Track Structure Design

Chapter “Track Structure Design
Table of Contents
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4-l
4.2 TRACK AND WHEEL GAUGES AND FLANGEWAYS 4-1

4.2 1 Vehicle Truck Factors 4-l
4.2.2 Standard Track and Wheel Gauges 4-2
4.2.2.1 Railroad Gauge Practice 4-2
4.2.2.2 Transit Gauge Practice 4-3
4.2.2.3 Gauge Issues for Joint LRT and Railroad and
Mixed Fleet Operations 4-4
4.2.2 4 Gauge Issues for Embedded Track 4-5
4.2.2.5 Non-Standard Track Gauges 4-6
4.2.3 Gauge Measurement Location 4-7
4.2.4 Rail Cant and Wheel Taper-Implications for Track Gauge 4-7
4.2.4.1 Tapered Wheel Tread Rationale 4-7
4 2.4.2 Asymmetrical Rail Grinding 4-8
4.2.4.3 Variation of Rail Cant as a Tool for Enhancing
Truck Steering 4-9
4.25 Track Gauge Variation 4-10
4.2.6 Considerations for Determination of Appropriate Gauge 4-l 0
4.2.6.1 Gauge for Tangent Track 4-10
4.2.6.2 Gauge for Curved Track 4-l 0
4.2.7 Fiangeways 4-11
4.2.8 Guarded Curves and Restraining Rails 4-12
4.2.8.1 Curve Double Guarding 4-13
4.2.8.2 Restraining Rail Design 4-13
4.2.9 Gauge Determination Analysis 4-l 3
4.2.9.1 Nytram Plot-Truck-Axle-Wheel Positioning on Track 4-14
4.2.9.2 Filkins-Wharton Flangeway Analysis 4-19
4.2.10 Gauge Implications of Track Construction and
Maintenance Tolerances 4-24
4.3 TRACK SUPPORT MODULUS 4-26

4.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity 4-26
4.3.2 Track Modulus of Various Track Types 4-27
4.3.2.1 Ballasted Track 4-27
4.3.2.2 Direct Fixation Track 4-28
4.3.2.3 Embedded Track 4-29
4.3.3 Transition Zone Modulus 4-30
4.3.3.1 Interface Between Track Types 4-30
4.3.3.2 Transition Zone Design Details 4-31
4 3.3.3 Transition Zone Improvements 4-31
4.3.3.3.1 Transition from Direct Fixation Track to
Ballasted Track 4-31
4-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
4.3.3.3.2 Transition from Embedded Track to

Ballasted Track 4-31
4.3.3.3.3 Design Recommendation 4-33
4.4 BALLASTED TRACK 4-33
4.4.1 Ballasted Track Defined 4-33
4.4.2 Ballasted Track Criteria 4-34
4 4.2.1 Ballasted Track Rail Section and Track Gauge 4-34
4.4.2.2 Ballasted Track with Restraining Rail 4-34
4.4.2.3 Ballasted Track Fastening 4-34
4.4.3 Ballasted Track Structure Types 4-34
4.4 3.1 Ballasted Track Resilience 4-35
4.4.3.2 Timber Crosstie Ballasted Track 4-35
4.4.3.2.1 Timber Crosstie Fastening 4-36
4.4.3.2 2 Timber Crossties 4-37
4.4.3.3 Concrete Crosstie Ballasted Track 4-37
4.4.3.3 1 Concrete Crosstie Fastening 4-37
4.4.3 3.2 Concrete Crossties 4-39
4.4 4 Crosstie Spacing 4-39
4.4.4.1 Crosstie Spacing-Tangent/ Curved Track 440
4.4.5 Special Trackwork Switch Ties 4-41
4.451 Timber Switch Ties 4-41
4.4.5.2 Concrete Switch Ties 4-42
4.4.6 Ballast and Subballast 4-42
4.4.6.1 Ballast Depth 4-43
4.4.6.2 Ballast Width 4-43
4.4.6.3 Subballast Depth and Width 4-43
4.4.6.4 Subgrade 4-44
4.4.7 Ballasted Track Drainage 4-44 ’
4.4.8 Stray Current Protection Requirements 4-44
4.4.9 Ballasted Special Trackwork 4-45
4.4.10 Noise and Vibration 4-45
4.4.11 Transit Signal Work 4-45
4.4.12 Traction Power 4-46
4.4.13 Grade Crossings 4-46
4.5 DIRECT FIXATION TRACK (BALLASTLESS OPEN TRACK) 446
4.5.1 Direct Fixation Track Defined 4-46
4.5.2 Direct Fixation Track Criteria 4-47
4.5.2.1 Direct Fixation Track Rail Section and Track Gauge 4-47
4.5.2.2 Direct Fixation Track with Restraining Rail 4-47
4.5.2.3 Direct Fixation Track Fastener 4-47
4.5.2.4 Track Modulus 4-47
4.5.3 Direct Fixation Track Structure Types 4-47
4.5.3.1 Cementitious Grout Pads 4-48
453.1 .I Cementitious Grout Pad on Concrete Surface 4-48
4-ii
Track Structure Design
4.5.3.1.2 Cementitious Grout Pad in Concrete Recess 4-49

4.5.3 1.3 Cementitious Grout Material 4-49
4 5.3.2 Reinforced Concrete Plinth 4-50
4.5.3.2.1 Concrete Plinth in Tangent Track 4-50
4.5.3.2.2 Concrete Plinth on Curved Track 4-51
4.5.3.2.3 Concrete Plinth in Guarded Track with
Restraining Rail or Safety Guard Rail 4-51
4.5.3.2.4 Concrete Plinth Lengths 4-52
4.5.3.2.5 Concrete Plinth Height 4-54
4.5.3.2.6 Direct Fixation Vertical Tolerances 4-54
4.5.3.2.7 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar Design 4-54
4.5 3.3 Direct Fixation Fastener Details at the Rail 4-56
4.5.3.4 Direct Fixation “Ballastless” Concrete Tie Block Track 4-57
4.5.4 Direct Fixation Track Drainage 4-59
4.5.5 Stray Current Protection Requirements 4-60
4 5.6 Direct Fixation Special Trackwork 4-60
4.5.8 Transit Signal Work 4-61
4 5.9 Traction Power 4-61
4.6 EMBEDDED TRACK DESIGN 4-61

4 6.1 Embedded Track Defined 4-61
4.6.2 Embedded Rail and Flangeway Standards 4-62
4.6.2.1 Embedded Details at the Rail Head 4-62
4.6.2.2 Wheel/Rail Embedment Interference 4-63
4.6.3 Embedded Track Types 4-64
4.6.3.1 Non-Resilient Embedded Track 4-64
4.6.3.2 Resilient Embedded Track 4-65
4.6.3.3 Super Resilient Embedded Track (Floating Slab) 4-66
4.6.3.4 A Special Resilient Rail Installation for Vibration
Sensitive Zones 4-67
4.6.4 Embedded Track Structure Types 4-67
4.6.4.1 Concrete Slab Track Structure 4-67
4.6.4.1 .I Rail Installation 4-68
4.6.4.1.2 Stray Current Protection Requirements 4-70
4.6.4.1.3 Rail Embedment Materials 4-72
4.6.4.1.4 Embedded Track Drainage 4-75
4.6.4.2 Ballasted Track Structure With Embedment 4-76
4.6.5 Embedded Special Trackwork 4-78
4.6 7 Transit Signal Work 4-80
4.6.8 Traction Power 4-80
4.6.9 Typical Embedded Concrete Slab Track Design Guideline 4-80
4.6.10 Turf Track: Another Type of Embedded Track 4-84
4.7 REFERENCES 4-86
4-iii
List of Figures
Figure 4.2.1 Standard Wheel Gauge-AAR (Railroad) 4-3
Figure 4.2.2 (Recommended) Standard Wheel Gaug-Transit System 4-4
Figure 4.2.3 Gauge Line Locations on 115 RE Rail Head 4-7
Figure 4.2.4 Rail Cant Design and Wheel Contact 4-9

Figure 4.2.5 Nytram Plot-Modified AAR-IB Transit Wheel 4-15
Figure 4.2.6 Nytram P/of-l428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 1828 Ax/e Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-16
Figure 4.2.7 Nytram Plot-1428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-I 7
Figure 4.2.8 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-I 7
Figure 4.2.9 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-l 9
Figure 4.2.10 Nytram Plot-Rotated Truck Position on Track,
Transit Wheel Gauge 4-20
* Figure 4.2.11 Nytram Plots-Rotated Truck Position on Track,
AAR Wheel Gauge 4-21
Figure 4.2. I2 Filkins- Wharton Diagram for Determining Flangeway
Widths 4-23
Figure 4.2.13 Filkins- Wharton Plot to Establish Flangeways 4-24
Figure 4.3.1 Track Transition Slab 4-32
Figure 4.4.1 Ballasted Single Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie) 4-36
Figure 4.4.2 Ballasted Double Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie) 4-36
Figure 4.4.3 Ballasted Single Track, Curved Track (Timber Crosstie) 438
Figure 4.4.4 Ballasted Double Track, Curved Track (Timber Crosstie) 4-38
Figure 4.5.1 Cementitious Grout Pad Design-Direct Fixation Track 4-48
Figure 4.5.2 Concrete Plinth Design-Tangent Direct Fixation Track 4-50
Figure 4.5.3 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Direct
Fixation Track 4-52
Figure 4.5.4 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Guarded
Direct Fixation Track with Restraining Rail 4-52
Figure 4.5.5 Concrete Plinth Lengths 4-53
Figure 4.5.6 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar Design 4-55
4-iv
Figure 4.5.7 Rail Cant and Base of Rail Positioning 4-58
Figure 4.5.8 Encased Concrete Crosstie 4-59
Figure 4.5.9 Standard LVT System 4-59
Figure 4.6.1 Embedded Rail Head Details 4-63
Figure 4.6.2 Special Resilient Rail Installation for Vibration

Sensitive Zones 4-67
Figure 4.6.3 Concrete Slab with Two Individual Rail Troughs 4-68
Figure 4.6.4 Two-Pour Concrete Slab with Two Individual

Rail Troughs 4-68
Figure 4.6.5 Three-Pour Concrete ‘Bathtub” Installation 4-68
Figure 4.6.6 Initial Rail Installations-Base Material 4-69
Figure 4.6.7 Rail Fastening Installations 4-70
Figure 4.6.8 Insulating Surface Barrier at Trough Edges 4-71
Figure 4.6.9 Extruded Elastomer Trough Components 4-72
Figure 4.6.10 Polyurethane Trough Filler with Web Blocks 4-73
Figure 4.6.11 Direct Fixation Fastener with Internal Drain System 4-74
Figure 4.6.12 Cut Away Section Embedded Track Drainage Chase 4-77
Figure 4.6.13 Ballasted Track Structure with Embedment 4-77
Figure 4.6.14 Special Trackwork-Embedded “Bathtub” Design 4-79
Figure 4.6.15 Typical Embedded Track Design 4-81
Figure 4.6.16 Turf Track-Another Type of Embedded Track 4-85
List of Tables
Table 4.2.1 Track Construction Tolerances 4-25
Table 4.4.1 Ballasted Track Design Parameters 4-41
4-v
CHAPTER ATRACK STRUCTURE DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION diameter wheels, short stub single wheel

axles, and a wide variety of truck axle
The design standards for contemporary light spacings and truck centers-all of which
rail transit (LRT) track structures, whether in affect the vehicle’s interface with the track
an aerial, at-grade, or tunnel environment, structure. In some cases, multiple variations
differ considerably from the principles for of these factors can occur on a single car. A
either “heavy” rail transit or railroad service. common situation involves smaller diameter
The varied guideway environments in which wheels and a shorter truck wheelbase on the
an LRT system can be constructed result in center truck of a partial low-floor light rail
horizontal and vertical track geometry that vehicle. If these parameters are not carefully
often affects light rail vehicle (LRV) design considered in track design, the vehicle’s
and performance. Consequently, the light rail tracking pattern can be susceptible to hunting,
track designer must consider not only the truck skewing in curves, and unpredictability
track geometry, but also the characteristics of at special trackwork. The track gauge-to-
the LRV and how it responds to the guideway wheel gauge relationship is especially
geometry This is particularly true in important in controlling these operational
embedded track located in streets. Embedded performance features.
track construction constitutes the greatest
challenge to the light rail track designer. In general, reducing the lateral clearance
between the wheel flange and rail head, either
through increasing the wheel gauge or
4.2 TRACK AND WHEEL GAUGES AND decreasing the track gauge, improves wheel
FLANGEWAYS tracking of the rail by keeping the truck square
to the rails. This reduces hunting, skewing,
The determination of the correct dimensions and flange attack and results in improved
to be used for track and wheel gauges and for performance through curved track and special
the widths of the flangeways through special trackwork. Vehicle wheel gauge will generally
trackwork and other guarded portions of the not vary within a given LRV fleet although
track structure is the most critical activity to be cases have occurred where the wheel gauge
undertaken during track design. If these and wheel contour of a new vehicle
dimensions are not carefully selected to be procurement have not matched that of the
compatible with the rail vehicle(s) that will transit agency’s existing fleet. The track
operate over the track, unsatisfactory
designer should take steps to ensure that the
performance and excessive wear of both the vehicle designer does not select wheel
track structure and the vehicle wheels will parameters independent of track design.
occur.
If, as is common, there are several series of
vehicles in use on a rail transit line, each with
4.2.1 Vehicle Truck Factors
a different combination of truck
New, state-of-the-art LRV designs, particularly characteristics, the track designers must
“low-floor” LRVs, incorporate many features consider the worst-case requirements of each
car series and optimize the track gauge
radically different from heavy rail metros and
railroads. These may include smaller parameters accordingly.
4-l
4.2.2 Standard Track and Wheel Gauges 4.2.2.1 Railroad Gauge Practice
North American railroads set track and wheel
The majority of contemporary rail transit mounting gauges in accordance with criteria
systems nominally utilize “standard” track established by the Mechanical Division of the
gauge of 1435 mm (56-l/2 inches). This track Association of American Railroads (AAR) and
gauge stems from 18th century horse drawn the American Railway Engineering and
railways used by English collieries, where Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA).
track gauge was dictated by the common AAR standard wheel gauge is defined as 55
wheel-to-wheel “gauge” of the wagons used to 1 l/16 inches (equivalent to 1,414 millimeters)
haul the coal. This wagon gauge can be and is measured 518 of an inch (15.9
traced back to ancient times, where it was millimeters) below the wheel tread surface.
used on Roman chariots because it The AREMA definition of track gauge is
approximately matched the center-to-center measured at the same distance below the top
distance of a pair of war horses. This made it of rail. These gauge standards have been
easier for the horses to follow the wagon ruts incorporated in many contemporary LRT track
in the roads. While many different track designs to accommodate possible joint
gauges were adopted over the years, none railroad and LRT operations.
have proven to be either as popular or
practical as standard gauge. If wheels using the current AAR-IB wheel
profile are mounted at standard AAR wheel
Track that is nominally constructed to gauge, and the wheel and axle assembly is
standard gauge can actually be tighter or centered between the rails at standard track
wider than 1435 mm depending on a variety of gauge, the horizontal clearance between the
circumstances. The track gauge can be wheel and the rail at the gauge line elevation
adjusted along the route so as to optimize is 13/32 inch or 10.3 millimeters as shown in
vehicle-to-track interaction. Conditions that Figure 4.2.1. This results in total freeplay
can require gauge adjustments include track between correctly mounted and unworn
curvature, the presence or lack of curve guard wheelsets and exactly gauged rails of 13116
rails, rail cant, and several vehicle design inch or almost 21 millimeters.
factors. Vehicle factors include wheel
diameter; wheel tread taper and width; wheel It is important to recognize that railroad gauge
flange shape including both height and practices generally evolved in a different
thickness; the distance between axles; and environment than transit operations.
the wheel gauge or distance between wheels Particularly in curved tracks, railroad criteria is
mounted on a common axle. predicated on the use of equipment that
generally has much larger diameter wheels
While nominal standard gauge is nearly than those used on transit vehicles. In
universal for both electric rail transit and addition, both the maximum wheelbase and
“steam” railroads, different requirements of the number of axles that might be mounted on
these modes resulted in appreciably different a rigid truck frame are usually much greater.
details, such as where the track gauge is Steam locomotives in particular could have
measured, under what conditions it is varied, wheels over 1800 millimeters (6 feet) in
and the amount of freeplay that is required diameter, with up to five such sets of wheels
between the wheel flanges and the sides of on a rigid frame. Even contemporary diesel
the rails
4-2
The metric equivalents of the ATEA standard

track and wheel gauges were 1,435 and 1,428
millimeters (56-l/2 inches and 56-114 inches),
respectively, and were measured 6
millimeters (l/4 inch) below tread height. In
addition, some transit systems tightened the
track gauge in tangent track, taking advantage
of a compound curve gauge corner radius that
was rolled into the head of some ATEA girder
rails ATEA standards are generally followed
by those North American light rail systems
that predate the renaissance of light rail transit
Figure 4.2, f Standard Wheel Gaug-AAR that began in the late 1970s. European
(Railroad) tramways developed similar standards
although it is important to note that, in general,
locomotives can have wheels that are over 1 European street railways use wheel flanges
meter (3.2 feet) in diameter, with three wheel that are even smaller than those promulgated
and axle sets on trucks that can have an by ATEA.
overall wheelbase of nearly 4 meters (13 feet).
By contrast, contemporary rail transit vehicles The transit type standards for wheel gauge
rarely have wheels over 711 mm (28 inches) have several advantages:
in diameter, never have more than two axles With a tighter gauge relationship, truck
per truck, and generally have maximum “hunting”-the lateral oscillation of a truck
wheelbase distances no longer than about from one rail to the other as it seeks a
2200 millimeters (7 feet). (Refer to Table 2.1.) consistent rolling radius on all wheels-is
The much larger truck features associated more easily controlled. Hunting typically
with railroad equipment dictate wheel gauge- is a tangent track phenomenon and is
to-track gauge relationships that are far less more prevalent at higher vehicle speeds.
stringent than those required for transit The threshold for vehicle hunting is
equipment. Hence, railroad gauge and controlled by the stiffness of the primary
flangeway criteria should not be adopted suspension.
unless both transit and freight railroad Trucks cannot become as greatly skewed
equipment will operate jointly on a common to the track, thereby reducing flange bite
track. in curving.
4.2.2.2 Transit Gauge Practice Flangeways can be appreciably narrower;

Traditional street railway/tramway systems a significant consideration for embedded
developed guidelines for wheel gauge that tracks areas with significant pedestrian
differ considerably from those used by activity.
railroads. In the United States, the most
Generally tight wheel gauge-to-track gauge
common standards for track and wheel
relationships can only be employed when the
mounting gauges were those promulgated by
transit operator does not have to share its
the American Electric Railway Engineering
Association (later renamed the American tracks with a railroad Many contemporary
Transit Engineering Association or ATEA) LRT systems fall into that category and, as a
result, feature a wide variety of vehicle wheel
4-3
gauges while all generally employing standard shares any portion of its route with a freight
track gauge of 1,435 millimeters (56-l/2 railroad, or if future extensions either will or
inches). Table 2.1 in this handbook provides might share freight railroad tracks, then
selected track and wheel gauge standards of conformance with freight railroad gauge and
17 light rail transit systems currently operating other freight geometry constraints will control
in North America. the track design.
As a guideline, Figure 4.2.2 illustrates a When a new light rail system shares track with
recommended wheel gauge of 1421 a freight railroad, freight operations normally
millimeters (56 inches) for transit use with occur only along ballasted track segments. It
standard track gauge. The free play between is unusual for freight trains to share aerial
one wheel and rail is 7 millimeters (0.3 inch). structure or embedded track segments of a
system. Nevertheless, the mixing of rail
freight and LRT operations on any portion of a
system will govern track and wheel gauge
design decisions for the entire system. Even
if the system’s “starter line” does not include
joint operation areas, consideration should be
given to whether future extensions of the
system might share tracks with a freight
railroad.
The key issues to consider in accommodating

mixed operations are the setting of the back-
to-back wheel dimension, guard check gauge,
Figure 4.2.2 (Recommended) Standard and guard face gauge criteria that result from
Wheel Gauge-Transit System a particular wheel setting. Track design
parameters that will be most affected by these
decisions include:
4.2.2.3 Gauge Issues for Joint LRT and
l The practicality of using available girder
Railroad and Mixed Fleet
groove and guard rails that are rolled with
Operations
a specific flangeway width.
For a system with a mixed fleet, compromises
may be required to accommodate a variety of l The flangeway width and track gauge
truck and wheel parameters. This problem is required for effective restraining rail or
not new-early 20th century electric street guard rail applications.
railway track designers frequently had to l Details for guarding of frog points in
adapt their systems to handle not only city special trackwork locations.
streetcars with short wheel base trucks and
relatively small diameter wheels, but also Transit systems that do not share tracks with
“interurban” trolleys that typically had longer a freight railroad may still have a track
wheel base trucks and larger diameter connection at the maintenance facility yard for
wheels. Some trolley companies even offered delivery of freight cars loaded with track
freight service and routinely handled ‘steam” materials or the system’s new light rail
railroad engines and freight cars over portions vehicles. If the system’s maintenance
of their lines. Today, if the light rail system program contemplates movement of railroad
4-4
roiling stock (such as hopper cars full of maintenance-of-way equipment. It is

