Costales
4330N 0701'W Pond Beginning of 2004
(Castropol) 2006
PORTUGAL
Leziria 3820'N 0830'W Canals Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
River Sado 3820'N 0840'W River Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Comporta 3820'N 0850'W Ricefield Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Setbal 3830'N 0910'W Ricefield Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Canha 3840'N 0850'W River Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Alcochete 3840'N 0900'W Wetland Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Elvas, Torre de la Bolsa 3850'N 0710'W River Before 1960 Anthos 2006
Ribeira Estaao do Lauve 3850'N 0830'W Canals Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
River Soraia 3850'N 0850'W River Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Benavente 3850'N 0900'W Stream Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
River Sto. Estvo 3900'N 0850'W River Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Vilafranca da Xira 3900'N 0900'W Canals Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Santarem 3910'N 0830'W Canals Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Chamusca, Vila Nova da
Barquinha River Xarrama, 3920'N 0830'W River Between 1939 and 1976 Moreira et al. 2005
Torrao
53