ballast) over portions of the system, it may be imperative that specific notification be given
necessary to compromise the track design to that the transit system’s gauge standards
accommodate the railroad equipment. This differ from AAR and AREMA standards so that
does not mean wholesale adoption of railroad construction and maintenance equipment do
standards. Provided that the guard check not damage the track.
gauge at turnout frogs allows sufficient space
for AAR back-to-back wheel gauge, freight
cars can usually be moved over open track 4.2.2.4 Gauge issues for Embedded Track
portions of an LRT system at low speeds. It The appropriate track gauge to use in
may be necessary to prohibit any railroad embedded track is highly dependent on the
equipment whose wheels are not precisely rail section (either tee rail or girder groove rail)
mounted, as AAR has tolerances for wheel and the vehicle wheel gauge. In this regard it
settings that are considerably more liberal is very important to note that standard railroad
than those applied to rail transit fleets. wheel contours (e.g. AAR-IB) and railroad
wheel mounting gauges are not compatible
Embedded track areas that utilize narrow with narrow flangeway girder rails presently
flangeway girder rails typically cannot available from European mills if the track is
accommodate movements of railroad rolling built to 1435millimeter (56-112 inch) gauge.
stock through curves with radii less than about The backs of the wheels will bind with the
100 meters, regardless of rail section. Other tram or guarding lip of the girder rail causing
restrictions on railroad equipment movements one flange to ride up out of the flangeway. If
involve the structural capacity of bridges narrow flangeway girder rails are selected,
designed for LRT loads and clearances to such as Ri 59N or Ri 60N, it will be necessary
trackside obstructions such as catenary poles to adopt either a wide wheel gauge or an
and station platforms. equivalent narrow track gauge.
Another category of joint operations is where it If railroad standard wheel gauge must be
is proposed to extend an existing “heavy” rail employed on an LRV because some portion of
transit operation using light rail technology. the route shares track with a freight railroad,
The existing system will already have track wheel clearance to the embedded girder rail
gauge, wheel gauge, and wheel contour track can alternatively be achieved by
standards in place that must be considered in reducing the track gauge only in those areas
the design of the light rail tracks and vehicles where the girder rail is installed. This will
for the new system. If the truck parameters of reduce the wheel-rail clearance at the gauge
the existing rolling stock, such as truck line and may result in unsatisfactory
wheelbase or wheel diameter, are appreciably interaction with railroad equipment.
different from typical LRV designs, Embedded track is typically separated from
compromises will be necessary to achieve joint use track. Railroad equipment
compatible operations. movements, limited to occasional
maintenance work trains at low speed, may be
Even if neither railroad rolling stock nor mixed acceptable.
transit car fleets are a consideration, the
trackwork designer should consider the If routine joint operation with railroad freight
ramifications that track and wheel gauge equipment along an embedded track area is
variations might have for on-track expected, use of narrow flangeway girder rails
4-5
will not be possible. Wide flangeway girder Toronto to 1,581 millimeters (62-l/4 inches)
rails for freight railroad use are provided by on the Philadelphia City system to 1,588
some European rolling mills, but presently millimeters (62-l/2 inches) on the Pittsburgh,
available designs of this type are so wide that New Orleans, and Philadelphia Suburban
the tram does not provide any guarding action systems. Such gauges were typically
for curves or special trackwork. Freight dictated by the municipal ordinances that
railroad girder rail flangeways are also granted the streetcar companies their
generally wider than desirable for pedestrian “franchise” to operate within the city streets.
areas. Such was not the case with girder rails In such legislation it was typically specified
made in North America until the mid-1980s; that the rails should be laid at a distance apart
however they can no longer be obtained A that conformed with local wagon gauge,
near match of the head and flangeway thereby providing horse drawn wagons and
contours of North American designs can be carriages with a smoother running surface
achieved by milling the head of the lOW80 than the primitive pavements of the era. The
structural section available from European only new start transit operation in North
mills; however this is an expensive solution America to adopt a non-standard gauge in
that requires careful investigation and recent years was San Francisco’s BART
justification. “heavy” rail system at 1,676 millimeters (66
inches). This gauge was intended to provide
More latitude for joint operations in embedded increased vehicle stability against crosswinds
track can be achieved using tee rails rather for a proposed bridge crossing.
than girder rails; however a separate
flangeway must be constructed and Those systems that employ unusual gauges
maintained in the pavement surface. Refer to typically rue the fact because it complicates
Section 5.2.2.3 of this handbook for additional many facets of track design, construction, and
discussion concerning the possible application maintenance. Contracting for services such
of tee rails to embedded track. as track surfacing and rail grinding becomes
more difficult and expensive since contractors
do not have broad gauge equipment and
4.2.2.5 Non-Standard Track Gauges converting and subsequently reverting
In addition to standard 1,435millimeter standard gauge equipment for a short-term
(56-112 inch) track gauge, several other assignment is time consuming and expensive.
gauges have been used on light rail transit Vehicle procurement is also complicated since
systems in North America and overseas. off-the-shelf truck designs must be modified
Narrow gauge systems, typically 1,000 and potential savings from joint vehicle
millimeters (39-l/3 inches), are relatively procurements cannot be realized. Wide
common in Europe, particularly in older cities gauges also preclude joint operation of a rail
where narrow streets restrict vehicle sizes. transit line on a railroad route since dual
There were once many narrow gauge street gauge special trackwork and train control
railways in North America; however the only systems necessary to operate it are both
known survivors are the Detroit street car and extremely complex and expensive.
the San Francisco cable car system. Broad Accordingly, non-standard gauges are not
gauge trolley systems were more common recommended for new start projects.
Four traditional trolley operations in North Systems that presently have broad gauge
America use broad gauges. These range tracks most likely need to perpetuate that
from 1,496 millimeters (58-718 inches) in
4-6
practice for future extensions so as to head is difficult at best and misleading at

maintain internal compatibility in both track worst, it is recommended that gauge elevation
and rolling stock design. be defined consistent with railroad practice.
For a transit system that is being designed in
metric dimensions, designation of gauge
4.2.3 Gauge Measurement Location elevation at 15.9 millimeters (0.625 inches)
below top of rail is awkward.
Track gauge is measured a specific distance
below top of rail because of the gauge corner As a guideline for metric transit track design, it
radii of the rail and the flange-to-tread fillet is recommended that track gauge be defined
radius of the wheel. The location where at 15 millimeters (0.591 inches) below top of
gauge is measured frequently differs between rail. Wheel gauge will be measured at a
railroad and transit systems. The customary location to suit the height of wheel flange.
gauge elevation point on North American
railroads is 15.9 millimeters (0.625 inches)
below top of rail. Track gauge on traditional 4.2.4 Rail Cant and Wheel Taper-
street railways systems was, and in some Implications for Track Gauge
instances still is, measured at either 6.4
millimeters (0.25 inches) or 9.5 millimeters Rail cant is a significant factor in wheel-to-rail
(0.375 inches) below top of rail. interface. Cant describes the rotation of the
rail head toward the track centerline. It is
intended to complement conical wheel treads
in promoting self-steering of wheelsets
through curves. The cant also moves the
vertical wheel loading away from the gauge
corner of the rail and toward the center of the
ball of the rail. Rails are generally installed at
I:40 cant in both tangent and curved track.
Figure 4.2.3 Gauge Line Locations on 175 Zero cant is usually specified through special
RE Rail Head trackwork so as to simplify the design and
fabrication of trackwork components. Canted
Rail sections with compound gauge corner special trackwork is now often specified for
radii, such as 115 RE section (Figure 4.2.3), high-speed operations over 140 krn/hr (90
do not have a nominally vertical tangent
mph).
section for gauge measurement at the 6.4-
(0.25-inch) or 9.5-millimeter (0.375inch)
height, hence the designation of a lower 4.2.4.1 Tapered Wheel Tread Rationale
elevation. Older rail sections that were Railway wheel treads are typically tapered to
prevalent when the ATEA promulgated its be shaped like a truncated cone. A cone that
standards, such as ASCE and ARA rails, had is lying on a flat surface will not roll straight
gauge corner radii that were smaller and thus forward but one that is supported on a single
more conducive to gauge measurement closer edge-such as a rail-can be made to follow
to top of rail. Except for the 100 ARA-B a straight path if its axis is held rigidly at right
section, such rail is no longer commonly rolled angles (i.e., by an axle) to the direction of
in North America. Since measurement of travel. Railway design takes advantage of this
gauge within the curved portion of the rail geometric relationship to facilitate self-
steering of railway trucks through gentle standard transit wheel gauge and tapered at
curves without requiring interaction between 1:20, theoretically will begin flanging on
the side of the rail head and the wheel curves of radii less than 1350 meters (4,429
flanges. feet).
The usual conicity of the wheel tread is a ratio Wheel profiles that have either a cylindrical
of 1:20. This results in a wheel that has a tread surface or only a slight taper, such as
greater circumference close to the flange than 1:40, do not self-steer through curves; hence
it has on the outer edge of the wheel tread. In flanging is the primary steering mechanism.
curved track, this differential moderately Conical wheels that are not re-trued regularly
compensates for the fact that the outer rail of also lose their steering characteristics
a curve is longer than the inner rail over the because the contact patch becomes
same central angle. The wheel flange on the excessively wide as a significant portion of the
outer wheel of the axle shifts toward the outer wheel tread matches the contour of the rail
rail when negotiating a curve and hence rolls head. Hollow worn wheels develop a “false
on a greater circumference while the inner flange” on the outer portion of the tread and
wheel flange shifts away from that rail and can actually attempt to steer the wrong way as
rolls on a smaller circumference. Thus, the the rolling radius on the tip of the false flange
outer wheel will travel forward a greater can be equal or greater than on the flange to
distance than the wheel on the inner rail even tread fillet. The importance of a regular wheel
though they are both rigidly attached to a truing program cannot be overstated and track
common axle and hence have the same designers should insist vehicle maintenance
angular velocity. As a result, the axle manuals require wheel truing on a frequent
assembly steers itself around the curve just as basis.
a cone rolls in a circle on a table top.
Note that rolling radius differential is
Railroad wheelsets, mounted at AAR standard maximized when the wheel and axle set is
wheel gauge and tapered at 1:20, theoretically free to shift laterally an appreciable amount.
eliminate flanging on curves with radii over An actual cone has a fixed slope ratio; hence
580 meters (1900 feet). Below that radius, it can smoothly follow only one horizontal
contact between the wheel flange and the radius. A wheel and axle set with tapered
gauge side of the rail provides a portion of the wheels, on the other hand, can assume the
steering action. Nevertheless, tapered wheels form of a cone with a variable side slope by
still provide a significant degree of truck self- shifting the free play left and right between the
steering that reduces flanging on curves with wheel flanges and the rails. Hence larger
radii as small as 100 meters (328 feet) For values of track gauge-to-wheel gauge freeplay
sharper curves, flanging is the primary can be beneficial in that regard.
steering mechanism. Transit wheels self-
steer only on relatively large radii curves, due
to the fact that the minimal 6 millimeters (0.2 4.2.4.2 Asymmetrical Rail Grinding
inches) of freeplay between wheel gauge and Rail grinding to remove surface imperfections
track gauge allows only very limited has been performed for decades, but a recent
differential rolling radii on a conical wheel trend has been rail grinding designed to alter
before the wheel begins flange contact with the location of the rail contact patch. By
the rail. A transit wheelset, mounted at grinding an asymmetrical profile on the rail
head, and having distinctly different contact
4-8
patch locations on the high and low rails of a at 1.20 while the high rail remains at 1:40,
given curve, the location of the contact patch then the threshold radius for flanging drops to
on the tapered wheel tread can be optimized, about 750 meters (29.5 feet).
thereby changing the rolling radius. In theory,
a special grinding pattern could be created for $ RAIL
j E CONTACT PATCH
each curve radius, thereby optimizing the I i 11.89 (0.46W) FOR IO‘ RADIUS
7 ! 8 38 (03300') FOR 8' RADIUS
ability of a truck to steer through that curve.
424.3 Variation of Rail Cant as a Tool for

Enhancing Truck Steering
POTENTIALLATERAL
Rail cant variation can improve the rolling WHEELSHIFT 4 (01575')
radius differential on standard rail head

NO CANT
profiles in a manner similar to that achieved
by asymmetrical rail grinding. Aside from the 1:40 ( RAIL
structural implications of loading the rail closer RAiL cANT-+fCONTACT PATOl

! ; 6.32 (0.2490-) FOR IO- RADIUS
to or further from its vertical axis, greater or f ! 509 (OjW2") FOR 8' RADIUS
lesser amounts of cant can be beneficial by

altering the point on the tapered wheel tread
that contacts the rail. Rails installed with no
cant create a contact zone or wear strip that is POTENTIALLATERAL
WHEELSHIFT 4 (01575')
close to the gauge corner of the rail. In rails
I / I
installed with 1:40 or I:20 cant, the contact
patch progresses further from the gauge 1:40 CANT
corner of the rail. Note that the greater the rail
. ^^ 6 RAIL k C CONTACTPATCH
cant, the smaller the rolling radius of a tapered
wheel, which reduces the self-steering effect.
Figure 4.2.4 illustrates the theoretical contact

patch locations measured from the vertical
centerline of the rail. The lateral distance
POTENTIALLATERAL
between the contact patches for 1:40 and 1:20 WHEELSHIFT 4 (01575')
cants is 6.32 millimeters (0.249 inch) for a rail

head radius of 245 millimeters (10 inches). 1:20 CANT
This results in a decrease in circumference at Figure 4.2.4 Rail Cant Design and Wheel
the contact point of 2.0 millimeters (0.8 Contact
inches) for a wheel with a 1:20 taper and a
nominal diameter of 711 millimeters (28 Cant differential, in effect, mimics
inches). While this may appear to be asymmetrical rail profile grinding. However,
insignificant, if the steeper cant is applied to the application of I:20 low rail cant in curved
the inside rail, it will increase the amount of track can be considered even if asymmetrical
curvature the wheelset can negotiate without rail grinding is practiced.
flanging by a significant amount. For
example, a trolley wheelset will flange at a The drawback of differential cant is that it
1,350-meter (4,429-foot) curve radius if both requires that curved track employ different
rails are at 1:40 cant. If the low rail is canted concrete ties than tangent track. Further, the
4-9
curve ties would have right and left hand 4.2.6.1 Gauge for Tangent Track
orientations that would have to be carefully Light rail transit tracks that are constructed
monitored during track construction In direct with conventional tee rails can use standard
fixation and timber tie ballasted track at least 1,435millimeter (56l/2-inch) track gauge in
two types of rail fasteners-l:40 cant and both tangent track and through moderate
I:20 cant-would be required. radius curves without regard to whether
railroad (I,41 5millimeters or 55.7087 inches)
The benefits of differential cant, like those of or transit design standards are used for wheel
asymmetric rail grinding, decline as the gauge. As noted in Section 4.2.2, transit
wheels and rail wear. As wheel treads wear wheel gauge varies considerably between
toward a flat or hollow profile and rails wear to different LRT operations although 1,421
conform with the wheel profile, self-steering millimeters (55.9449 inches) is recommended.
capabilities decline. Once the rail has worn,
the contact patch must be restored to its as- Operations that use the tighter freeplay
designed location by asymmetric rail profile standard generally have fewer problems with
grinding, as it is not practical to modify rail truck hunting. This can be achieved either
cant after installation. through widening the wheel gauge or
narrowing the track gauge. The former
approach is generally recommended. Non-
4.2.5 Track Gauge Variation standard track gauge impacts several aspects
of trackwork design and maintenance
On an ideal light rail system, there would be
including concrete crosstie design, as well as
no need for any variations of the track gauge,
maintenance operations (such as tamping and
thereby producing a completely uniform
grinding) undertaken by on-track vehicles.
environment for the wheel-rail interface. This
is seldom practical, particularly on systems
that have tight radius curves or employ narrow 4.2.6.2 Gauge for Curved Track
flangeway girder rails. When mixed track The threshold radius at which it may be
gauges are employed, the designer should appropriate to alter the gauge in curved tracks
consider rail grinding operations and the will vary based on a number of factors related
adjustment capabilities of state-of-the-art rail to the vehicles that operate over the track.
grinding machines as a means of maintaining Track gauge on moderately curved track can
a reasonably consistent wheel-rail interface normally be set at the standard 1,435
pattern. millimeters (56-112 inches) to accommodate
common wheel gauges. As curves become
sharper, more consideration should be given
4.2.6 Considerations for Determination of
to ensure that sufftcient freeplay is provided to
Appropriate Gauge
prevent wheelset binding. Factors involved in
this analysis are the radius of curve under
Determination of appropriate track gauge is
consideration and wheel diameter, shape of
the heart of this section. The sections that
the wheel flange, wheel gauge, and wheel set
follow detail some of the design conditions
(axle) spacing on the light rail vehicle truck.
that must be accounted for in gauge design.
Systems with mixed fleets and a variety of
A recommended analytical procedure for this
wheel and axle configurations must consider
work is defined in Section 4.2 9 herein.
the ramifications associated with each and
4-10
develop a compromise among the various generally discouraged, sharp curves cannot
requirements. always be avoided.
Conventional wisdom suggests that track Even small gauge increases are usually not
gauge must be widened in curved track; possible if railroad contour flanges are used in
however this axiom is largely based on combination with narrow flangeway girder rails
railroad experience with large diameter because the gauge widening exacerbates the
wheels and long wheelbases. By contrast, problem of back-to-back wheel binding.
transit vehicles with small diameter wheels,
short and narrow flanges, and short The appropriate gauge to be used through
wheelbase trucks will often require no track curved track must be determined through an
gauge widening in moderately to sharply analytical process. One such method is the
curved track. Transit equipment may, development of “Filkens-Wharton Diagrams,”
therefore, require track gauge widening on a graphical method developed about 100
any severely curved track segments. For years ago by Wm. Wharton, Jr. & Co., Inc. of
trucks with wheel diameters less than 711 Philadelphia. Details of this method are
millimeters (28 inches) and axle spacings less described in Section 4.2.9.
than 1980 millimeters (6.5 feet), gauge
increase will rarely exceed 3 to 6 millimeters Reduction rather than widening of track gauge
(l/8 to l/4 inches) even if AAR wheel flanges in curved track has been considered on
are used. Conversely, large diameter wheels, several systems in Europe and at one agency
large flanges, and long wheelbases will in North America as a way to improve vehicle-
require gauge widening at appreciably greater tracking performance when passing through
curve radii than for smaller trucks which may reduced radius curves. It is thought that this
be incompatible with satisfactory operation on could also reduce wheel squeal by limiting
extremely sharp radius curves. As an lateral wheel slip, which is believed to be a
example, light rail vehicles with axle spacings main source of such noise. This is an
of 1828 millimeters (72 inches), wheel interesting concept that requires further
diameters around 650 millimeters (25.5 research and development to generate actual
inches) and wheel flange heights less than 20 performance values. Designers should refer
millimeters (0.8 inches) typically do not to current professional journals and papers for
require any gauge widening for curves with information on this topic that may have been
radii greater than above 35 meters. They can published subsequent to printing of this
also negotiate extremely small radius curves handbook.
as low as 11 meters (36 feet). Vehicles with
larger trucks are typically limited to curve radii
4.27 Flangeways
of at least 25 meters (82 feet} and may require
gauge widening on curves with radii less than Once track gauge and wheel gauge have
60 meters (197 feet). been selected, flangeway widths must be
designed that permit free passage of the
As a guideline, it is recommended that
wheel flange at both special trackwork (e g.,
systems that have numerous sharp curves
frog and frog guard rail flangeways) and on
select vehicles with smaller trucks. While
restraining rails in sharply curved track
curves with radii less than 25 meters are not
sections that require track guarding.
recommended and less than 50 meters are
4-11
The following method of checking track gauge restraining rail bears against the back side of
with vehicle truck and wheel profile and the inside wheel, guiding it toward the curve’s
determining the minimum flangeway widths is center and reducing the lateral contact force
derived from a 1909 report by the Committee of the opposite outside wheel’s flange against
on Way Matters of the American Electric the high rail of the curve This essentially
Railway Engineering Association (AEREA). divides the lateral force between two contact
surfaces and greatly reduces the rate of
The primary concern was to establish lateral wear on the high rail. It also reduces
Rangeway widths to suit the wheel flange on the tendency of the truck to assume the shape
various curves due to the extensive use of of a parallelogram, thereby reducing the angle
girder rails on the street railways. The method of attack between the wheel flange and the
used was a series of wheel-axle-track gauge rail. In all cases, the use of restraining rail in
plots. Similar procedures utilizing computer- a curve will reduce the tendency of the leading
aided drafting will be used in contemporary outside wheel to climb the high rail, thereby
design considering the various tight radius preventing possible derailments.
curves and the various wheel gauges and
wheel profiles available. The radius threshold for employing guarded
track varies between light rail transit agencies.
In addition to track gauge, flangeway widths in Some transit agencies guard any track curves
guarded curves must be considered. Where with radii less than 365 meters (1,200 feet),
adjustable restraining rail is employed, this is while others do not guard track in curves with
dealt with fairly easily. However, girder radii larger than 91 meters (300 feet). Other
groove or girder guard rails cannot be readily operations relate the need for guard rails to
adjusted and will require special vehicle speed and the amount of unbalanced
consideration. superelevation, hence considering the lateral
portion of the W ratio before deciding that the
expense of guarding is warranted. A system
42.8 Guarded Curves and Restraining
with short tramway type wheel flanges will
Rails
have a greater need for guarding than one
that uses railroad type wheels, since the
It is customary in light rail track design to
lateral wheel loading will be distributed over a
provide a continuous guard rail or restraining
narrower contact band along the side of the
rail through sharp radius curves. The
rail head thereby increasing contact stresses.
restraining rail provides additional steering
In theory, a system whose vehicles are
action using the flange of the wheel that is
equipped with a self-steering radial truck
riding on the inside rail of the curve. By doing
design will not need guarded track.
so, the lateral over vertical (L/V) ratio at the
outer wheel can be reduced, which will both
Curve guarding does not usually terminate at
reduce wheel and rail wear and deter possible
the point of tangency of a curve; it extends
derailment.
some distance into the adjacent tangent track.
This distance depends on a number of factors
In a typical LRT installation, the restraining rail
including the resistance to yaw of the vehicle’s
is installed inside the gauge line of the curve’s
suspension system. The conservative
low rail to provide a uniform flangeway,
designer will extend the restraining rail a
typically 35 to 50 millimeters (l-3/8 to 2
distance equivalent to one truck center into
inches) wide. The working face of the
4-12
the tangent track, typically about 10 meters and climb the low rail. The outer restraining
(33 feet). When the curve is spiraled, the rail reduces this derailment potential.
need for guarding typically ends long before
the spiral-to-tangent location In such cases, As a guideline, a typical threshold for
curve guarding can usually be terminated a consideration of double guarded track is for
distance equivalent to one truck center curves with radii of 30 to 38 meters (100 to
beyond the point on the spiral where the 125 feet).
instantaneous radius matches the curve
guarding threshold.
4.2.8.2 Restraining Rail Design
The criteria for beginning curve guarding on Curve guarding on traditional street railway
the entry end of the curve is typically the same systems was most frequently achieved using
as for the exit end, accounting for the a girder guard rail section similar to that
possibility of occasional reverse running train illustrated in Figure 52.1 of this Handbook,
operation. As a guideline, the minimum particularly for track embedded in pavement.
guarding should begin at the tangent-to-spiral For open track design, such as ballasted or
location of a spiraled curve so that the vehicle direct fixation track, a separate restraining rail
trucks are straight prior to entering the mounted alongside the running rail is
guarding threshold spiral curve. commonly used. The restraining rail itself can
be a machined section of standard tee rail,
For additional information on curve guarding which can be mounted either vertically or
and vehicle steering, refer to Section 429.1. horizontally, or a specially rolled steel shape.
For additional information on various types of

4.2.8.1 Curve Double Guarding restraining rail designs, refer to Section 5.3 of
Some transit agencies “double guard” this Handbook.
extremely sharp curves, placing a guard or
restraining rail adjacent to the high rail as well
as the low rail. These installations are 4.2.9 Gauge Determination Analysis
designed to counter the tendency of the
Requisite track gauge and flangeway
second axle on a truck to drift toward the
dimensions in curved track must be
center of the curve, exacerbating the angle of
determined analytically for each combination
attack of the outside wheel on the leading
of vehicle truck factors. To visualize the
axle. In a double restraining rail installation,
positions that the wheel flanges assume with
the restraining rail alongside the inner fail
the rail, a simple and effective graphical
shifts the leading axle of the truck toward the
technique was developed known as the
center of the curve. The outer restraining rail
Filkins-Wharton diagram.
then guides the trailing axle away from center,
helping to ensure that the truck is reasonably
A modified version of the Filkins-Wharton
square to the track, that both axles are in a
diagram, referred to herein as the Nytram
nearly radial orientation, and that the truck
Plot, has been developed for this Handbook
frame is rectilinear rather than
taking advantage of the power of computer
parallelogrammed. In superelevated, sharp
aided design and drafting as an analytical tool.
radius track curves where the vehicle speed is
The Nytram Plot illustrations, beginning with
reduced, the vehicle truck may tend to hug
Figure 4.2.5, show horizontal sections of a
4-13
selected wheel profile that have been derived Wheel Profile Modified 133-millimeter
at the gauge line elevation, at the top of rail, (5.2-inch) AAR-1 B* width
and, where appropriate, at a restraining rail Wheel Diameter 711 millimeters (28
height 19 millimeters (0.75 inches) above the inches)
top of rail. Figure 4.25 illustrates the method Wheel Gauge Transit: 1428 millimeters
of establishing the Nytram Plot. (56.25 inches)
AAR: 1415 millimeters
The plot is derived by sectionalizing both the (55.7087 inches)
side view of a wheel of specific diameter with Axle Spacings 1828 millimeters (72.00
designated flange height and the wheel profile inches)
in the flange area. Projecting points 0 to 9 2300 millimeters (90.55
from both sections as shown, a horizontal inches)
section or “footprint” of the wheel can be Curve Radii 25 meters (82.0 feet)
developed at various heights above or below 150 meters (492.1 feet)
the top of rail elevation. Using these wheel 228 meters (748.0 feet)
sections, the actual vehicle truck axle and * The AAR-1 B wheel profile has been used in
wheel positions can be superimposed on a the example for convenience. Transit profile
section of curved track to simulate the truck in wheels with alternate flanges may be
a radial and skewed position to determine the considered.
“attack angle” and wheel clearances.
Figure 4.2.6 illustrates a vehicle truck with
transit wheel gauge, 1828-millimeter (72-inch)
4.2.9.1 Nytram Plot-Truck-Axle-Wheel axle spacing on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius
Positioning on Track track curve positioned on the centerline of
Filkins-Wharton diagrams produced manually track perpendicular to the radius line. The
were forced to graphically shrink track gauge vehicle wheel plots are taken from Figure
and wheelbase in order to depict an entire 4.2.5. To establish the gauge lines of the
truck assembly on a reasonably sized drafting track a circle is drawn with a 1435 millimeter
sheet. CADD provides the track designer with (56.5inch) diameter centered at the midpoint
the ability to develop a full-sized picture of the of the axle. The track gauge lines (inside and
entire vehicle truck positioned on a curved outside) are drawn tangent to the diameter of
track. These can then either be plotted at the circle. The clearance distances from the
reduced scale or selected portions of the wheels to the gauge line of the rails have
diagram can be printed at full size. been derived using CADD software and
represent the closest point of the wheel plot to
To illustrate the methods involved, a series of the gauge face of the rail. Note that these
figures have been developed that illustrate the clearances differ (are less than) from the
fundamentals of adapting track gauge to calculated wheel gauge-to-track gauge
wheel gauge and wheel contour and
differences of 10 and 3.5 millimeters (0.4 and
positioning of a truck on a segment of curved 0.1 inches) for AAR and transit conditions,
track. To understand the impacts of tight respectively.
curvature, and the ramifications of different
wheel gauge standards and axle spacings, the
figures include the following parameters:
4-14
19 (3/4") ABOVE
TOP OF RAIL
RESTRAINING
RAIL HEIGHT
711 (28 00')

WHEEL OIAMETER-
DESIGN NOTES:
1 TRACK AND WHEEL RELATED DIMENSIONS
PERTAIN TO RAILWAY WHEEL GAUGE FOR (56.50’)
TRANSIT AND RAILWAY JOINT USE TRACK
2 ALTERNATE WHEEL GAUGE FOR RANSIT

USE ONLY TRACK REDUCING THE TRACK
GAUGE TO WHEEL GAUGE CLEARANCE
IS AN ACCEPTABLE ALTERNATIVE.
3 REFER TO TABLE 2.1 FOR OTHER NA

TRANSlT SYSTEM STANDARDS
4. ALTERNATE WHEEL PROFILE IMPLEMENTING LlO (0.39373')

FLAT WHEEL FLANGE FOR FLANGE BEARING SECTIONA CLEARANCE
SPECIAL TRACKWORK IS AN ACCEPTABLE
ALTERNATIVE
5. WHEEL PROFILE SHOWN DERIVED FROM

AAR DWG AAR-13 NF3.
figure 4.2.5 Nytram Plot--Modified AAR-1B Transit Wheel
4-15
hi1Nl~Ut.d CLEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - 0.51 (00201”)
150m CURVE - 3 56 (0 1402”)
228~1 CURVE - 379 (0.1492”)
WHEEL GAUGE
-------.-.-_ ___ ___._.__ __._____-.-.-.---- _._ -.--.-
SEE FIGURE 42.12

FOR FLANGEWAY
MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT DETAILS BY
25m CURVE - 0.19 (0 0075”) FILKINS-WHARTON
150m CURVE - 347 (01366’)
228m CURVE - 3.73 (0 1469’)
Figure 4.2.6 Nytram Plot-1428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing, 25-Meter Curve
Similar plots were undertaken with the same similar scenario to the above illustration was
truck parameters for track curves with 150- undertaken to establish the clearance
and 228-meter (492- and 748-foot) radii. The distances for the three specific track curve
clearance results have been entered on this radii.
figure The intersection angles between the
perpendicular truck and the tangent point to Figure 4.2.8 illustrates a vehicle truck with
the track arc have been calculated and are AAR wheel gauge, 1828 millimeter (72-inch)
shown for the three curve radii for axle spacing on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius
comparison. To determine flangeway widths track curve positioned on the centerline of
and wheel attack angle, truck skewing must track perpendicular to the radius line. The
be considered as described later in this vehicle wheel plots are taken from Figure
section. 4.2.5. A similar scenario to that in Figure
4.2.6 was undertaken to establish the
Figure 4.2.7 illustrates a vehicle truck with clearance distances at the wheels and the
transit wheel gauge, 2300-millimeter (90.55 intersection angle of the truck wheel to the
inch) axle spacing on a 2%meter (82-foot) track arc for the three specific track curve
radius track curve positioned on the center of radii.
track perpendicular to the radius line. A
4-16
MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - -0 34 (-O-0134-)
WHEEL PLOT
150m CURVE - 3.38 (0 1331”)
228m CURVE r 3 66 (0 1441) FROM FIGURE 4.2 5
, 1
I -7!-!
DIAMETER=
mi
STANDARD TRACK
2i C
GAUGE
si
-1
-1428 (56 22”)
WHEEL GAUGE
--.___ __ _
CENTERLINE OF iTRUCK _ ___ _ - c -.-- -.-
.-.-._.___._._.__.______ ____._,-.-_-_-._.~.-.-.-
* I
“2
2"
'X
wiz
DIRECTION OF
-+ TRAVEL
20’ 25m CURVE -
t
2300 (90.55”)
AXLE SPACING SEE FIGURE 4 2 12
FOR FLANGEWAY
MiNlMUM CLEARANCE POINT DETAILS BY
25m CURVE - -0 64 (-0 0252”) FILKINS-WHARTON
15th CURVE - 3 29 (0 1295”) DIAGRAM
228m CURVE - 3 61 (0 1421”)
Figure 4.2.7 Nytram Plot-1428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing, PSMeter Curve
r MINIMUM UEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - 7.02 (0.2764’)
150m CURVE - 10.05 (0.3957”)
228m CURVE - 10.28 (0.4047”)~ 7 . --- PIOT
HIFFI _-
FROM FIGURE 4.2.5
u”I \ I BACK TO BACK

OF WHEELS \.:
zi
ei
\
90
SEE FIGURE 4.2 12

FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
- MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT
2% CURVE - 6.67 (0 2626”)
150m CURM - 9.98 (0.3929’)
228m CURVE - 10.23 (0.4028’
Figure 4.2.8 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing, 25Meter Curve
4-17
Figure 4.2.9 illustrates a vehicle truck with wide gauge at 1435 millimeters (56.5 inches)
AAR wheel gauge, 2300-millimeter (90.55 and 1438 millimeters (56.625 inches),
inch) axle spacing on a 25meter (82-foot) respectively. Track gauge was widened
radius track curve positioned on the center of based on potential wheel binding with 2300-
track perpendicular to the radius line. A millimeter (90.55-inch) axle spacing. The
similar scenario to that in Figure 4.2.6 was drawing indicates:
undertaken to establish the clearance l The sequence of maneuvers required to
distances at the wheels and the intersection position the traversing truck in the curving
angle of the truck wheel to the track arc for the position.
three specific track curve radii. l The angle of attack of the lead wheel to
the outside running rail.
The above illustrations show the relationships
between the various wheel gauges, axles l The measured inside flangeway width to
centers, curve radii and the standard track allow outside wheels to touch or barely
gauge. Had the wheel to rail clearances touch the outside running rail if a
indicated binding or potential binding as in restraining rail is considered.
Figure 4.2.7, the track gauge would have to l The wheel positions once the truck has
be widened. completed the skew and second wheel
contact is made.
The above illustrations depict a truck
superimposed on a track curve perpendicular For comparison, Figure 4.2.11 has been
to the radius line. To simulate the steering developed using AAR wheel gauge with 1828-
action of the vehicle truck traversing through and 2300-millimeter (72- and 90.55-inch) axle
the various track curves, a set of drawings spacings.
with the same truck parameters as above has
been developed. The drawings do not account for either
potential axle swivel that might be permitted
The simulation represents the steering action by a flexible primary suspension system at the
of the truck wherein the lead outside wheel on journal box or any possible twisting or racking
the truck encounters the curved outside rail of the vehicle truck into a parallelogram
resulting in steering or deflecting of the lead configuration. These are conditions that may
axle and the truck. Once the outside wheel be inherent in each agency’s vehicle.
initially contacts the rail, the wheel action
causes the lead axle and the truck to rotate This type of interface study should be
about the contact point seeking a second undertaken with the joint involvement of the
wheel flange to rail contact point if the curve projects vehicle and track designers. The
radius is short and/or the primary suspension drawings do not consider restraining rail;
of the truck is relatively stiff. Trucks with however, a measured inside rail flangeway
moderate self-steering capability may not width has been stated on the drawings as a
encounter the second contact point. reference. If restraining rail is required on a
system due to restricted sharp radius track
Figure 4.2.10 illustrates two vehicle trucks curves, then a similar scenario should be
with transit wheel gauge, 1828-millimeter (72- undertaken using the parameters of the
inch) and 2300-millimeter (90.55-inch) axle vehicle truck and track system to establish the
spacings on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius track
curve. The track gauge is both standard and
4-18
r
25m CURVE - 584 (02299”)
150m CURVE - 987 (03886”)
228m CURE
WHEEL GAUGE
-.- - - - -____ _ _ _._I_____.-- -.-.- -
DIRECTION OF
ic 2300
AXLE SPACING
25m CURVE - 6 15 (0 2421’)
15&n CURVE - 9 79 (0 3854”)
228x CURVE - 10.11 (03980’)
LSEE FIGURE 4212
FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
FILKINS-WHARTON
DIAGRAM
Figure 4.2.9 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing, 25-Meter Curve
flangeway. For extremely sharp radius curves corner of the outside rail. This will divide the
requiring double restraining rails, the same lateral steering force between both wheels
procedures are required to establish both and rails. In practice, this condition may not
flangeway widths. Truck rotation about an be immediately obtained, however, rail wear
initial contact of the inside lead axle wheel on at either the outside running rail or inside
the restraining rail face is possible if the restraining rail will eventually balance the
designer elects to provide clearance at the curving action.
outside lead axle wheel. From the illustrations
it is apparent that the AAR wheel gauge
requires a wider flangeway than the transit 4.2.9.2 Filkins-Wharton Flangeway
wheel gauge due to basic clearances between Analysis
the wheel and the rail. Under these same Flangeway widths are a primary concern
conditions, it may be necessary to increase when girder rail is to be used in the track
track gauge so as to provide either wheel system.
contact on both the restraining rail and the
Victor Angerer, in a paper before the
outside running rail or to provide clearance
Keystone Railway Club (1913), said that
between the outside wheel and its running rail.
“...theoretically for track laid to true ga[u]ge
As a guideline, it is recommended that the every combinafion of radius of curve and
inside restraining rail flangeway width be set wheel base of truck, with a given wheel
to provide dual wheel contact so that the f7ange, calls for a specific width of groove to
inside back face of wheel makes contact with make fhe inside of the flange of fhe inside
the restraining rail face while the outside wheel bear against the guard and keep fhe
wheel is simultaneously contacting the gauge flange of the outside wheel from grinding
4-l 9
RESTRAINING FACE
25m CURM - 39.53 (1 5563’)
15Om CURVE - 37.92 (1 4929’)
22&n CURVE - 3778 (1 4874”)
BACK TO BACK
INITIAL POlNi OF CONTACT

1428 TRANSIT WHEEL GAUGE -
1828 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE
RESTRAINING FACE
-r
25m CURVE - 43 36 (1 7071:)
Dl 15Om CURM - 41.01 (1.6146 )
SECOND POINT 228m CURVE - 40.94 (1 6118’)
OF CONTACT - 1
BACK TO BACK WHEEL GAUGE

-----____ __ ___ _.__-.-.- -.-.-.
ATTACK ANGLE DIRECTION OF

25m CURVE - 2.8889’
150m CURVE - 0 7343’
228m CURVE - 05852
1428 TRANSIT WHEEL GAUGE - ;N;T~AL POINT

OF CONTACT
2300 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURM
TRUCK ROTATION SCENARIO
A LEAD AXLE ROTATED ABOUT CENTER OF TRUCK D CLEARANCES EXISTED BETWEEN ALL OTHER
(POINT -A’) TO DETERMINE WHEEL CONTACT WITH WHEELS AND RAIL HEADS
RUNNING RAIL (INITIAL CONTACT POINT 61).
E USING THIS ROTATED TRUCK POSITION AND
8 HOLDING OUTSIDE VMEEL PowoN (POINT 61) MiEEL NYTRAM PLOT. THE ATTACK ANGLE &
ENTIRE TRUCK ROTATED ABOUT LEAD AXLE RESTRAINING RAIL CLEARANCES AS NOTED
OuTSlDE WnEEL UNTIL CONTACT WAS MADE WERE DETERMINED
AT A SECOND MiEEL LOCATION
F. OTHER WHEEL CLEARANCES MAY BE DETERMINED
c SECOND CONTACT POiNT WAS ESTABLISHED ON BY A SIMILAR METHOD
INSIDE REAR AXLE ~-IEEL (POINT DI AGAINST
INSIDE RUNNING RAIL) G TOLERANCES HAVE NOT BEEN INCORPORATED
Figure 4.2.10 Nytram Plot-Rotated Truck Position on Track, Transit Wheel Gauge
4-20
SECOND POINT RESTRAINING FACE

OF CONTACT FOR 150m CURVi 2% CUR’.‘? - 53 10 (2 0906”)
FOR 228m CURVE
15Om CURVE - 51 09 (20114”)
228m CURVE - 50 69 (1 9957”)
WHEEL GAUGE
______ -.--
- -.- _.___ _ _ _ _____.-.- - -.-
DIRECTION OF
TRAVEL
228m CURVE - 08680
1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE - OF CONTACT

1828 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE
OF CONTACT FOR 150m CURVE RESTRAINING FACE

FOR 228m CURVE 2% CURVE - 53.74 (2 1156”)
150m CURVE - 51 15 (20138-)
228m CURVE - 51 07 (2 0106-)
WHEEL GAUGE
- -.- - ___ .-
i- -.- - _ _ __ __________.-.-----
ATTACK ANGLE DIRECTION OF

25m CURVE - 31325’
150m CURM - 09768’
228m CURVE - 0.8144’
1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE - INITIAL POINT

2300 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE OF CONTACT
TRUCK ROTATION SCENARIO

A LEAD AXLE ROTATED ABOUT CENTER 0; TRUCK 0. CLEARANCES EXISTED BETWEEN ALL OTHER
(POINT ‘A’) TO DETERMINE WHEEL CONTACT WITH WHEELS AND RAIL HEADS
RUNNING RAIL (INITIAL CONTACT POINT 81)
E USING THIS ROTATED TRUCK POSITION AND
B HOLDING OUTSIDE WHEEL POSlnON (POINT 81) WEEL NYTRAM PLOT, THE ATTACK ANGLE &
ENTIRE TRUCK ROTATED ABOUT LEAD AXLE RESTRAINING RAIL CLEARANCES AS NOTED
OUTSIDE WHEEL UNTIL CONTACT WAS MADE WRE DETERMINED
AT A SECOND WHEEL LOCATION
F. OTHER WHEEL CLEARANCES MAY BE DETERMINED
C SECOND CONTACT POINT WAS ESTABUSHED ON BY A SIMILAR METHOD
INSIDE REAR AXLE &EEL (POINT Dl & D2 AGAINST
INSIDE RUNNING RAIL) G. TOLERANCES HAM NOT BEEN INCORPORATED
Figure 4.2.11 Nytram Plots-Rotated Truck Position on Track, AA R Wheel Gauge
4-21
against the ga[u]ge-line and possibly service. Hence girder rails that were rolled for
mounting it. It is manifestly impracticable to streetcar systems had much smaller
provide guard rails with such a variety of flangeways than those for steam railroads
grooves or to change the grooves of the rolled running on paved track in warehouse and
rail. The usual minimum of l-9/16 inch is wide wharf districts. These smaller flangeways are
enough to pass the AREA standard t7anges on more conducive in areas with pedestrian
a 6-foot wheel base down to about a 45foot traffic although it should be noted that AREMA
radius, and the maximum width of l-l l/l6 standards for flangeways through grade
inches down to about a 35foot radius. On crossings comply with American with
curves of larger radius the excess width Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements.
should be compensated for by a
corresponding widening of the ga[u]ge. If the The Filkins-Wharton diagram analysis was a
groove in the rolled rail is too narrow for given simple and effective technique to establish the
conditions, it must be widened by planing on flangeway openings required to suit wheel
the head side of the inside rail, to preserve the flange profiles, track curve radii and axle
full thickness of the guard, and on the guard spacings. The following describes the Filkins-
side of the outside rail to preserve the full Wharton diagram procedures.[‘l
head. Unusual wheel bases such as 8 feet or
9 feet may require widening of the gage on Figure 42.12 represents an AAR-IB wheel
some curves. This widening of gage is placed on 115 RE rail on a 25meter (82-foot)
necessary on/y to bring the guard into play radius curve. In the illustration, the wheel is
when the groove is too wide for some one adjacent to the rail gauge line. The
combination of wheel and flange. In T-rail wheelbase or distance between axles is 1828
curves the guard is formed of a rolled shaped millimeters (72 inches). In the illustration, A-B
guard, or a flat steel bar, bolted to the rail. In is the horizontal cut plane passing through the
special work and curves in high T-rail track a AAR-1 B wheel profile (W) resting on the 115
girder guardrail is often used. This is RE rail head (R).
desirable, as it gives the solid guard in one
C-D-E represents the plan view of the section
piece with the running rail. The idea that a
produced by plane A-B similar to the Nytram
separate guard can be renewed when it is
plot at top of rail. The line C-D-E is
worn out does not work out in practice, as it is
perpendicular to the axle.
usually the case that when the guard is worn
the running rail is also worn to such an extent
The length of rail head with a 25-meter
that it will soon have to come out a/so.“[‘l
(82-foot) centerline radius adjacent to section
C-D-E is short enough to be considered a
This excerpt provides still timely guidance in
straight line.
determining flangeway requirements,
particularly for design of restraining rail
The line F-G represents a perpendicular line
systems and evaluating the possible use of
to the radius line and forms an intersecting
presently available girder rails.
angle of 2.0368” to the wheel axis C-D-E. All
four wheels will approximately produce a
The tight wheel-to-track gauge freeplay and
similar angle for line F-G using the
small wheel flange profiles that were common
combination of curve radius and wheelbase.
on traditional street railways required smaller
flangeways than those needed for railroad
4-22
!!I,ii Track Structure Design
radial to the track curve. Projecting the points
r
of the wheel in plan along the track arc to line
ii H-J produces the outline K-L-M.
ii
ii
ii
Outline K-L-M represents the absolute
iF
I, minimum groove section required to permit
iI the vehicle truck AAR-IB wheel profile and
ii
jj
OF INSIDE RAIL stated wheelbase to negotiate through the
stated track curvature.
Additional flangeway clearances will be

required to allow relatively free movement and
to compensate for tolerances in the wheel
mountings, wheel profiles and track gauge
tolerances, which results in a wider flangeway
width. Flangeway depth must consider wheel
tread wear and special trackwork design
features as flange bearing flangeways.
Figure 4.2.13 illustrates the flangeway

requirements using outline K-L-M considering
both flangeways using Ri 59N rail and
ii I standard track gauge and AAR wheel gauge.
ii t
ii I
L,k-2.0368°i
Comparing these results with the Nytram plots
and CADD system, similar flangeway
requirements are established. The Nytram
plot CADD method appears to be a more
comprehensive method of establishing
flangeway widths and also provides the angle
of attack and potential clearances.
PARAMETERS: The above interface issues are basic in

. AAR-1EI MODIFIED NARROW FLANGE WHEEL
l 25 METER TRACK CURVE establishing clearances. Research in wheel
l 1828 (72") Wi-IEEL BASE rail interface has introduced sophisticated rail
l 711 (28") WHEEL DIAMETER
. 1415 (557087) WHEEL GAUGE head grinding procedures to improve the
tracking patterns of wheels as discussed in
Figure 4.2.12 Filkins- Wharton Diagram for
Section 5.2 of this Handbook.
Determining Flangeway Widths
Geometric construction is applied to project

the resulting flange profile on the plane H-J.
Plane H-J is perpendicular to the rail head and
4-23
PROJECTED WHEEL PROFILE (K-C-M)

FROM FIGURE 4210
133 (5 l/4') NOMINAL
43 (1 69") MINIMUM FLANGEWAY WlDTH
MODIFIED
AAR-18 WHEEL
3 l/8' FLANGEWAY CLEARANCE TO COMPENSATE MODIFIED
*'-FOk TRA)CK & MEEL GAUGE TOLERANCES AAR-1E VMEEL
L-- /
1435 (56.5') TRACK GAUGE
RI-59N
TYPICAL WHEEL RAIL

INTERFERENCE I IXING
TRANSlT & RAllROAD STANDARDS
Figure 4.2.13 Filkins- Wharton Plot to Establish Flangeways
4.2.10 Gauge Implications of Track employed, then construction tolerances

Construction and Maintenance may have to be less restrictive.
Tolerances
l Maintenance Tolerances: These
represent the acceptable limits of wear for
The most precisely calculated standards for
track systems components. After
track gauge and flangeways will be of no
components are worn to this level,
value if the track is not constructed and
performance is considered to be
maintained in a manner that ensures that the
sufficiently degraded such that wear is
design intent is achieved in practice.
likely to occur at an accelerated rate. At
Obviously, perfectly constructed and
that time, maintenance should be
maintained tracks are not possible, and the
performed to restore the system to a
cost of achieving such would probably exceed
condition as close as possible to its new,
the value of benefits that would ensue.
as-constructed state.
Accordingly, tolerances must be specified that
both protect the design objective as closely as l Safety Tolerances: These represent the
possible and are practical and achievable with levels beyond which the system is unsafe
the materials and equipment available. for operation at a given speed. The FRA
Track Safety Standards are a well-known
Tolerances fall into three categories: example. If track systems are permitted
l Construction Tolerances: These will be to degrade to an unsafe condition,
the strictest. Track construction performance will be unsatisfactory, wear
tolerances are most often specified with will be excessive, and the cost of
the use of new materials in mind. If used restoration to a satisfactory state will be
materials, such as relay grade rail, are high.
4-24
The reduced differential distance between tolerance limits is important in both the
track gauge and wheel gauge in transit longitudinal track surface (vertical) and
systems governs the gauge tolerances for alignment (horizontal) planes.
both. The practice is to have a plus tolerance
for track gauge and a minus tolerance for Table 4.2.1 lists recommended track
wheel gauge. construction tolerances for the three general
types of track construction. Track
Transit track construction tolerances are more maintenance limits that define allowable wear
restrictive than conventional railroad and surface conditions are not included, as
standards The tolerances apply to the they should be developed with the needs of a
following track standards-track gauge, guard particular transit operating agency in mind.
rail gauge, cross level and superelevation, Future updates of this Handbook should
vertical track alignment and horizontal track include guidance on the development of
alignment. The rate of change within the maintenance tolerances.
Table 4.2.1 Track Construction Tolerances
Construction Tolerances Location Tolerances
Type of Track and Cross Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical

Track Guard Rail Level w Alignment Alignment Alignment Alignment
Gaugeo DeviatiorW) DeviatiorWs) Variable(@ Variable@
Ballast (Main +3 +(0.1250") 3 (0.125on) 6" (0 25""') 6'2' (0 25"(2)) 15 (0.3937") 15 (0.3937")
Line) -0 -(0.0000")
Direct Fixation +3 (+O 1250") 3 (0.1250") 6"' (0.25"'") 6" (0 25"") 10 (0 3937") 10 (0.3937")
-1 (-0.0625")
Embedded +3 (+0.1250") 3 (0.1250") 6s (0.25"") 3""W (0~,250"'3"4') 6 (0.2500") 6 (0.2500")

-1 (-0.0625")
Ballast (Yard) +4 (+0.3125") 4 (0 3125") 9 (0 3750") 9 (0.3750") 15 (0.5906") 15 (0.5906")

-1 (-0.0625")
NOTES:
(1) Deviation is the allowable construction discrepancy between the standard theoretical
designed track and the actual constructed track.
(2) Deviation (horizontal) in station platform areas shall be: 0 millimeters (inches) toward
platform, 3 millimeters (0.125 inches) away from platform. Refer to Figure 2.8.1.
(3) Deviation (vertical) in station platform areas shall be: plus 0, minus 6 millimeters (0.2500
inches), or in conformity with latest American with Disabilities Act requirements. Refer to
Figure 2.8.1.
(4) Deviation at top of rail to adjacent embedment surface shall be plus 6 millimeters (0.2500
inches) minus 0.
(5) Rate of change variations in gauge, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, cross level and
track surface shall be limited to 3 millimeters per 5 meters (0.1250 inches per 16 feet) of
track.
(6) Variable is the allowable construction discrepancy between the overall location of track and
the actual final location of the constructed track. (not to be confused with tolerances
pertaining to track standards). Tracks adjacent to fixed structures shall resort to deviation
limits.
4-25
4.3 TRACK SUPPORT MODULUS simply as the amount of deflection in these

springs from a given wheel load. The greater
Railway track acts as a structural element that the deflection, the lower the modulus.
undergoes stress and strain as a vehicle Conversely, a track with little deflection has a
passes over the track. The rail, fastener, tie, high modulus, which is generally considered
ballast, subballast, and subgrade are each a important for ride quality and good
component of the track structure. Each serviceability. Most of the deflection of the
undergoes some deflection as the wheel track structure occurs in the ballast and
passes. The analysis of how the track subgrade, with only small deflections at the
structure reacts to wheel loads has been rail and tie. In order to minimize deflections,
studied analytically since Professor Talbot the track designer must focus on a thick
and his committee wrote the first definitive section of well-compacted ballast and
work on this subject in 1918 for AREMA. This subballast with a sound dry compacted
Handbook provides sufficient information to subgrade. This is crucial if total deflections for
design track; for additional reference, the ballasted track are to be kept under the 6-
designer is advised to study either the Talbot millimeter (0.2-inch) limit suggested by
Reports of 1920 or Dr. Hay’s Railroad AREMA.
Engineering, which both provide a more
detailed explanation. g51 In direct fixation track, the track modulus is
much higher because the rail fasteners are
Track modulus is an important subject, with made of neoprene and/or rubber which have a
complex mathematical calculations, to allow controlled restricted deflection.
for track analysis as a structure to determine
appropriate rail weights, tie size and spacing, When rails are embedded directly into
ballast depth, the need for subballast, and the concrete pavement, the modulus becomes
need for special subgrade preparation for very high since there is almost no deflection
ballasted track. Similar mathematical by rigid pavements.
calculations are undertaken for direct fixation
track. The following explanation deals with ballasted
track modulus, which can be determined using
The track modulus factor value (p) established the following equation?]
in this section is a requirement of track design
P = -UY (1)
and one of the variables used in the
calculations for ballasted track structural where: p is the upward pressure per unit
design (Section 4.4.3) and direct fixation track on the ballast or sub-ballast
structure design (Section 4.5.3). In addition, U is a factor determining the
the track modulus is a parameter found in track stiffness or “modulus of
many of the calculations used by noise and track”
vibration engineers when considering wheel Y is the vertical deflection
impacts, contact separation and velocities. measured at the base of rail
4.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity[21 The modulus of track is defined as the vehicle

load per unit length of rail required to deflect
Ballasted track is often characterized as a the rail one unit. An example follows.
beam supported on a continuous series of
springs. Track modulus can be defined
4-26
Assume a wheel load of 9,090 kilograms 4.3.2 Track Modulus of Various Track
(20,000 pounds), converted to an 88,960-N Types
force, results in a track vertical deflection of
IO millimeters (0.394 inches) The force The stiffness of rail, fastenings and supporting
required to deflect the track 25.4 millimeters (1 structure determines the stiffness of track.
inch) is: The types of track encountered on an LRT
system-ballasted, direct fixation and
embedded-have a wide range of stiffness
because the components of each track
P = 225,960 N LP = 50,761 Ibs. 1 substructure are dramatically different.
Ballast provides the most flexible track
Expressed (in metric) for a deflection of 1 structure support, while embedded track is
millimeter, force per unit deflection is thus: usually the stiffest.
P 225,960
Pu c-z = 8,896N/mm
25.4 25.4 4.3.2.1 Ballasted Track
Determination of track modulus for ballasted
50,761
P= - = 50,761 lb./in track can be made by strictly following the
L lin _I Talbot formula shown in Section 4.3.1
In many cases for ballasted track, the

The force required to deflect the track per unit;
maximum rail deflection is not known, or the
i.e., 1 millimeter (1 inch), with track tie spacing
maximum rail deflection is to be estimated
at 760 millimeters (30 inches) is:
from a given track structure. The latter
PU 8,896 condition is frequently encountered in
or- = 1 I.7 N/mm/mm or N/mm*
Tie Spacing 760 ballasted trackwork design.
50,761
- 30 = 1,692 Ibs./in./in. or psi 1 The track modulus can be estimated
considering the crosstie size, structure depth
The above calculated force required to deflect of subballast and ballast, type of ballast rock
one rail on one tie 1 millimeter with a tie or stone, and the crosstie spacing. As a
spacing of 760 millimeters is known as the guideline, track modulus using 115 RE rail
modulus of track elasticity. section can be expected to be in the following
ranges:
The above analysis assumes that the rail l S-17 N/mm2 (1500 - 2500 psi): 450
deflection is either known, or that maximum millimeters (17.7 inches) depth of sub-
rail deflection is the primary criteria for the ballast and limestone ballast, timber ties
track design. Developing a high track spaced at 550 millimeters (22 inches)
modulus without increasing the weight of rail . 17-24 N/mm2 (2500 - 3500 psi): 550
will dramatically reduce the bending moments millimeters (21.7 inches) depth of well-
in the rail. compacted subballast and heavy stone
ballast, timber ties spaced at 550
millimeters (22 inches)
l 24-34 N/mm* (3500 - 5000 psi): 600
millimeters (23.6 inches) depth of well-
4-27
compacted subballast and heavy granite spring rates vary widely. Two popular spring
ballast, timber ties spaced at 520 rate ranges are:
millimeters (20.5 inches) 15,780 to 24,540 N/mm (90,000 to
140,000 lb./in)
Track modulus has been known to vary and and
lose stiffness with a change in applied load;
42,060 to 56,080 N/mm (240,000 to
that is, modulus under a 63,500-kilogram (70-
320,000 lb./in)
ton) car may have a lesser value when
measured under a 90,700-kilogram (loo-ton) Fastener spacing, like the spacing of ties in
car: A modulus of 13.8 to 17.3 N/mm* (2000- ballasted track, is a factor in the stiffness of
2500 psi) represents good timber tie ballasted
direct fixation track; a common spacing for
track. The value can, and most likely will, rise fasteners is 760 millimeters (30 inches). The
to 34.6 to 55.3 N/mm* (5000-8000 psi) for spring rate in direct fixation fasteners is often
track with concrete cross ties spaced at adjusted to mitigate ground borne vibrations.
610 millimeters (24 inches). This adjustment then affects the track
modulus.
4.3.2.2 Direct Fixation Track
The following is an example on establishing
As stated above, the track stiffness or the
the modulus of track elasticity for direct
amount of vertical deflection of the track
fixation track:
structure under vehicle load is the basis for
P
determining the track support modulus. -= P
Unlike ballasted track, however, the track S
where
component deflections and elastic properties
p is the upward pressure per unit length on the fastener
of direct fixation track are generally known. In
direct fixation track, the vertical deflection s is the fastener spacing
occurs in the: u is a factor determining the track stiffness also known
Bending of the rail as the “modulus of track”
Elastomer portion of the direct fixation p is a predetermined value based on the spring rate of
fastener the direct fixation fastener elastomer as stated above
Intermittent seating of the direct fixation s is a set value based on the desired direct fixation
fastener to the concrete or at the layers of fastener spacings - 760 millimeter (30 inch) spacing
vertical shims below the fastener
P 17,530
Intermittent seating of the rail at the rail -=-= 23,1N/mm/mm
seat S 760
Flexure of the direct fixation slab at the

supporting subbase materials for at-grade
installations.
100,000
30
P 52.,580
= 3,333 Ibs/in./in.
1
-=- = 69.2Nlmmlmm
S 760
The track modulus of direct fixation track is
determined by establishing the nominal spring
rate of the elastomer component of the direct
fixation fastener. Elastomer vertical static
300,000
30
= 10,000 Ibs/in/in
1
4-28
Track Structure Desian
The above calculated force required to deflect structural support, or where only elastomeric
one rail on one fastener 1 millimeter with a side pieces are used, the track modulus is
fastener spacing of 760 millimeters is known identical to the direct fixation track analysis
as the modulus of track elasticity. indicated in Section 4.3.2.2.
The track moduli calculated above are It is more difficult to determine the track
somewhat understated. The dynamic spring modulus for most embedded trackwork
rate of most elastomeric direct fixation rail designs for the following reasons:
fasteners are 10 to 50% higher than the static l The rail is continuously supported. The
spring rate. Dynamic spring rate can be most Talbot premise of beam supports on an
easily visualized by considering that the elastic foundation does not apply
elastomer has not fully recovered, or is in l Rail deflections can be extremely small.
various stages of resonance, when the next
wheel load is applied. l The spring rate for the rail support
material is not known or easily
The net effect of the dynamic spring rate is to determined.
increase the effective spring rate and thus the
track modulus. Most direct fixation rail Track modulus values have very little meaning
fasteners show an increase of 30% in spring for designs where the rail is completely
rate during dynamic qualification testing. The encased in concrete. Rail deflections, if any,
static track moduli calculated above should be are in the range of 0.025 millimeters (0.001
multiplied by 1.30, unless rail fastener test inches). The corresponding track modulus is
results indicate that another value is more extremely large, and may even be dependent
appropriate. on the deflection of the underlying track slab.
The slab deflection is also a minor value.
4.3.2.3 Embedded Track An embedded track design with limited

The track modulus for embedded track is very resiliency, such as the rail trough liner design
dependent upon the design of the rail support used in Baltimore and Seattle, is known from
and underlying base slab. field measurements. In Baltimore, the
embedded rail trough features a 2.3-millimeter
For embedded ballasted tie track with (90-mil) thick polyethylene lining at its
pavement overlay, the track modulus is in the perimeter for stray current mitigation and
range of ballasted track, 10.4 to 31.1 N/mm2 limited resiliency. Track measurements taken
(1,500 to 4,500 psi). See Section 4.3.2 1 for under a 53.375-N (12,000-pound) wheel load
ballasted track modulus values. If the indicated that the rail deflected from 0.050 to
pavement extends down into the ties, and 0.25 millimeters (0.002 in to 0.010 inches).
especially if the pavement is constructed This corresponds to an average force per unit
underneath the ties, the track structure deflection of approximately 356,000 N/mm
behaves more like a slab. Ballasted track (2,000,OOO lb./in). As the force per unit
equations are not valid for the latter case. deflection and track modulus are identical for
continuously supported track, the track
Some recent embedded track designs are modulus is thus seen to be 356,000 N/mm2
essentially direct fixation trackwork installed in (2,000,OOO psi). Similar track moduli would be
troughs formed in an underlying concrete slab. expected from a fully encased high grade
Where the infill material provides little or no polyurethane fill.
4-29
A more complex evaluation would be needed where the transit vehicles operate at speeds
for a design that uses rigid fastener plate greater than typical yard operation, the
supports. For concrete infill, the track ballasted track will invariably settle and the
modulus would be extremely large. For an stiffer track will incur structural damage. The
elastomeric or asphalt infill, the track modulus passengers will experience an abrupt
would be calculated from the rail deflection transition in the form of vertical acceleration,
between rigid supports using conventional similar to hitting a bump in the road with a car.
structural continuous beam formulas.
Track modulus can vary dramatically among
Finally, a rail boot or similar continuous various track types. Well-maintained
elastomeric pad under the rail may be ballasted track, where timber or concrete
incorporated in the embedded trackwork crossties are supported by a stipulated depth
design. of ballast and sub-ballast, can have a track
modulus as low as 17.2 N/mm* (2,500 psi) or
Representative track moduli may be estimated as high as 48.3 N/mm* (7,000 psi). Concrete
from values for data from one manufacturer crosstie and timber crosstie track with elastic
It uses a 50 Durometer elastomer with an 8- rail fastenings tend toward the higher end of
millimeter (0.3-inch) thickness at the rail base. the scale. Embedded or direct fixation track,
The elastomer is ridged for additional where a concrete base slab supports the rail,
resiliency. The track modulus from this typically have a higher modulus value and
design is approximately 1037 N/mm2 (150,000 greater stability as do non-ballasted “open”
psi). An additional elastomer layer is optional deck bridge structures where the rail is
with this design, increasing pad thickness to supported on rigid structural abutments and
19 millimeters (0.75 inches). The track spans.
modulus is decreased to 207 N/mm* (30,000
psi).L31 Note that the track modulus change is Locations where the track modulus changes
not a linear function of elastomer thickness in abruptly are prone to vertical alignment
this case, but varies in accordance with problems, particularly when the predominant
elastomer pad shape. traffic moves from the stiffer to the more
flexible track. A typical example is the
Where the assumption of a linear elastomeric interface between an open deck bridge and
pad deflection is reasonable, a rough estimate adjoining ballasted track. Railroads have long
of track modulus can be obtained by using a been aware of track alignment problems in
rail deflection of 15% of the elastomer pad these areas and have attempted to
thickness.r41 compensate by installing transition or
approach ties similar to those shown on
AREMA Plan No. 913-52. Various
4.3.3 Transition Zone Modulus arrangements of long-tie installations are used
on different railroads, sometimes with an
4.3.3.1 interface Between Track Types
incremental decrease in the crosstie spacing.
The interface points between embedded and
The objective of these designs is to gradually
ballasted track segments and between direct
stiffen the ballasted track structure over an
fixation and ballasted track are typically
extended distance, thereby reducing the
locations of sudden changes in track modulus.
abrupt change in track stiffness at the bridge
If special design consideration is not given to
abutment. Transition tie arrangements have
such areas, particularly in line segments
4-30
also been placed at the ends of concrete tie wheel load leaving the stiffer track section.
installations where the track modulus The rail shows a downward deflection
differential between the concrete and timber approximately 1 meter (3 feet) from the
crossties often results in additional surface transition point or end of direct fixation or
maintenance requirements. Similar conditions embedded concrete slab, with a resulting
repeatedly occur on transit track installations upward force approximately 1 meter (3 feet)
between ballasted track and both embedded into the direct fixation or embedded track
and direct fixation track. Special transition portion. The rail sine wave disturbs the
track design must be considered to maintain ballasted track and attacks the direct fixation
an acceptable ride quality at these locations or embedment track installations, leading to
without incurring excessive maintenance deterioration of components and track
costs. conditions.
4.3.3.2 Transition Zone Design Details 4.3.3.3.1 Transition from Direct Fixation
In North America, the current standard to Track to Ballasted Track
compensate for the track modulus differential The ballasted track side of the transition zone,
is to use a reinforced concrete transition slab even with a transition slab, cannot
(also called an approach slab) to support the consistently produce a uniformly varying track
ballasted track. These transition slabs modulus due to the tendency of ballast to
(Figure 4.3.1) extend from the end of the compact, pulverize, and become fouled. Such
abutment or the embedded track slab, a deterioration leads to settlement voids, hard
minimum of approximately 6 meters (20 feet) spots, and pumping track. Regular
into the ballasted section. The top of the slab maintenance of the ballast is needed to
typically is located 300 millimeters (12 inches) protect the rails and maintain ride quality.
below the bottom of the ties immediately
Fortunately, direct fixation fastener design
adjacent to the stiffer track, gradually
continues to evolve and a greater range of
increasing to 350 millimeters (14 inches) at
fastener spring rates is now available. A direct
the far end of the slab. This design replaces
compressible subballast materials with a fixation track modulus of 23.1 MPa (3,333 lb/in
stiffer base, while also gradually decreasing per inch of rail), which compares favorably
the thickness and compressibility of the with standard concrete crosstie installation, is
now possible. Softer direct fixation fasteners
ballast layer. Center-to-center distances
in the zone immediately adjacent to the
between track crossties are generally reduced
in the transition slab section to provide ballasted track transition zone can alleviate
some of the transition problems that are not
additional stability and increase the track
modulus. However, even a well-designed addressed by conventional transition slabs.
transition zone will experience some track
surface degradation during operation, 4.3.3.3.2 Transition from Embedded Track
requiring periodic inspection and resurfacing to Ballasted Track
to avoid pumping track conditions. Embedded track design continues to evolve
and improve; however, the rail deflections that
would be required to match typical ballasted
4.3.3.3 Transition Zone improvements track modulus values are difficult to achieve in
The action of the rail at a transition zone embedded track. The track sine wave
represents a sine curve produced by the
4-31
PROYlDE CLEATS OR
GAUGE LINE OF RAIL COURSE SURFACE
-65 (2 l/2") FLARE TO LOCK IN BALLAST-,
45 (I 314-j
50 (2' MIN.) WHEEL
CLEARANCE DE:PRESSiON 1 / /
I If FLANGEWAY
rTD? OF EMBEDDED
IN CONCRETE II I I SECTION
1 BALLAST
115 RE RAIL
Top OF BALLAST
EMN WITH BOTTOM
OF EMBEDDED TROUGH
DETAIL OF BALLASTED SECTION SUPERIMPOSED TYPICAL TRACK & SLAB INSTALLATION

ON END SECTION OF EMBEDDED TRACK
115 RE RAIL FLANGEWAY FLARE
OUTLINE OF TRANSInDN
BALLASTED / EMBEDDED TRACK

PLAN \nEW
BALLASTED TRACK INSTALLATION ., EYBEDDED TRACK INSTALLATION
FIRST POUR CONCRETE
e OF flRST TIE-+ 1
TIE SPACING PER_,. 10 CONCRETE TIES SPACED AT 610 (24') CENTERS
I I --- I__..
406- -305 TOP OF SUBGRAD+

(16-l' (12’) SUBBALLAST BASE PAD
TRANSITION SLAB il
6100 (20'-0')
m L
==-@
TRANSITION BEMEN BALLASTED TRACK
AND EMBEDDED TRACK INSTALLATIONS
Figure 4.3.1 Track Transition Slab
4-32
phenomenon in the rail places extremely high section of the transition rail could also be
bending forces in the contained rail within the continuously varied to provide a stiffness
embedded track immediately adjacent to the gradient suitable for the purpose. The
ballasted-to-embedded track transition point. transition rail of sufficient length (IO
The differential in track modulus between meters (32 feet)) would straddle the
embedded and ballasted track may be too interface point.
large to overcome by introducing a flexible rail
support in the area adjacent to the interface. Whatever design is developed, it should be
compatible with conventional concrete or
timber crosstie fastenings, direct fixation
4.3.3.3.3 Design Recommendation fasteners, and installation within the selected
The track designer must eliminate the embedded track design.
pronounced sine curve action in the rail at the
transition zone. Eliminating or reducing the
sine curve is more achievable in direct fixation 4.4 BALLASTED TRACK
track than in embedded track using
conventional track components. The following Ballasted track is the most prevalent track
recommendation applies to both types of track type used in light rail transit. While ballasted
transition interfaces. track for light rail transit resembles
conventional railroad track in appearance, its
The sine curve may be reduced to a functional design may have to contend with issues such
level by stiffening the rail in the vertical axis. as electrical isolation and acoustic
A stiffer rail will act as a beam to bridge the attenuation. In addition, it may be required to
crucial transition point. The beam or stiffer rail accommodate continuous welded rail on an
section should project a minimum of 5 meters alignment that includes curves far sharper and
(16.4 feet) in each direction from the transition grades far steeper than would ever be
interface point. Rail stiffening can be achieved encountered on a freight railroad or even a
by several means; the following are suggested “heavy rail” transit route.
procedures:
l Attachment of a standard joint bar section Proper design of the roadbed and ballast
to the rail with standard track bolts, spring elements of the track structure is a key issue.
washers and heavy duty nuts. The It is essential in providing an adequate
standard joint bar section would straddle foundation for the track so as to minimize
the interface point. future maintenance requirements. Roadbed
and ballast sections should be designed to
l The use of an inherently stiffer rail section
minimize the overall right-of-way width, while
across the interface. If the standard
providing a uniform, well-drained foundation
running rail section is 115 RE, the use of
for the track structure.
thick-web 115 TW, could provide the
required bridging effect. A special
transition rail section could also be 4.4.1 Ballasted Track Defined
machined from the European heavy blank
rail section 180/105. The ends of the Ballasted track can be described as a track
transition rail section could be machined structure consisting of rail, tie plates or
to provide a pressure weld connection to fastenings, crossties and the
the adjacent running rail. The cross ballastisubballast bed supported on a
4-33
prepared subgrade. The subgrade may be a l Track gauge

compacted embankment, an excavation or cut l Guarding of curved track and restraining
section, or a bridge structure. Ballasted track rail features
is generally the standard for light rail transit l Rail fastenings and tie plates
routes that are constructed on an exclusive l Type of track tie and corresponding track
right-of-way outside of a central business structure to suit operations
district.
Ballasted track can be constructed to various 4.4.2.1 Ballasted Track Rail Section and
designs, depending on the specific Track Gauge
requirements of the transit system. Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 of this
Depending on the portion of the system under Handbook for guidance on determining rail
design, a satisfactory ballasted track design section, track gauge, and flangeway
could be anything from timber crossties with requirements.
conventional tie plates, cut spikes, and rail
anchors, to concrete crossties with elastic rail
4.4.2.2 Ballasted Track with Restraining
fastenings that incorporate insulating
Rail
components. While the loadings typically are
Refer to Section 4.2.8 herein for determining
limited to those of the light rail vehicles only,
requirements, locations and limits for guarding
heavier loading standards may be required.
track with restraining rail. Specific details for
Ballasted track may need to accommodate
various types of restraining rail designs are
freight railroad loadings where the track is to
included in Chapter 5.
be shared with a commercial railroad. Light
rail structural loading is one-quarter to one-
third of that imposed on freight railroad tracks. 4.4.2.3 Ballasted Track Fastening
Refer to Section 5.4 for requirements
Prior to developing a ballasted track design, concerning crosstie rail fastenings.
several vehicle/track related issues must be
resolved, including: vehicle wheel gauge,
wheel profile, and truck design; the track 4.4.3 Ballasted Track Structure Types
gauge and rail section; and the ability of the
vehicle to negotiate the track in a satisfactory There are generally two standard designs for
operational manner. These are addressed in track structures on ballasted track.
other chapters of this Handbook. If the track l Timber crosstie track
is to be located in an acoustically sensitive l Concrete crosstie track
area, the designer should also consider noise
and vibration mitigation measures as Ballasted track design can result in a suitable
discussed in Section 4.4.10. track structure using either timber or concrete
crossties. The differential track support or
track modulus dictates the quality of the track,
4.4.2 Ballasted Track Criteria the ride and future maintenance requirements.
Concrete crosstie ballasted track provides a
To develop ballasted track design, the more reliable track gauge system and tighter
following track components and standards gauge construction tolerances. This results in
must be specified: a smoother ride with less differential track
l Rail section settlement.
4-34
Chapter 2 documents the types and crosstie/concrete crosstie) and corresponding

magnitudes of loads transferred from the track structure resiliency or track support
vehicle wheel to the rail. The rail must stiffness.
support the vehicle and the resulting loads by
absorbing some of the impact and shock and Rail supported on timber crossties and a
transferring some forces back into the vehicle moderate ballast/subballast section, results in
via the wheels. The initial impact absorber on a track modulus range of 14 to 17 N/mm*
the vehicle is the elastomer in the resilient (2,000 to 2,500 lb /inch per inch of rail).
wheels (if used) followed by the primary
suspension springs and then the secondary Resilient rail base pads are placed on
suspension system. The initial impact concrete crossties, both to protect the
absorber on the track is the rail, specifically concrete tie seat and to impede the impact
the rail head, followed by the fastening or and vibration associated with wheel passage
supporting system at the rail base and then from migrating from the rail to the crosstie.
the remaining track structure. A resilient rail They are a determining parameter of track
seat pad is used to absorb some of the force modulus. A reduced pad height (6 millimeters
on concrete crossties On timber crossties or 0.2 inches) and a very stiff elastomer or
the resiliency in the wood itself acts as the polyethylene pad produce a stiff track support
absorber. All components absorb and resulting in an increased rail support modulus.
distribute a portion of the load.
Rail supported on concrete crossties and an
Many transit systems have used both timber ample ballasffsubballast section results in a
and concrete crossties. In some instances, track modulus range of 31 to 45 N/mm* (4,500
the main line track on new installations was to 6,500 lb/inch per inch of rail).
constructed using concrete crossties with
standard rail insulation. Regardless of the
4.4.3.2 Timber Crosstie Ballasted Track
type of main line crossties, yard maintenance
On many light rail transit systems constructed
facility tracks are generally built with timber
in the early 198Os, timber crossties were
crossties either with or without insulated
considered to provide sufficient electrical
fasteners. The track structure’s design
isolation. Some projects, including those that
(degree of resiliency) dictates the amount of
reconstructed existing trolley systems, did not
load distributed to the rail and track structure
take extraordinary measures to insulate the .
and the magnitude of force returned to the
track because other measures were either
wheels and vehicle.
taken or in-place to control traction power
stray current. Contemporary designs typically
4.4.3.1 Ballasted Track Resilience incorporate insulation systems within the
Ballasted track design allows partially crosstie rail fastening to control stray currents
controlled rail deflection in both the vertical close to their source. Typically, non-insulated
and horizontal directions. This phenomenon rail fastenings are employed only in yard
of rail action contributes to successful track tracks, where the yard has its own traction
operation by distributing the load to the power substation and stray currents are
surrounding track components and structure. unlikely to leave the site. Non-insulated,
ballasted track may also be used in rights-of-
Specific track design decisions must be made way where there are no parallel utilities.
regarding the type of track structure (timber
4-35
Timber crosstie ballasted track consists of the 4.4.3.2.1 Timber Crosstie Fastening
rail placed on a tie plate or rail fastening Conventional tie plates, cut spikes and rail
system positioned on the crosstie which is anchors were sufficient to establish a
supported by a ballast and subballast ballasted track installation using timber
trackbed as shown in Figures 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 crossties for railroad and earlier contemporary
for single- and double-track, respectively. transit track. However, current track design
generally includes protection of the negative
return rail from stray electrical currents.
SUBJECT TO SlTE SPECIFICS AND REOUIREMENTS

FOR CATENARY POLES (REFER TO CHAPTER 3)
N BASE OF RAJL AND
L SUBBALLAST LBALLAST DEPTH

SUBBALLAST DEPTH
SUEGRADE
Figure 4.4.1 Ballasted Single Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie)
2500 (98") NOM. SUBdCT TO SITE

SPECIFICS AND REOUIREMENTS FOR
CATENARY POLES BETWEEN TRACKS
(REFERTO CHAPTER3)
RAIL AND FASTENIN

TIMBEROR CONCRETECROSSTIE
ASE OF RAIL AND
LSUBBALLAST LBALLAST DEPTH
Figure 4.4.2 Ballasted Double Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie)
4-36
Although wood is an insulating material, the 7x9 inches) for mounting an insulated
use of the timber crosstie to protect against fastening system.
stray current has proven insufficient over time.
Isolating the rail from the surrounding track For additional information on timber crossties
structure is an important design element that refer to Chapter 5. Determining timber
must be quantified to determine the extent of crosstie spacing for transit track is discussed
insulation. in Section 4.4.4.
Timber crossties are generally insulated at the

base of the tie plate or fastening plate. To 4.4.3.3 Concrete Crosstie Ballasted Track
insulate the fastening plate, a high-density Concrete crossties are gaining popularity in
polyethylene (HDP) pad (a minimum of 12 light rail transit installations. They have been
millimeters (0.5 inches) projecting on all sides shown to have lower life-cycle costs, provide
of the plate) is placed between the bottom of better ride quality, and incur lower track
the fastening plate and the top of the tie. To surfacing maintenance costs.
protect the screw spike holding the fastening
The concrete crosstie is typically insulated at
plate to the tie, a special insulating
the base of the running rail to protect the
collar/thimble is positioned in the anchor
negative return running rail from potential
screw spike hole to isolate the screw spike
stray currents. Concrete crosstie ballasted
from the fastening plate. For additional design
track consists of the rail placed in the rail seat
information on timber crosstie fastenings, refer
area and the tie supported by a ballast and
to Chapter 5.
subballast trackbed as shown in Figures 4.4.3
and 4.4.4 for single- and double-track,
4.4.3.2.2 Timber Cross&s respectively.
Timber crossties have been standard for light
rail transit installations for years and continue
4.4.3.3.1 Concrete Crosstie Fastening
to be the standard for older established transit
The success of the concrete crosstie is partly
agencies. Life-cycle cost comparison of
due to the introduction of elastic (spring clip)
timber ties and concrete ties must be
fastenings at the rail hold down location.
performed using a uniform baseline, including
Fastening designs have evolved to meet new
all fastenings and hardware needed for each
requirements for electrical isolation and to
type of tie. The tie spacing for timber ties is
incorporate an elastic fastening to replace the
generally shorter than for concrete ties, which
spike, bolt and rail anchor.
contributes to this comparison. Conventional
rail anchors projecting into the ballast section
The insulating barrier must be at the base of
will create a stray current leakage path,
the rail or mounting surface to provide
another issue to be considered in the analysis.
electrical isolation of the rail from the
Also, the material cost for timber crossties can
surrounding track components. The insulating
vary widely over a short period of time. That
barrier consists of a base rail pad and
said, many transit agencies continue to use
insulators for the edges of the rail base. As
timber ties with satisfactory results.
shown in Figure 5.4.1 of this handbook, the
rail is fully insulated from the mounting
Timber crossties for a transit system should
surface.
be hardwood (oak, maple, birch), with a cross
section of 175 x 230 millimeters (generally
4-37
,-SUPERELEVATION 100 (4") ILLUSTRATED

/ 'i TRACK .Tcnn
; LJVU ,,\38”) NOM
I SUBJECT TO SITE SPECIFICS AND REWREMENTS
i FOR CATENARY POLESAT SUPERELEVATION TRACK
BETkiN BASE OF RkL !iND
-SUBBALLAST t SUBBALLAST DEPTH

I- BALLAST DEPTH
SUBGRADE
Figure 4.4.3 Ballasted Single Track, Curved track (Timber Crosstie)
SUPERELEVATION100 (4") ILLUSTRATED
TIMBER CR CONCRETECROSSTIE
(CONCRETEILLUSTRATED)
SUBBALLAST DEPTH
/SUBBALLAST LBALLAST DEPTH
Figure 4.4.4 Ballasted Double Track, Curved Track (Timber Crosstie)
4-38
The concrete crosstie design includes the guidelines assume the following typical light
specific type of elastic fastening system rail transit installation data:
(spring clip) with insulating rail seat pad and Rail Section 115 RE
rail base insulators. The elastic clip provides Vehicle Load per 5,400 kilograms
sufficient toe load to the rail base to act as the Wheel (12,000 pounds)
longitudinal rail anchor, eliminating the Track Modulus
conventional rail anchors used with timber - Timber Tie 17.2 N/mm* (2,500
crossties. Ibs/inch per inch of
rail)
- Concrete Tie 34.5 N/mm* (5,000
4.4.3.3.2 Concrete Crossties
Ibs/inch per inch of
The standard transit concrete crosstie is
rail)
generally 255 millimeters (10 inches) wide
Desired Load
and 2515 millimeters (99 inches) long at the
Transfer to
base of tie. The tie is tapered, with a 190-
- Ballast ~0.45 MPa (65 psi)
millimeter (7.5-inch) height at the rail seat and
- Sub Grade ~0.14 MPa (20 psi)
a 165-millimeter (6.5-inch) height at the center
Ballast Depth 255 millimeters (10
of the tie. The ties are prestressed, precast inches)
concrete produced in a factory with climate
Subballast Depth 200 millimeters (8
controls for the curing process. For additional
inches)
information on concrete crossties refer to Tie Sizes
Chapter 5. - Timber 180 x 230 x 2590
millimeters (7 x 9 x
4.4.4 Crosstie Spacing 102 inches)
- Concrete 190 x 250 x 2515
Ballasted track structure design is dependent (7.5 x 10 x 99
on the vehicle wheel load, a predetermined inches)
track modulus target or standard, the selected Design Calculations:
Tie Seat Load = p a. P [Timoshenk o 19291
rail section, the type and size of tie, and the
where :
depths of ballast and subballast. These are
combined to meet the criteria established by a = tie spacing (variable)
AREMA for both ballast pressure and P = axle load = 107 kN (24 kips) - twice the wheel load
subgrade pressure. l/A
Ballasted track designs can meet or exceed

P=(-&1
the AREMA pressure requirements by altering Timber Tie: u = track modulus
the variable parameters (track modulus, tie
spacing and ballast depth) as needed. As a = 17.2 N/mm* (2500 lb/inch
guideline the following sample calculations per inch of rail)
are provided for design of ballasted track with Concrete Tie: u = track modulus
timber or concrete crossties. = 34.5 N/mm* (5000 lb/
inch per inch of rail)
Design computations based on Talbot,
Timoshenko, Hay formulas and other E = modulus of steel = 206,800 N/mm*
(30 x 1 O6 psi)
4-39
I = modulus of inertia 4.4.4.1 Crosstie Spacing-Tangent/

= 27.4 x IO6 mm4 (65.9 in’) Curved Track
The above calculations determine the crosstie
Tie Bearing Area = tie width x tie length spacing and affect the track modulus or the
vertical track stiffness. Lateral track stability
Timber = 230 x 2590(9” x 102”)
can also affect crosstie spacing.
= 595700squaremm (918 sq. in.)
Concrete =250 x 2515 (IO” x 99”) The horizontal track alignment for a light rail
transit system can be far more severe than for
= 628750 square mm (990 sq.in)
other railway systems, such as rapid transit,
commuter rail, or freight railroads. Ballasted
Tie Seat Load [Hay, 9821
Ballast Load = track is far more difficult to construct and
2/3Tie Bearing Area
maintain in reduced tight radius curves.
Subballast Load at Tie Centerline = Special consideration should be given to
Seat Load increasing lateral track stability by reducing
x Tie Width
, .23 Tie Bearing Area I the crosstie spacing.
[Talbot 19191
Ballast Depth
Lateral track stability is provided by ballast
Subgrade Load at the Tie Centerline is similar friction contact along the sides and bottom of
to subballast load calculation except depth the tie and by the end area of tie. The end
includes ballast and subballast heights. area of the tie provides a calculated degree of
lateral stability. Increasing the ballast
Using the above formulas, Table 4.4.1 shoulder width beyond a 450-millimeter
presents the values according to the (18-inch) limit provides no increase in stability.
parameters. Reducing crosstie spacing, thereby increasing
the number of ties, can increase lateral track
Tie spacing can be determined from this table. stability. Timber crossties have proven to
Neither the AREMA recommended maximum provide greater lateral stability than concrete
ballast pressure 0.45 MPa (65 psi) nor the ties based on the theory that the ballasts
maximum subgrade pressure 0.14 MPa (20 sharp edges penetrate the tie surfaces
psi) should be exceeded. increasing the friction and locking the tie in
position. On the other hand, the concrete tie’s
The preceding computations are
increased weight also provides increased
representative of the calculations needed to
lateral stability.
design the ballasted track structure. The
parameters that alter the actual design are To improve the lateral stability of concrete
predetermined track modulus; type of tie crossties, some tie manufacturers have
(timber or concrete); depth of ballast and developed a serrated or “scalloped” side tie
subballast; and tie spacing. The challenge for surface increasing the ballasts locking
the engineer is to combine these parameters capabilities.
to achieve the best life-cycle costs and lowest
maintenance costs. Based on the above calculations, the track
designer should consider reducing the
conventional crosstie spacing by 75
4-40
Table 4.4.1 Ballasted Track Design Parameters
Subgade Load
Ballast +
Subballast
Tie-Ballast Load Subballast Load
Tie Tie Seat Load 230 (9”) Tie 250 (lO”)Tie 255 (IO”) Ballast 455(18")
Track Modulus Spacing (mm) kN (kips) MPa (Psi) MPa (Psi) MPa (Psi) MPa (psi)
17.2 N/mm2 510(20") 50.7 (11 4) 0.127 185 n.a. n a. 0 094 13.7 0096 76
(2500 lb./in/in)
p=O 00093/mm 610 (24") 60.7 (13.6) 0152 221 n.a. n a. 0113 164 0.115 9 1
(0 0237lin)
685(27") 68.2 (15.3) 0.171 249 n.a. na 0127 18.5 0.130 10.3
760(30") 75.6 (17 0) 0.189 276 n.a. n a. 0.141 20.5 0.144 11.4
810 (32") 80.6 (18.1) 0.202 29.4 n.a. n.a. 0.150 21.8 0.153 12.1
34.5Nlmm2 510 (20") 60.0 (13.5) n.a n.a. 0142 204 0.115 16.8 0.115 93
(5000 lb Win)
p=O.OOll /mm 610 (24") 71 8(161) n.a n.a 0.170 243 0.138 200 0138 11.1
(0.0282h)
685(27") 80.6(181) n a. n a 0.191 27.3 0155 22.5 0155 12.5
760(30") 895(201) na n.a 0212 30.3 0172 250 0172 13.9
810 (32") 95.3 (21.4) n.a. n.a. 0.226 32.3 0.183 26.6 0.183 14.8
Note: MPa=Nlmm2
millimeters (3 inches) for track curves with ties are expensive to design, fabricate and
radii less than 300 meters (1000 feet). install. They have not proven to be cost-
effective in light rail applications.
To improve lateral stability, especially with
conventional smooth concrete ties, a tie Turnout standards vary among transit
anchor can be bolted to the tie. The tie agencies. Therefore various concrete tie
anchor is a blade penetrating below the tie geometric layouts and designs would be
into the ballast bed providing additional lateral required to meet the requirements of each
stability. Tie anchors can be attached to agency. Standardization and simplicity in tie
alternate ties in the track curve. design is required to allow the transit industry
to develop a uniform economical standard
4.4.5 Special Trackwork Switch Ties concrete switch tie set for various turnout
sizes.
The current tendency of transit agencies is to
use standard timber hardwood ties for special
trackwork turnout, crossover and double 4.4.5.1 Timber Switch Ties
crossover arrangements for both main line The present standard for timber switch ties is
and maintenance facility and storage yard hardwood, predominantly oak. Tropical
installations. Transit agencies using concrete hardwood ties such as Bonzai, lecki and
crossties on main line and yard installations Azobe have been introduced to the North
also use timber special trackwork ties in both American railway industry with mixed
locations. success.
Concrete switch ties have been developed by The reader is cautioned about using tropical
the railroad industry to reduce maintenance woods. Thorough research on the specific
on heavy haul freight lines. Concrete switch wood selected, and the origin of the wood, is
4-41
recommended before a procurement is tie arrangement. Tie spacings are increased

undertaken. to allow for a wider than conventional tie crib
opening using a special trackwork concrete tie
The standard timber switch tie is generally a approximately 250 millimeters (I 0 inches)
180- x 230-millimeter (7- x g-inch) section with wide.
various lengths from 2,750 to 4,880
millimeters (9 to 16 feet). The lengths of the concrete switch ties will
conform to the special trackwork layout, with a
Extra long timber switch ties, up to 6,710 possible specific length for each tie location in
millimeters (22 feet) and longer may be lieu of groups of specific tie lengths. The
required to accommodate special trackwork design will include the requirements for
locations, such as crossovers and double mounting special trackwork fastenings in
crossovers where the track centers remain at switches, frogs and guard rails. The designer
the standard width of 3,810 to 4,420 and/or tie manufacturer will choose between
millimeters (12.5 to 14.5 feet). embedded shoulders or single rail fasteners
through the remaining portions of the special
Similar to a main line timber crosstie trackwork layout.
installation, an insulated switch plate design
may be required to protect against stray Similar to timber switch tie installations, an
current leakage. Insulated switch and frog insulated special trackwork fastening may be
plates are similar in design to main line timber required to control stray current on concrete
crossties. The concern for stray current switch ties. Insulated switch, frog and guard
control has occasionally resulted in the rail fastening plates may be similar to
installation of special trackwork direct fixation conventional timber crosstie installations.
fasteners on timber switch ties. However, this Standard concrete tie insulated rail fastenings
application is a relatively new design concept are acceptable where individual rails are
for transit agencies and is proving to be installed on the switch timber.
extremely expensive.
For more information on special trackwork
timber and concrete switch ties refer to
4.4.5.2 Concrete Switch Ties Chapter 5 of this handbook.
Concrete switch tie standard designs for
special trackwork installations are evolving.
The railroad industry and transit, commuter 4.4.6 Ballast and Subballast
and heavy metro rail systems have been
experimenting and standardizing concrete Ballast is an integral material in the support of
switch ties for special trackwork. The special the track structure. The quality of the ballast
trackwork concrete ties used to date include material has a direct relationship to the overall
the larger size turnouts, No. 15 and 20, and performance of the track structures.
high-speed turnouts. Light rail transit systems
generally restrict turnout size to No. 8 or 10; The quality, size and type of ballast material
used can improve the performance of the
therefore a minimum of design layout has
track substructure by providing an increased
occurred to accommodate these sizes.
strength to the track system.
Standard concrete switch tie designs and
layouts will be different from the timber switch
4-42
Concrete crosstie installations normally shoulder resists lateral track movement and
require a higher quality ballast, a larger keeps the track from buckling when the rail is
gradation of ballast, and a more restrictive in compression. Continuous welded rail
selection of rock aggregate. For additional requires a 300-millimeter (12-inch) ballast
information on ballast material refer to shoulder measured from the end of the tie to
Chapter 5. the top of ballast shoulder slope. The top
slope of the ballast shoulder should be parallel
to the top of the tie. The side slope of the
4.4.6.1 Ballast Depth ballast shoulder should have a maximum
The variables to be considered in establishing slope of 1:2. As mentioned in Section 4.4.4.1,
the track structure section are discussed the ballast shoulder may be increased in
above and listed in Table 4.4.1. Additional sharp radius curved track to provide additional
variables include the track gauge, depth of tie, lateral stability. The subballast and subgrade
and superelevation of track curves. Figures sections must be increased to provide
4.4.1 and 4 4.2 illustrate and quantify the sufficient support width if the ballast shoulders
general desired design section for ballasted are increased.
track.
The depth of ballast from the bottom of the tie 4.4.6.3 Subballast Depth and Width
to the top of the subballast can be determined Subballast is the lower or base portion of the
by undertaking the aforementioned ballast bed located between the base of the
calculations. The depth of subballast below ballast section and the top of the road bed
the ballast to the top of the subgrade can be subgrade. Subballast is generally a pit run
determined from these calculations. material with smaller, well-graded crushed
stone. The subballast acts as a barrier filter
For tangent track, the minimum depth of separating the ballast section from the
ballast is generally measured from the embankment road bed materials. It provides
underside of the tie to the top of subballast at both separation and support for the ballast.
the centerline of each rail. For curved
superelevated track, the depth of ballast is The depth of the subballast below the ballast
measured below the low rail with respect for can be determined using the preceding
the top of subballast at the centerline of track calculations. The ballast and subballast are
as shown in Figure 4.4.2. integral parts of the track structure. Track
design considers the thickness of both in the
On tangent multiple track installations, the calculations to meet AREMA
minimum ballast depth is measured under the recommendations of 0.14 MPa (20 psi)
rail nearest to the crown of the subballast uniform pressure transmitted to the subgrade.
section as shown in Figure 4.4.3. On curved
multiple track installations it is measured on The width of the subballast section is
each track under the inside rail closest to determined by the width of the road bed
radius point as shown in Figure 4.4.4. embankment subgrade. The subballast
should extend the full width of the
embankment capping the top surface.
4.4.6.2 Ballast Width
The width of ballast section is determined by
the rail installation and tie length. The ballast
4-43
The subballast layer acts as a drainage layer 4.4.7 Ballasted Track Drainage
for the subgrade surface allowing water to The success of any ballasted track design
flow to the embankment shoulders. depends directly on the efficiency of the
ballasted track to drain well and proper
The end slope of the subballast generally maintenance of the drainage system This
conforms to the slope of the embankment. includes the exposed ballast and subballast
bed that cast off surface runoff and the
To allow for an eventual ballast slope slough designed parallel drainage system, ditch and
and provide walking or flat area for track culvert piping that carry the runoff.
maintenance, the subballast width should
project beyond the toe of the ballast slope a Drainage of the embankment or excavated
minimum of 600 millimeters (24 inches). sections is of utmost importance. Ballasted
track, by the nature of its design, is
To support embankment materials under susceptible to contamination from both track
special trackwork installations and at-grade traffic and the surrounding environment. Dirt,
road crossings, a geotextile (filter fabric) may debris and fines are either dropped or blown
be used at selected locations. The track onto the trackway, contaminating the ballast
designer should review supplier information section. This contamination creates a non-
on geotextiles and consider the application of porous or slow draining ballast bed, which can
0.54 kilogram/m2 (16 ounce/yd2) geotextiles lead to eventual deterioration and breakdown
and double layers under special trackwork of the track structure.
locations. Geogrid and geoweb material may
be used to stabilize and strengthen the Many conventional methods are practiced to
subgrade materials below turnouts and at maintain ballasted track structure. These
grade crossings. These materials augment include ballast shoulder cleaning and
the function of subballast. complete track undercutting to keep the
ballast bed clean to ensure it drains well.
4.4.6.4 Subgrade
The subgrade is the finished embankment 4.4.8 Stray Current Protection
surface of the roadbed below the sub-ballast, Requirements
which supports the loads transmitted through
the rails, ties, and ballast. The designer Stray current corrosion protection is a subject
should analyze the subgrade to determine described more fully in Chapter 8 of this
whether it has both uniform stability and the handbook. The track structure design
strength to carry the expected track loadings. requires an electrical barrier to insulate the
AREMA recommends that, for most soils, rail. Ballasted track generally provides this
pressure on subgrade be lower than 0.14 MPa electrical barrier at the rail fastenings. An
(20 psi) to maintain subgrade integrity. insulating resilient material with a specified
Uniformity is important because differential bulk resistivity provides the barrier at the base
settlement, rather than total settlement, leads of fastening plate on timber ties and at the rail
to unsatisfactory track alignment. The use of base on concrete ties.
geotextiles or geogrids between the subgrade
and subballast can be advantageous under For more information on electrical barriers at
some conditions. fastenings refer to Chapter 5.
4-44
4.4.9 Ballasted Special Trackwork facilities to provide for special treatments

Cost-effective designs consider the type of
The ballasted special trackwork portion of any vehicle involved, the soft primary suspensions
transit system will require specific designs to that produce ideal levels of ground vibration
match the size of the components. above 30 Hz, or the stiff primary suspensions
that produce levels that peak at 22 Hz. Noise
Ballasted special trackwork in contemporary and vibration control is a system problem that
light rail transit systems generally consists of involves the track and the vehicle wheels and
turnouts paired to act as single crossovers for trucks Familiarization with the contents of
alternate main line track operations. Chapter 9 herein, along with American Public
Operating requirements and alignment Transit Association (APTA) and/or Federal
restrictions may dictate the installation of a Transit Administration (FTA) requirements for
double crossover consisting of four turnouts wayside and groundborne noise limits, is
and a crossing (diamond). Turnouts are used essential to sound designs that limit noise and
at the ends of transitions from double track to vibration.
single track installations as well as at junction
points to alternate transit routes and accesses
to sidings 4.4.11 Transit Signal Work
Turnouts in the maintenance facility and Although the design of the signal control
storage yard areas are generally positioned to system will not greatly impact ballasted track
develop a “ladder track” arrangement that design, it can affect specific parts of the
provides access to a group of parallel tracks design. The prime example of this
with specific track centers For additional interrelationship is the need for the insulated
information on ballasted special trackwork joints in the running rails to accommodate
design, refer to Chapter 6. train control requirements. Such joints are
normally required at the extremities of
interlockings, each end of station platforms,
4.4.10 Noise and Vibration grade crossings, within individual turnouts and
crossovers, and at other locations to be
The vehicle traveling over the track produces determined by the train control requirements.
noise and vibration. The impact of this noise
and vibration may become significant for The light rail transit signaling system may
alignments through otherwise quiet include track circuit signal systems within
neighborhoods. Track design has a ballasted track zones. Impedance bond
significant effect on both noise and wheel installation requirements must be coordinated
squeal, however, to be effective, the control within the track structure design. Insulated
system must consider the wheel and the track joints at limits of track circuits are to be
as a unit. Chapter 9 provides guidelines with opposite and within 1.2 meters (4 feet) of each
respect to trackwork design for low noise and other to facilitate underground ducting and
vibration and introduces various concepts in traction crossbonding.
noise and vibration control.
For additional information on transit signal
Trackwork design can have a substantial work, refer to Chapter 10
effect upon wayside noise and vibration and
should be considered early in the design of
4-45
4.4.12 Traction Power Runoff from the street must be directed away
from the track, and the track must be
Traction power requirements impact the track designed with perforated pipe drains to keep
design at two specific locations: the catenary the trackbed dry. Additional stabilization of
pole locations in relation to centerline of track the subgrade with geo-synthetic materials
and the running rail, which is used as the may be very cost-effective in reducing track
negative return for the traction power system. surfacing costs Failure to provide good
The catenary poles impact the track centerline drainage will result in pumping track and
distance when they are located between the broken pavements.
tracks. Clearance distances pertinent to the
transit vehicle as well as any other potential The use of embedded track at grade
users of the track (i e., freight or track crossings is proving to be a very reliable
maintenance vehicles) must be considered by crossing design. Embedded track provides a
the track and catenary designers. isolation of virtually maintenance-free installation with
the running rail used as the negative return proper insulating properties for the rail and a
conduit is essential for both timber and relatively smooth road crossing surface for
concrete crosstie ballasted track. automobiles.
For additional information on traction power Coordination with the street design is also
refer to Chapter 11. necessary to match the normally crowned
street cross section with the level grade
crossing.
4.4.13 Grade Crossings
Track designers must develop an acceptable 4.5 DIRECT FIXATION TRACK

interface wherever streets cross the light rail (BALLASTLESS OPEN TRACK)
tracks at grade. Grade crossings are
manufactured as prefabricated units of rubber,
concrete, or wood. These prefabricated units 4.5.1 Direct Fixation Track Defined
are designed to resist leakage of DC current,
as well as signal current. They are designed Direct fixation track is a “ballastless” track
to be easily installed and replaced during structure in which the rail is mounted on direct
maintenance of the track. All grade crossings fixation fasteners that are attached to a
must create a flangeway between the street concrete deck, slab, or invert. Direct fixation
paving and the rail. track is the standard method of construction
for tracks on aerial structures and in tunnels.
Some grade crossings are created by using It is also used for construction of at-grade
flangeway timbers along the rails to form the track under unusual circumstances, such as
flangeway and paving the remainder of the when there is a short segment of at-grade
area with asphalt. Although this style is not as track between two direct fixation bridge decks.
durable as the prefabricated units, it may be
Prior to designing direct fixation track, several
quite adequate in storage and maintenance
vehicle/track related issues must be resolved.
facilities.
These issues relate to the vehicle’s wheel
The most critical design element of all grade gauge, wheel profile, and truck design; the
crossings is adequate drainage for the track. track gauge and rail section; and the
4-46
compatibility of the vehicle with the guideway 4.5.2.4 Track Modulus

geometry. Acoustic concerns are also very Direct fixation track is typically much stiffer
important. vertically than ballasted track. This rigidity
must be attenuated if transmission of noise
and vibration is to be avoided. Careful
4.5.2 Direct Fixation Track Criteria selection of an appropriate track modulus and
specification of direct fixation rail fasteners
To develop direct fixation track design, the
with an appropriate spring rate must be made
following track components and standards
in accordance with Section 4.3 and Chapter 9
must be specified:
of this handbook.
Rail Section
Track Gauge
4.5.3 Direct Fixation Track Structure Types
Guarding of curved track and restraining
rail Direct fixation track construction includes the
The type of direct fixation track structure following designs
to be used (booted tie or a direct fixation l Encased Ties This is the original form for
rail fastener type) direct fixation track, dating to the late 19th
century. Timber crosstie track was
If direct fixation rail fastener construction constructed in skeleton form and then the
is selected, the type of fastener and bottoms of the crossties were encased in
supporting structure to be employed- concrete. Because the concrete held the
cementitious grout pad or concrete track rigidly to gauge, typically only every
reinforced plinth. fourth or fifth tie would be a full-length
crosstie. Intermediate ties would be short
tie blocks that support only a single rail.
4.5.2.1 Direct Fixation Track Rail Section
Such designs incorporated no specific
and Track Gauge
measures to control stray traction power
Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 of this
currents or groundborne vibrations.
Handbook for determination of rail section,
Except in very limited circumstances for
track gauge and flangeway requirements.
maintenance of existing systems,
encased timber tie track is no longer
4.5.2.2 Direct Fixation Track with constructed.
Restraining Rail l Cemetitious Grout Pads: This form of
Refer to Section 4.2.8 to determine the direct fixation track mounts each
requirements, locations, and limits for individual rail fastener on an individual
guarding track with restraining rail. grout pad, thereby guaranteeing the
construction tolerances in the final
elevation of the concrete trackbed. The
4.5.2.3 Direct Fixation Track Fastener
fasteners are held in place by anchor
Refer to Chapter 5, Section 5 4 to determine
bolts that are cored into the concrete
the requirements for specifying direct fixation
base.
fasteners.
4-47
l Concrete Plinths: This form of direct 4.5.3.1 Cementitious Grout Pads

fixation track forms rectilinear concrete Cementitious grout pad track designs include:
blocks or plinths that support several l Short cementitious grout pads of sufficient
direct fixation fasteners under a single rail. width to allow for installation of the direct
The plinths can vary in length and fixation fastener that is formed and poured
typically support between three and six directly to the concrete deck or invert. A
fasteners, although longer plinths support typical configuration is as shown at the left
up to twelve fasteners. Periodic rail in Figure 4.5.1.
interruptions of the plinths allow cross
l Short cementitious grout pads mounted
track drainage into a trough that is within a recessed opening in the concrete
typically located along the track deck or invert, as shown at the right rail in
centerline.
Figure 4.51.
l Ballastless Booted Tie Blocks: This form
of direct fixation track is an updated Grout pads typically support only a single
version of the encased tie design. It fastener, although current practice is to build
typically incorporates two block concrete longer pads to support at least four fasteners.
crossties that have an elastomeric “boot” The longer design provides improved integrity
on the bottom of each tie that provides of the pads and ease of maintenance if a
electrical and acoustic isolation between fastener is replaced or repositioned.
the ties and the encasing concrete. As
with the earlier design, most ties would be
4.5.3.1.1 Cementitious Grout Pad on
single blocks with no crosstie member Concrete Surface
between the rails. The short cementitious grout pad design acts
as a leveling course between the underside of
Variations of the above designs can be found,
the direct fixation fastener and the concrete
such as direct fixation rail fasteners bolted deck or invert surface. The anchor bolt
directly to structural steel bridge members. inserts are set in the deck slab to provide the
Such arrangements are generally in response structural integrity of the fasteners.
to a site-specific design issue and will not be
addressed in this handbook.
DIRECTFIXAnONFASTENER
OlRECTFlXAiW F WTH OR WTHCUT CANT
WHORWITHCUTCAN
MtCHMI EaT INSERT
ANcnoR 8aT INSERT
Figure 4.5.1 Cementitious Grout Pad Design-Direct Fixation Track
4-48
This design requires core drilling of the 4.5.3.1.2 Cementitious Grout Pad in
concrete invert to grout the anchor bolt in Concrete Recess
place The drilling can be undertaken either Some transit systems have experienced grout
prior to or after grout pad installation. The bolt pad delamination, because cementitious grout
assemblies are permanently anchored with an pads have a tendency to curl or pull away
epoxy grout material. from the parent concrete deck or invert during
curing and aging. It is possible to achieve
The cementitious grout pad can be formed better bonding with less likelihood of such
and poured before the rail fastener is placed; failures by forming the grout pad within
however it may be difficult to achieve an recesses in the concrete invert. The recessed
absolutely level and true top surface for the design provides additional deck or invert
rail fastener. If the grout pad is slightly too bonding by locking the four sides of the pad.
high, grinding may be required. If it is too low,
it may be necessary to place metallic or The anchor bolt assembly drilling can be
elastomeric shims beneath the rail fasteners. undertaken either prior to or after grout pad
installation. Prior drilling is recommended as
Alternatively the assembled rail and rail it results in less disturbance to the bond of the
fasteners can be suspended at proper grade cast-in-place grout pad.
and alignment above the concrete invert and
the grout either pumped or =dry packed” under
4.5.3.1.3 Cementitious Grout Material
the rail fastener. If this approach, known as
The selection of a cementitious grout material
“top down” installation, is taken, it is essential
must be undertaken carefully. The use of
to ensure that the grout does not enter the
incompatible special epoxy grouts, bonding
recesses on the bottom surface of the direct
agents and additives can result in pad
fixation rail fastener which could compromise
delamination and cracking. The material
the rail fastener spring rate. This can be
should be compatible with the deck or invert
avoided by placing a minimum of one shim
concrete and have similar thermal expansion
beneath the direct fixation rail fastener before
characteristics. It must also be compatible
grout placement. It is also necessary to lift the
with the service environment of the trackway.
rail and fasteners after the grout has cured to
locate and fill in any voids or “honeycomb” in Large inaccuracies in the elevation of the
the top surface of the grout pad that are concrete invert and track superelevation can
caused by trapped air or improper grout result in both very thin and very thick grout
placement. pads. Both can be troublesome but thin pads
are particularly prone to early failure.
Grout pads typically depend on the strength of
Cementitious grout pads that are less than 38
the bond between the concrete invert and the
millimeters (1.5 inches) thick are generally
grout for their stability. Reinforcing steel
more susceptible to fracture.
typically cannot be used because the pad is
so thin. The concrete invert is typically As a guideline, although the cementitious
roughened before grout placement and epoxy grout pad design has and is currently used on
bonding agents can be used to enhance the some transit systems, it is not recommended
bond between the grout and the concrete. due to the design’s history of pad failure.
Cementitious grout pads tend to delaminate
and break down, requiring high maintenance,
4-49
particularly in colder climates subjected to l Concrete plinths of sufficient width and

freeze-thaw cycles. Locations with minimal height for installation of a direct fixation
clearance requiring a low-profile direct fixation fastener within a recessed opening in the
track structure may be the best application of concrete deck or invert, as shown at the
the cementitious grout pad system. right rail in Figure 4.5.2.
4.5.3.2.1.1 Concrete Plinth on Concrete

4.5.3.2 Reinforced Concrete Plinth Surface. The concrete plinth width and height
The recommended direct fixation track design must be sufficient to accept the full length of
is the raised reinforced concrete plinth the fastener and anchor bolt assembly. It
system. The reinforced concrete plinths used must also accommodate the reinforcing steel
for direct fixation track include various designs that is required to confine the concrete mass
to suit tangent track, curved track, that supports the direct fixation rail fastener
superelevated track, and guarded track with and anchor bolt insert.
restraining rail. The designs affect the lengths
and shapes of the plinths and the reinforcing The concrete plinth is connected to the deck
bar configurations as follows. or invert concrete surface with a series of
stirrups or dowels protruding from the deck or
invert. Additional plinth reinforcing steel is
4.5.3.2.1 Concrete Plinth in Tangent Track connected to and supported by these stirrups
Concrete plinth in tangent track generally or dowels.
consists of two designs:
l Concrete plinths of sufficient width and The anchor bolt inserts may be installed by
height for mounting of the direct fixation the cast-in-place method or drilled and epoxy
fastener directly to the concrete deck or grouted in place. Cast-in-place installation is
invert, as shown at the left rail in Figure recommended as it results in less disturbance
4.5.2. to the plinth and eliminates any possible
C RAIL k FASTENER
TRAC%GAUGE1435 (4’-6 l/2’)
4 di
i
i
i -115 IKE RUNNINGRAIL
LATERAL AIJ&STWENT
PROMOEDAT 71%’ DIA.
ANOlOR BOLT LOCAlWi t 6 (l/47
RAIL H&O-DOW ASSEH6l.Y
DIRIC;;yoN FASTENER
mnuu SHIM 3 (l/6-) Ilax WIN

PLMiH CONCRETE
STRUCNRE SLAB
38 (I t/z’) aumcf - 3 soEs

ROUGMENTOP OF SLAB
PRIOR TO RACING PUNlH #5 BARS 0 254 FCR 762 CTRS
CONC APPLY BONDINGAGENT
‘A- DINENSON TO BE ESTABJSHED

USING COUPONENTHEIGHTS
AND TYPE CF GKUT PAB
lNSTALLATlONAT SURFACE
OR RECESSED
Figure 4.5.2 Concrete Plinth Design -Tangent Direct Fixation Track
4-50
problems with drilling through reinforcing construction contractor for setting the height of
steel. It also eliminates the extra work and the plinth formwork so that the required
potential problems of dealing with the epoxy superelevation is achieved. In addition, care
grout materials used in the core drilling must be taken to ensure that the rotation of
method. the concrete plinth at the low rail leaves
sufficient room for the anchor insert assembly
4.5.3.2.1.2 Concrete Plinth in Concrete
Recess. Similar to the grout pad method, the The plinth height is established by the
concrete plinth design has a variant wherein elevation of the low inside rail of the curved
the second pour concrete can be recessed track as shown in Figure 4.5.3. Applying the
into a trough in the base concrete slab. The profile grade elevation at the low rail of the
recessed design allows a reduced plinth curve, the superelevation is established by
height above the deck or inverts and provides rotating the top of rail plane about the gauge
additional deck or invert bonding by locking in corner of the low rail. The addition of
the four sides of the plinth. superelevation alters the cross slope and
thickness of the concrete plinths so that the
The recessed design obviously requires that a typical section is no longer symmetrical.
trough be formed in the trackway invert, an
additional work activity and hence expense to The embedment of the field side anchor bolt
the contractor building the trackway. The insert of the low rail fastener establishes the
extra cost associated with forming the trough height of the plinths, The reinforcing bar
is not insignificant and designers should requirements and configurations depend on
carefully weigh the costs and benefits of the the plinth heights.
recessed design before deciding on a
preferred method. The trough may also Plinth or second-pour concrete direct fixation
compromise the structural integrity of the base track can be mounted either directly to the
slab, particularly on aerial structures, so the surface or the recessed opening in the
design must be coordinated with the structural concrete deck or invert. The latter
design team. arrangement can be particularly
advantageous in superelevated curved track
Some designers object to the placement of since it can substantially reduce the plinth
the plinths directly on the concrete base height at the high rail.
because it places the top of rail elevation
about 360 millimeters (14 inches) above the 4.5.3.2.3 Concrete Plinth in Guarded Track
with Restraining Rail or Safety
invert. In the event of a derailment, where the
Guard Rail
wheels do not end up on top of the plinths,
The use of either a restraining rail or a safety
substantial damage to the underside of the rail
guard rail in direct fixation track will require
vehicle could result. The placement of the
that the concrete plinths be wider than normal.
plinths in a recess minimizes this concern.
Figure 4.5.4 illustrates a typical plinth for use
with restraining rail. A similar arrangement is
4.5.3.2.2 Concrete Plinth on Curved Track required for a safety guard rail system. This
Concrete plinth design for curved track must concrete plinth arrangement can be either
consider track superelevation. The track mounted directly to the surface or the
designer must provide guidance to the recessed opening in the concrete deck or
invert.
4-51
l- oi
SJPERfLEVAnONTAG TO BE .- .--- ,-
1. XNL dl
ECMED ON TOP OF PLINTH I FASTENER DIA. Ah’CHPRBOLL
(APPROXINATE
LOCATION)--\ TRACKCAL& 1435 ((‘-6 ,,2-j
LOCATION-6 (1/4 )
1 -II I
,-SUPERELEVATION
RAILHOLO-DOWI ASSEMBLY
~~c;A~.4ncti FASTENER
/-
,-‘XRlICAl MY : i (l/8’) mm
OR INSERT
-VARIES 152 (67 MN (T?P)
. STRUCTURESt~f
3
(1 l/Z’) CLEARANCE - 3 SDES
BARS0 330 (IS) FOR 666 (2f) CTRS
0 254 (lo-) FOR 762 (30’) CTRS
+ PU - PRWlLE GRACi LINE SUB SnRRUPS PRlCRTO PtAQNt FUNTH

TYPICAL KW&EIL #‘FLY BCNOING ‘A- LMlENSONTO BE ESTABLlSiED
U~NG COMPONENT HEIGHTSAm
lWf OF F’LINTHINSTALLAnON
AT SURFACECR RECESSED
Figure 4.5.3 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Direct Fixation Track
.~C_,..-...l.” ..-. _.” r$LG.dnn lur
BRAMETASSEMBLY
115 RE RUNNINGRAlL
6
TRACX 7/ LAmAL AOJJSTNENT
PMlH PimE PARULEL

TO TOPff RfiL PLANE
WEN FASTENER COHSAJNS
CANT RAJt HCUMJO~N ASXNBY
OLlLC~~XA~~ FASTENER
MM C%?
FASTENER
!iDMT
kfmw 5uu 3 w63 micx
EMEWE ANCHORINSERT
3 9DES
REINFCKINGEARS
2x) (9‘)
cm)
EUBEGEOANMOR NSERK
RESKWNINCRflL ERACKET
Figure 4.5.4 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Guarded Direct Fixation Track
with Restraining Rail
4.5.3.2.4 Concrete Plinth Lengths in curved track is curved or chorded, and the
Concrete plinths can be formed in various locations of construction joints and expansion
lengths. Typical plinths of intermediate joints in the invert. Concrete plinths in curved
lengths will accommodate three to six direct track are generally constructed in short
fixation fasteners between drainage chases as tangent segments for ease of formwork.
shown in Figure 4.5.5. Concrete plinth lengths are affected by
differential shrinkage of structure and plinth,
Concrete plinth lengths are dependent on local climate conditions and temperature
several track design factors: whether the ranges.
track is tangent or curved, whether formwork
4-52
685 I
+
127”) ! FASTENERS AT
I
i
i I
‘PI
.- INTH GAP / I /
I
I I n ! n i
L
BRACKET AND i EDGE OF KEYWAY
I
U69 RAIL REMOVED FILLED BETWEEN
FOR CLARITY PLINTHS
TYPICALLAYOUTW-H
RESTRAlNlNGRAIL
20 (0.7874”) OFFSETS
Ll”34’ 04”
/ o”47’ 02”
PLINTH INSTALLATION
BY CHORD METHOD
(25 & 150 METER RADII)
Figure 4.5.5 Concrete Plinth Lengths
4-53
4.5.3.2.5 Concrete Plinth Height longitudinal structure slippage, where zero toe
The heights of the rail section and the direct load is the fastener design and the rail and
fixation fastener and the length of the anchor structure are thermally independent.
bolt insert must be determined to establish the
height of the concrete plinth.The track 4.5.3.2.7 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar
structure deck slab or invert slope should Design
generally slope at I:40 towards the centerline The plinth reinforcement begins with the
of track. On curved track, the structure itself construction of the trackway invert. A series
may be superelevated and parallel to the of stirrups or dowels is placed longitudinally in
eventual top of rail plane. In addition, the the concrete plinth, positioned to clear the
longitudinal surface drainage gradient is embedded anchor bolt inserts and the ends of
critical to provide adequate drainage of the plinth openings or gaps. The stirrups should
trackbed. protrude a minimum distance of 75 millimeters
(3 inches) from the deck or invert to allow both
The key dimension to establishing the plinth the transverse reinforcing steel and the plinth
height is dimension “A” shown in Figure 4.5.3 concrete to lock under the stirrups. The
from the top of rail plane to the intersection of stirrup height must be designed to suit the
the deck or invert slopes at the track eventual concrete plinth height and
centerline. reinforcement design.
The plinth heights should be kept to a Different contractors often construct the bridge
minimum to enhance structural stability, deck or trackway invert and the track. The
especially if the deck or invert is relatively invert contractor is normally responsible for
level and the track alignment requires 100 to the proper placement of the stirrup reinforcing
150 millimeters (4 to 6 inches) of steel that projects from the base concrete.
superelevation at the outside rail. This reinforcing steel must be properly
installed and protected from damage after
4.5.3.2.6 Direct Fixation Vertical Tolerances installation. The wheels of construction
The height of the direct fixation fastener is equipment often damage stirrups. The use of
critical to vehicle ride quality and interaction the recessed plinths may help mitigate this
between rail and track structure. To achieve a problem.
near-perfect track surface longitudinally, the
use of shims between the top of plinth and the The plinth reinforcement that is installed by
base of direct fixation fastener is often the trackwork constructor consists of a series
implemented. The maximum difference in of “J” hook bars and longitudinal bars. A
elevation between adjacent fasteners should transverse collector bar is sometimes placed
be less then I-112 millimeters (1116 inch), the at the ends of each concrete plinth for stray
thinnest shim thickness. Shims generally current control as shown in Figure 4.5.6.
range in thickness to 12 millimeters (I/2 inch)
to compensate for either inferior construction The design size of the concrete plinth
or eventual structure settlement. Fastener determines the size and outline of the “J”
shim thicknesses above the 12-millimeter hooks and the length of the longitudinal bars.
range exist and special anchor bolt lengths Tangent track will require a constant height to
are then required. Fasteners installed out of conform to the general height of the concrete
longitudinal surface by more than I-112 plinth Curved track alignments with
millimeters have been known to hinder superelevation will require various sizes and
4-54
1520 (60”) ,-DIRECT FIXATlON FASTENERS

255 760 (30”) 760 (30’) 255 , 250 , 255 380 LATERAL REINFORCING ‘J”
FASTENER SPACING BAR HOOPS
0~‘) (lo-,-l (9 8”) 1 (10”) (15’)
, 380
DECK OR INVERT REINFORCING
BAR STIRRUPS (SEE NOTE 2)
ONCRETE PLINTH
NGITUDINAL BARS
MLD LOCATION (TYP )

STIRRUP S?ACING 1 508 (20”) 1 508 (20”) 1 508 (20”) ON TRANSVERSE COLLECTOR
I I
BARS (SEE NOTE 3)
3 FASTENERPLINTHLAYOUT
TRANSVERSE COLLECTOR BAR 38 (1.5”) MIN

AT EACH END OF PLINTH TO
BE WELDED TO THE FOUR
LONGITUDINAL BARS
(SEE NOTE 3) ANCHOR BOLT
INSERT (TYP )
c RAIL
\
LLONGITUDINAL BARS
f RANSMRSE “J’ HOOPS

0 BE WELDED TO INSIDE
ONGITUDINAL BAR
DECK STIRRUPS
SECTIONA
LONGITUDINAL BAR
DECK 0IR INVERT STIRRUPS

WELDS (TYP.)
91 / 1-38 (i 5”) MN :
CONCRETE COVER
Ih PRE INSTALLED
DECK OR INVERT
PLAN vlEW STIRRUPS
TRANSVERSE
COLLECTOR
BAR
NOTES:
1 ON CURVES OF LESS THAN 240m RADIUS. MAXMUM PLINTH

LENGTH if FOUR FASTENERS
2 DECK OR INVERT REINFORCING BAR STIRRUPS PRE-INSTALLED
3 ELIMINATE WELDS AND ~RANSMRSE COLLECTOR BARS

IF EPOXY-COATED REINFORCING BARS ARE USED
Figure 4.5.6 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar Design
shapes of reinforcing bar “J” hooks as shown 20-millimeter (0.75inch) clearance at the
in Figure 4.5.6. Design size of reinforcing fastener anchor bolt inserts.
bars and stirrup locations must include the
requirements of providing 38 millimeters (1.5 The reinforcing bar network must be
inches) minimum of concrete cover from the continuous to control stray current corrosion
edge of bar to the face of the concrete and a within the direct fixation track system. The
aerial deck, at-grade slab, or tunnel invert
4-55
reinforcing bar system must be continuous base concrete causing corrosion of the
and connected to a negative ground system. stirrups. In tunnels that do not have adequate
A similar continuous network must be means of leak control, the potential of surface
established and connected to a negative water penetrating the separation point may be
ground system through the deck or slab unavoidable, leading to reinforcing bar rusting
reinforcing system to provide similar and corrosion. Various sealants, such as
protection to the second pour concrete plinth epoxies, have been used to attempt to seal
reinforcing bar system. this joint but virtually every product available
will eventually dry out, harden and peel away.
The concrete plinth reinforcing bar system can The use of a sealant can actually exacerbate
be made electrically continuous by the a seepage condition by trapping water
following methods: beneath the plinth concrete. As a guideline,
l The deck or invert stirrups installed during sealants are discouraged and the use of
the initial construction must be connected epoxy-coated reinforcing steel for stirrups is
(welded) to the deck or invert reinforcing recommended.
bar network.
l The concrete plinth reinforcing bar system
4.5.3.3 Direct Fixation Fastener Details at
must be completely connected (welded) to
the Rail
the protruding deck or invert stirrups.
Typically, the track system will have the rail
l When the stirrups or dowels are not positioned with a cant of 1:40 toward the track
connected (welded) to the deck or invert centerline. Rail cant in direct fixation track
reinforcing bar system, then the concrete may be achieved by several methods:
plinth reinforcing bar network must be l The top surface of the concrete plinth or
completely connected (welded) and grout pad can be sloped to match the
connected to a negative ground system. required cant. In such cases, the direct
This requires connections between each fixation fail fastener itself would be flat,
plinth at the concrete plinth openings or with no built-in cant.
gaps. l The plinth concrete or grout pad can be
l The use of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars poured level (or parallel with the top of
in the stirrups and the concrete plinth rails in superelevated track) and the rail
reinforcing bar network provide the fasteners can be manufactured with the
required stray current corrosion desired cant built into the rail seat of the
protection. Care must be exercised fastener.
during construction to retain complete
protective epoxy coating coverage on the Both methods can produce acceptable results.
stirrups and concrete plinth reinforcing bar Placing the cant in the rail seat of the fastener
network. Chipped or damaged epoxy simplifies the construction of plinth formwork
coating must be covered in an acceptable and better ensures that the desired cant will
protective paint compatible with the initial actually be achieved, particularly when
epoxy coating material recommended by bottom-up construction is anticipated. If top-
the epoxy coating manufacturer. down construction is used, rail cant can be
reliably achieved in the concrete if the jigs
In some cases, surface water can penetrate used to support the assembled rails and rail
the joint between the plinth concrete and the fasteners incorporate cant adjustment
4-56
capability. If canted fasteners are used, it The individual tie blocks support the rail.
may still be necessary to procure flat Microcellular elastomeric pads support the
fasteners for use in special trackwork areas. blocks. The pads and tie blocks are enclosed
in a rubber boot before installation.
Lateral adjustment capability and fastener
anchor bolt locations are important elements The microcellular pad provides most of the
in the design and configuration of direct tracks elasticity. A rail pad also provides
fixation rail fasteners. The rail cant location some cushioning of impact loads, although it
must be considered when positioning was found that improper rail pad design could
embedded anchors. Rail cant at the base of act in resonance with the underlying
rail or at the top of the concrete alters the microcellular pad to create excessive rail
anchor positions (refer to Figure 4.5.7). corrugation.
Excessive shimming on a canted concrete
surface may tilt the rail head closer to the When properly designed, LVT can be
center of track, which impacts track gauge. engineered to provide whatever track modulus
For additional information on direct fixation or spring rate is required by changing the
fasteners, see Chapter 5. composition or thickness of the microcellular
pad. The most common application has a
spring rate in the range of 15,760 to 24,500
4.5.3.4 Direct Fixation “Ballastless” N/mm (90,000 to 140,000 lb/in) to provide
Concrete Tie Block Track [31 maximum environmental benefits.
Conventional construction for direct fixation
track includes the installation of either LVT, and most encased tie systems, reduce
cementitious grout and concrete plinths with the need for reinforcing steel. LVT does not
elastomeric rail fasteners or encased require a reinforced invert, which often makes
monoblock ties in a concrete embedment as this system more competitive with a plinth
shown in Figure 4.5.8. One alternative to the type of installation.
fastener-on-plinth system to provide a “softer’
track is the Low Vibration Track (LVT) shown The installation of LVT-and almost all
on Figure 4.5.9. Versions of this type of encased tie systems-requires “top-down”
installation and its predecessors date back to construction, where the rail is suspended from
the mid-1960s. It is marketed as a direct temporary supports, with ties and rail
equivalent to the elastomeric rail fastener. fasteners attached, at the final profile
elevation. The encasement concrete is then
Although not new technology, the LVT is poured into the tunnel invert around the track.
relatively new to the transit industry. Earlier When the concrete is cured, the supports are
versions of this type of dual-block concrete tie removed. An undesirable feature of LVT track
trackwork incorporated a steel angle gauge design is the rail’s lack of lateral adjustment
bar between the concrete blocks. The LVT capability once the track is in place.
design does not incorporate the gauge bars,
since the concrete encasement holds gauge.
4-57
$ RAIL SEAT MOUNTING 4 RAIL

AT THE TOP OF PLINTH I
$ RAIL SEAT MEASURED
AT BASE OF RAlL
$ RAIL MEASURED
AT GAUGE LINE
B 751.80 (29.5484”)
115 Ri RAiL HEAD
C TO (2 TRACK-
L FASTENER
t TOP OF CONCRETE
PLINTH
HEIGHT
VARIES i DTO~TRACK-
.
CHART FOR CANT 1:40
OF&T CANT ;S$3LILIEO AT CANT EST&IMED AT

c HEAD - Q MOUNTING TOP Cf CONCRETE
0 152.35 3.81 (0.1500”) 755.61 (29.7484’) 755.61 (29.7484')
is.05 (3/4') 171.40 1 4.29 (0.1689') 755.61 (29.7484-l i ._-.--
7.S6.09 _-. -
129.7673-J
25.40 (1') 177.75 4.44 (0.1748.) 755.61 (29.748~ k') 1 756.24 (29.7732') 1
31.75 (1 l/4') 184.10 4.60 (0.1811') 755.61 (29.7481 1') 1 756.40 (29.7795")
--. . " fl, l/73
.38tn _, - , I) 19045
__. .- 4.76
.--- (0.1874-b
\---- I I 75561
" ". " (3974sr
" - . - 1') 756.56 (297858')
44.45 (I 3/4') 1 196.80 4.92 (0.1937') 1 755.61 (29.7484') 756.72 (29.7921')
50.80 (2') 203.15 %na
“.I. m 7imA"\ ,
,“.-““T I 7Wfil
. “W.1. m715Lq
\..... .- 765.89 (29.7988.)
57.15- \-(2 t/4-1
--- , a I 209.M , 524 (42063') 1 755.61 (29.748r ,'I 757.04 129.80477
kT5n
.“... 13
\. l/7'\
., - , I 71585
“.“.“” I
I
540
-..-
fO7176'1
\----- I
I, 7~5.61
__~__ ,.-..
09 74aI.-k-j 1 757.20 i298uo.j J
CHART FOR CANT 1:20
1 ?lzER RAIL + :A~KNER

HEIGHT 1 ~;f-?t~NG
CANT ~S$-~t-E~ AT CANT ESThHED
TOP OF CONCRETE
AT
}rso5(3/0 152.35
171.40 &7
“.. (0.3374')
"".." ,. , 177.75 t , 8.8
-.19 (0.3499') 1 :
31 75 f1 l/A’\
“.-*I ,. ., I ,
1
,
18410
. ” . . . .
1 9.20 (0.3624') 75947 ma984
t1 38.10 I1
--.-. l/Z’)
1-1 I 190.45 I 9.52 (0.3749') :
44.45 (1 3/4') 196.80 } 9.84 (0.3874.) :
50.80 (2') 203.15 f 10.16 (0.3999') " :
57.15 (2 l/4') 209.50 1 IO.48 (0.4124') : -.~ - ,-~
( 63.5'3 (2 l/2") 21585 1 10.79 (0.4249') 759.42 (29.; 6984") 1 76259 (30.0232-j
Figure 4.5.7 Rail Can? and Base of Rail Positioning
4-58
c TIE & TRACK

I
I
IRON SHOULDER
I I
MAXIMUM LEVEL OF
ENCASEMENT CONCRETE
150 (59’) FROM BOTTOM OF TIE
Figure 4.5.8 Encased Concrete Crosstie
$ TRACK
1435 (4--B l/Z’): TRACK GAUGE

CONCRETE BLOCK
MICROCELLULAR
50 (2”) MINIMUM MAXIMUM LEVEL OF

ENCASEMENT ENCASEMENT CONCRETE
150 (5 9’) FROM BOOT BASE
CONCRETE UNDER BOOT J
Figure 4.5.9 Standard LVT System
Encased tie systems vary widely in cost, but Direct fixation track built on a bridge structure
can usually be installed quite rapidly, will obviously not have to directly contend with
compared to plinth type systems. LVT block any subsurface drainage issues. Direct
replacements are feasible on a small scale, fixation track constructed at-grade or in a
consisting of a slightly smaller block grouted tunnel, on the other hand, must be properly
in the cavity of a removed tie block. drained beneath the track slab. Standard
underdrain details, similar to those used in
highway design, must be provided to keep
4.5.4 Direct Fixation Track Drainage groundwater out of the under-track area. The
successful direct fixation track will include an
Drainage is as important to the success of a
efficient surface drainage system. Experience
direct fixation track installation as it is to any
has shown that foresight in the design of
other type of track structure. This includes
surface drainage for the direct fixation track
both drainage of water from the top surface of
structure is required to avoid accumulation of
the track and the subsurface support system.
standing water or trapped water pockets.
4-59
At the interface of ballasted track to direct 4.5.6 Direct Fixation Special Trackwork
fixation track, the direct fixation track system
should include. The direct fixation special trackwork portion of
l Protection for adjacent ballasted track any transit system will require special
segments; the direct fixation track surface treatment and a different concrete plinth
runoff should be directed away from the design than main line direct fixation track.
ballasted track. The supporting plinths or track slabs require
detailed layout, as well as coordination with
l A transverse drainage chase or diverting
the signal and electric traction design of the
wall directing surface runoff to the
fasteners, switch rods, and gauge plates.
drainage system in lieu of runoff into the
ballasted track area. Direct fixation special trackwork in
l Concrete plinths that do not butt up to the contemporary light rail transit systems
ballast wall retainer or drainage diverting generally consists of turnouts grouped to act
wall Lateral drainage chases between as single crossovers for alternate track
the last plinth face and the ballast wall operations. Operating requirements may
retainer are essential. dictate the installation of a double crossover
with four turnouts and a crossing (diamond).
The design positioning of deck surface Using double crossovers in tunnels and on
drainage scuppers must consider the rotation bridges may incur higher track costs, but may
of the deck or invert due to superelevation. be very economical in providing structural cost
savings.
4.55 Stray Current Protection

Requirements 4.5.7 Noise and Vibration
The track structure design requires an The vehicle traveling over the direct fixation
electrical barrier at the rail. Direct fixation track produces noise and vibration. The
track generally provides this electrical barrier impact of this noise and vibration generally
within the direct fixation fastener body. An becomes significant on alignments through
insulating resilient material with a specified sensitive areas, such as near hospitals. Track
bulk resistivity forms the elastomeric and design has a significant effect on both noise
insulating portion of the fastener. The coating and wheel squeal, and the designer must
of the rail with an epoxy insulating material consider the wheels, trucks, and the track as
should be considered in areas of extensive one integrated system. Chapter 9 provides
tunnel seepage or perpetual dampness. guidelines with respect to trackwork design for
low noise and vibration and introduces various
The electrical barrier for the low vibration concepts in noise and vibration control.
encased tie direct fixation track system is
provided at the rail base. Similar to concrete Trackwork design can have a substantial
tie fastenings, the electrical barrier is effect upon wayside noise and vibration.
established by an insulated resilient rail seat Noise and vibration should be considered
pad and spring clip insulators. early in facilities design to provide for special
treatments. Cost-effective designs consider
For more information on electrical barriers on the type of vehicle involved, the soft primary
direct fixation fasteners, see Chapter 5. suspensions that produce ideal levels of
4-60
ground vibration above 30 Hz, or the stiff fixation track centerline distance and aerial
primary suspensions that produce levels that structure width when they are located
peak at 22 Hz. See Chapter 9 of this between the tracks. Clearance distances
handbook. pertinent to the transit vehicle and any other
potential users (i.e., track maintenance
vehicles) are a design issue that must be
4.5.8 Transit Signal Work considered by the track and catenary
designers together. Isolation of the running
Although design of the signal control system
rail, when used as a negative return conduit,
will not greatly impact direct fixation track
is essential and a specific resistivity in the
design, it can affect specific parts of the
elastomer is a key design issue.
design. The prime example of this
interrelationship is the need for insulated For additional information on traction power
joints in the running rails to accommodate refer to Chapter ? I.
train control requirements. Such joints are
normally required at the extremities of
interlockings, each end of station platforms, 4.6 EMBEDDED TRACK DESIGN
within individual turnouts and crossovers, and
at other locations to be determined by the Embedded track is perhaps the single most
train control design. distinguishing characteristic-the signature
track-of a light rail transit system in a central
The light rail transit signaling system may business district. Deceptively simple in
include track circuit signal systems within the appearance, it is arguably the most difficult
direct fixation track zones. Impedance bond and expensive type of transit track to
installation requirements must be coordinated successfully design and construct. In addition
with concrete plinth track structure design. to typical structural design issues that affect
Insulated joints at the limits of the track any track, embedded track design must also
circuits must be opposite and within 1.2 address difficult questions with respect to
meters (4 feet) of each other to facilitate electrical isolation, acoustic attenuation, and
underground ducting and traction urban design, all in an environment that does
crossbonding. Reinforcing bars in the not facilitate easy maintenance. The “correct
concrete may prevent track circuits from design” may be different for just about every
operating reliably. transit system. Even within a particular
system, it may be prudent to implement two or
For additional information on transit signal more embedded track designs tailored to site-
work, refer to Chapter 10. specific circumstances.
4.59 Traction Power 4.6.1 Embedded Track Defined
Traction power requirements impact the track Embedded track can be described as a track
design at two specific locations: the catenary structure that is completely covered-except
pole locations in relation to the track for the top of the rails-within pavement.
centerline and the running rail, which is used Flangeways can be provided either by using
as the negative return for the traction power grooved head girder rail or by forming a
system. The catenary poles impact the direct flangeway in the embedment material.
4-61
Embedded track is generally the standard for detailed if the track system is to be functional
light rail transit routes constructed within and have minimal long-term maintenance
public streets, pedestrian/transit malls, or any requirements.
area where rubber-tired traffic must operate.
On several transit systems, both highway Traditional street railway/tramway systems
grade crossings and tracks constructed in used wheels with relatively narrow tread
highway medians have used embedded track. surfaces and narrow wheel flanges. The chief
reason for this was to ensure minimal
Embedded track can be constructed to projection of the wheel tread beyond the rail
various designs, depending on the head where it could contact the adjoining
requirements of the system. Some embedded pavement, damaging both the wheel and the
track designs are very rigid while others are pavement. Such wheels had tread widths as
quite resilient. narrow as 50 millimeters (2 inches) and
overall wheel widths of only 75 millimeters (3
Prior to developing an embedded track inches) Problems with these wheels,
design, several vehicle/track related issues particularly in the vicinity of special trackwork,
must be resolved, including vehicle wheel resulted in most systems adopting wheels with
gauge, wheel profile, and truck design; the much wider treads.
track gauge and rail section; and ability of the
vehicle to negotiate the track in a satisfactory Wheels with an overall width of 133
manner. millimeters (5.25 inches) are common on new
start systems. Increasing the wheel tread
width beyond the rail head introduces an
4.6.2 Embedded Rail and Flangeway overhang with potential for interference
Standards between the outer edge of the wheel and the
embedment materials. To avoid wheel or
To develop embedded track designs, the
pavement damage, either the rail head must
following track components and standards
be raised above the surrounding embedment
must be specified:
material or the pavement immediately
l Rail section to be used: girder groove
adjacent to the rail must be depressed as
(guard) rail or tee rail
shown in Figure 4.6.1.
l Track gauge in the embedded section
l Flangeway width provided in girder rail or Other factors must be considered when
formed section positioning the rail head with respect to the
l Guarding of flangeways in curved track pavement surface. In resilient embedded
and restraining rail track design, a rail head vertical deflection
ranging from 1.5 to 4 millimeters (0.060 to
Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 to
0.160 inches) must be considered. In
determine rail section, track gauge and
embedded track, eventual vertical rail head
flangeway requirements.
wear of 10 millimeters (0.39 inches) or more
must be accommodated. In addition, the
4.6.2.1 Embedded Details at the Rail Head wheel tread surface will wear and can result in
The rail section and wheel profile used on a a 3-millimeter (0.12-inch) or greater false
transit system must be compatible. Further, flange height. Over the life of the installation,
the rail installation method must be carefully the total required vertical displacement
4-62
IRANST WHEELMDTHS policies must include a regular wheel truing

program.
When rail head wear has eliminated

approximately half of the projecting 6
millimeter (0.12-inch) vertical head clearance,
the original projecting dimension can be
RAILHEADASOK
S”RRO”NMNGEMBEWENT restored by production grinding of the
embedment material.
TOP OF RAIL POSITIONED

ABOVE EMBEDMENTSURFACE 4.6.2.2 Wheel/Rail Embedment
Interference
TRANSITWEEL MDT%
The width of a light rail vehicle wheel is a
major design issue. Each design option has
certain drawbacks such as:
l Wide wheels increase the weight (mass)
on the unsprung portion of the truck and
project beyond the field side of the head
R*IL HEADABOK
of most rail designs. Wide wheels are
therefore susceptible to developing hollow
treads and false flanges and could require
TOPOF RAIL PO&IONED more frequent wheel truing to maintain
AT EMBEDMENTSURfACE acceptable tracking through special
trackwork.
Figure 4.6.1 Embedded Rail Head Details
l Narrow wheels result in limited tread

between the rail head and the pavement
support at open flangeways and increase
surface immediately adjacent to the rails could
the possibility of wide gauge derailments.
exceed 15 millimeters (0.59 inches).
This typically forces the adoption of either
A 15millimeter (0.59-inch) projection of the flange-bearing special trackwork or the
rail above the pavement would be excessive use of movable point frogs.
for an initial installation. Such a rail projection
l Medium wheels partially reconcile the
could hinder snow plowing operations at
problems noted above, but introduce the
grade crossings and could be hazardous in
possibility of undesirable wheel tread
vehicle and pedestrian areas. A 6-millimeter
protrusion beyond the field side of narrow
(0.24-inch) protrusion is recommended for
rail head designs. They also provide
initial installation, which should accommodate
limited tread support in special trackwork
resilient vertical deflection, some initial vertical
and may require flange-bearing special
rail head wear, and a moderate amount of
trackwork or movable point frogs.
false flange wheel wear.
As stated in Section 4.6.2.1, embedded track
False flanges should not be allowed to
design must consider the surrounding
progress, especially to the 3-millimeter (0.12
embedment material’s exposure to the
inch) height, and the track designer should
overhanging or protruding wheel treads.
stress that the vehicle system maintenance
4-63
The following table summarizes head widths positioned below 6 millimeters (0.25 inches) is
of typical girder rail and tee rail sections. not recommended.
These rail sections are illustrated in Figures
52.1, 5.2 2, and 52.3 of this handbook. Trackside appliances such as electrical
connection boxes, clean out drainage boxes,
Rail Section Head Width drainage grates and special trackwork
NP4a 56 mm (2.205 in) housings must be depressed or recessed in
the vicinity of the rail head to provide for
Ri 52N 56 mm (2.205 in)
various wheel tread rail wear and rail grinding
Ri 53N 56 mm (2.205 in) conditions. As a guideline, depressed notch
Ri 59N Girder 56 mm (2.205 in) designs in the covers, sides and mounting
bolts of the track enclosures adjacent to the
Ri 60N Girder 56 mm (2.205 in)
rail head are recommended. A depth of 15
GGR-118 Girder * 56 mm (2.205 in) millimeters (0.6 inches) provides adequate
128RE-7A Girder * 76.2 mm (3 in) clearance throughout the life of the rail
149RE-7A Girder l 76.2 mm (3 in) installation.
115 RE Tee Rail 69.1 mm (2.720 in)

* Rail sections that are not currently rolled. 4.6.3 Embedded Track Types
If wheel tread width exceeds rail head width Chapter 2 documents the types and
on the selected embedded rail, interference magnitudes of loads transferred from the
between the outer edge of the wheel and the vehicle wheel to the rail. The rail must
embedding pavement is inevitable as the rail support the vehicle and the resulting loads by
wears vertically. As a rule, wheel widths from absorbing some of the impact and shock and
127 to 133 millimeters (5 to 5.25 inches) will transferring some of the force back into the
overhang the rail head. The ATEA sought to vehicle via the wheels. The initial impact
avoid such problems by having no standard absorber on the vehicle is the elastomer in the
wheel tread more than 75 millimeters (3 resilient wheel, followed by the primary
inches) wide and no standard plain girder rail suspension chevron springs, then the
section head less than 63 millimeters (2.5 secondary suspension system air bags. The
inches) wide. initial impact absorber on the track is the rail,
specifically the rail head, followed by the
A railway wheel or transit wheel that fastening or supporting system at the rail base
overhangs the rail head must be clear of the and then the remaining track structure. The
surrounding embedment material as shown in track structure’s degree of resiliency dictates
Figure 4.6.1. Raising the rail head will the amount of load distributed to the rail and
facilitate future rail grinding and delay the track structure and the magnitude of force
need for undercutting or grinding the returned to the wheels and vehicle.
surrounding embedment material to provide
clearance for the wheel tread. Embedded
track top of rail tolerances must be realistic 4.6.3.1 Non-Resilient Embedded Track
when considering concrete slab placement Rail supported on a hard base slab, embedded
during track construction. A projection 6 to IO in a solid material such as concrete with no
millimeters (0.25 to 0.375 inches) above the surrounding elastomeric materials, has a high
surface is realistic. Rail modulus of elasticity and will support the
surrounding
4-64
weight of the vehicle and absorb a moderate lose some of its resiliency after roughly 5
amount of the wheel impact and shock. A years. This hardening results in surface
majority of the impact loads will be transferred deterioration from wheel contact, but does not
back into the vehicle via the wheels. Non- progress to the point where it is detrimental to
resilient rail can be considered as surrounding structures or otherwise
continuously supported beam with a minor considered faulty by the general public. Like
amount of rail base surface transfer. all engineered structures, these installations
age and slowly deteriorate to the point where
Non-resilient track has had mixed success. replacement is required.
Eventual spalling of the surrounding
embedment and surface failure are common Bituminous asphaltic embedment materials
problems. This is especially evident in severe provide a minor degree of resiliency, but tend
climates where freeze/thaw cycles contribute to shrink and harden with age, leading to
to track material deterioration. Concrete excessive interface gaps between the rail and
embedment alone does not provide rail asphalt or roadway concrete. When
resiliency. It creates a rigid track structure bituminous asphalt hardens, it tends to
that produces excessive unit stresses below fracture and break down. The resulting water
the rail, causing potential concrete intrusion will accelerate deterioration of the
deterioration. Such designs are highly entire track structure.
dependent on the competency of the concrete
immediately adjacent to the rails. Field quality As a guideline, although concrete embedment
control during concrete placement and and bituminous asphalt materials have been
vibration are very important. Rigid track was used in track paving embedment, they are not
usually successful under relatively lightweight recommended. An elastomeric rail boot or
trams and streetcars, but has often failed other elastomeric components are available to
prematurely under the higher wheel loadings provide resiliency at the rail surface and
of the current generation of light rail transit potential rail deflection both vertically and
vehicles. horizontally.
The size and mass of the base slab, typically

a concrete slab 400 to 600 millimeters (16 to 4.6.3.2 Resilient Embedded Track
24 inches) thick, tends to dampen some Direct fixation transit track and conventional
impacts generated by passing vehicles. This ballasted track are both resilient designs with
results in reduced and usually minor transfers a proven record of success. This success is
of vibration to surrounding structures. due, in no small measure, to their ability to
deflect under load, with those deflections
Several transit systems feature embedded rail being within acceptable operating limits for
suspended in resilient polyurethane materials. track gauge and surface. These rail designs
This rather simple form of embedment are able to distribute loads over a broad area,
completely encapsulates the rail, holding it thereby avoiding-except for the rail-wheel
resiliently in position to provide electrical contact-point loading of the track structure
isolation and full bonding of the rail and trough which could cause track failure. Resilient
to preclude water intrusion. These track has been successful in ballasted track
installations have been successful with no and direct fixation track installations and has
visible defects. Experience has shown that had improved results in embedded track
polyurethane has a tendency to harden and installations Non-resilient embedded track
4-65
designs typically fail in excessive loading batts, and resilient fasteners. The decision to
situations, such as a very sharp curve, where use floating slab design is based on site-
the rigid nature of the embedment materials specific critical requirements and is often the
prevents the rail from distributing loads over a preferred method to dampen and control the
broad enough area thereby overstressing transfer of low frequency groundborne noise
portions of the structure. A key goal in and vibration in the embedded track.
embedded track design is to duplicate the rail
deflections and resiliency inherent in ballasted Floating slab design consists of two concrete
and direct fixation track systems to provide an slabs, with the initial base slab constructed on
economical long-term track structure. the subgrade and a second slab that includes
the track structure, with resilient isolators
Rail supported on a resilient base, with a positioned between the two slabs. The base
moderate modulus of elasticity, embedded on slab is usually U-shaped, making the entire
a solid track slab will support the weight of the structure somewhat similar to the “bathtub”
vehicle and absorb and distribute a greater concept.
amount of the wheel impact and shock. Some
of the impact load will be transferred back into The resilient isolators between the base slab
the vehicle via the wheels. Resilient rail and the track slab can take several forms.
evenly distributes vehicle loads along the rail Most common, particularly in older
to the surrounding track structure. The installations, are large diameter elastomer
frequency ranges developed by each light rail “hockey pucks” or “donuts” that are sized,
vehicle will determine the parameters of the spaced, and formed to provide the desired
resilient track structure design and its spring rate and acoustic attenuation. Some
components. newer installations have substituted ballast
mat sheets and rockwool batts for the donuts.
The guidance of a noise and vibration expert In all cases, the secondary isolators must be
is recommended to coordinate the design of placed between the sides of the track slab and
the resilient track structure with light fail the vertical walls of the base slab to limit
vehicles equipped with resilient wheels. Such lateral track movement and to provide
wheels attenuate vibration caused by wheel- acoustic isolation. Those isolators can either
rail contact, reducing the vibrations entering be individual elastomer blocks, continuous
the carbody and affecting the ride quality. elastomer sheeting, or ballast mats extending
They do not provide significant attenuation of up the base slab wall. As with any bathtub
groundborne acoustic effects. design, the exposed joint between the track
slab and the base slab must be well-sealed to
limit water intrusion and accumulation of
4.6.3.3 Super Resilient Embedded Track surface contaminants in the voids around the
(Floating Slab) base isolators, which will degrade the
Groundborne noise and vibration are a system’s performance. Drainage of the void
concern for embedded track sections adjacent area beneath the base slab is critical. The
to or near noise and vibration sensitive design should provide for periodic inspection
facilities, such as hospitals, auditoriums, and flushing out of the void area
recording studios, and symphony halls.
Numerous methods for controlling Based on site-specific rail features, vibration
groundborne noise and vibration exist, radiation, and the distance to surrounding
including floating slabs, ballast mats, rockwool structures, the floating slab, ballast mat or
4-66
rockwool batt design is best undertaken by a Other German companies in the elastomer
noise and vibration expert experienced in component and product line have similarly
dampening and isolation. For additional been experimenting with encased rail designs.
information on noise and vibration, refer to
Section 4 6.6 and Chapter 9.
4.6.4 Embedded Track Structure Types
4.6.3.4 A Special Resilient Rail Installation There are generally two types of track
for Vibration Sensitive Zones structures in embedded track design:
A relatively new track design concept to l Concrete slab track structure
dampen vibrations is emerging in Germany. 0 Conventional ballasted track with
The continuous elastic embedded rail system embedment
as shown in Figure 4.6.2 consists of
prefabricated sections of rail, rubber and steel
4.6.4.1 Concrete Slab Track Structure
forms, preassembled for track installation.
Concrete slab embedded track designs
The assembled rail is supported under the
consist of various styles that include:
head with no rail base contact, providing
l Continuous single-pour concrete slab with
increased vertical deflection with controlled
two rail pockets or troughs for the
lateral deflection based on the elastomer
installation of the rails (Figure 4.6.3).
tapered configuration. The bolt tension and
Stray current protection is provided at the
compression of the rubber control total
rail or within the trough area.
deflection. The entire assembly is mounted
on a concrete base slab with an intermediate l Two-pour concrete slab with cold joint
grout material at the base of the assembly and between the two pours located at the base
then embedded. of rail (Figure 4.6.4). Stray current
protection is provided at the rail or within
The reduction in vibration emissions in the the trough area.
critical low-frequency range makes the
l Three-pour concrete slab with a bathtub
continuous elastic rail system a viable
design providing stray current protection
alternative to floating slab designs in
below and beside the concrete track slab
environmentally sensitive track zones.
(Figure 4.6.5).
The initial concrete slab width can be

designed to accommodate both single-track
and double-track installations. As a guideline,
the preferred design for ease of installation is
two single-track concrete slab pours with an
expansion or construction joint at the
centerline of both tracks. The required
accuracy of the track alignment and the
finished top of rail concrete surface should
Figure 4.62 Special Resilient Rail
Installation for Vibration Sensitive Zones
4-67
STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION

I- WITHIN THE TROUGH AREA
1ST POUR CONCRETE SLAB WITH TWO lNDlVlDLJAL

RAIL TROUGHS FOR SINGLE TRACK. DOUBLE TRACK
SECTIONS ARE ALSO POSSIBLE.
Figure 4.6.3 Concrete Slab with Two individual Rail Troughs
STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION

IN THE RAIL AREA
I
I jJ/
FOLD JOINT
i 2ND POUR
SURFACE
CONCRETE
SECTIONS I jtl
t ST POUR CONCRETE SLAB FOR SINGLE OR DOUBLE TRACK SECTIONS
Figure 4.6.4 Two-Pour Concrete Slab with Two individual Rail Troughs
STRAY CURRENT PROTECTlON AT

THE “BATHTUB” PERIMETER AREA
1ST POUR CONCRETE TRACK SLAB WITH “BATHTUB” DEPRESSION
Figure 4.6.5 Three-Pour Concrete “Bathtub” Installation
control the staging and methods of embedded rail in position without any mechanical
track construction. connections between the rail and the track
slab. The installation design is a two-step
process. First, the rail is either positioned
4.6.4.1.1 Rail Installation
within the trough (Figure 4.6.6A) or on the
The methods of installation, positioning and
initial concrete base slab (Figure 4.6.6B)
retention of the rail depends on the specific
using temporary jigs. Next sufficient trough or
design criteria selected.
base embedment material (concrete or
polyurethane) is placed to completely
Floating rail installation relies on the
encapsulate the base of rail, thereby locking
embedment materials to secure and retain the
the rail in its final position. The temporary jigs
4-68
are then removed and a second application of alignment during the embedment pours can
trough fill material generally encapsulates the be especially difficult in curved track. The
remaining rail to top of rail. contract specifications should require the
contractor to submit a detailed quality control
If girder rail is used, no special surface plan for meeting the tolerances.
finishing is required. If tee rail is employed,
either ,a flangeway can be formed on the Rail fastening installations use mechanical rail
gauge side of the rail or the embedment base connections to secure the rail in position.
material can be deliberately left low. The installation may consist of the following
Regardless of rail section, the surface of the methods:
embedment material must be left low on the l Core drilling and epoxy grouting the
field side of the rail to provide for false flange fastening anchor inserts or bolts to the
relief and future rail wear. initial concrete dab as shown in Figure
4.6.7A.
Meeting construction tolerances for floating
l Cast-in-place fastening anchor inserts into
rail installations depends on the contractor’s
the initial concrete slab as shown in
ability to rigidly hold the rails in proper
Figure 4.6.7B.
alignment during the initial embedment
material pour. Once set, the rail position
Such designs require limited horizontal and
cannot be adjusted to meet construction
vertical alignment adjustment prior to
tolerances or future maintenance needs.
embedment. This is provided by the leveling
Irregularities in the rail alignment due to either
nuts and slotted holes in the rail base plate as
rail manufacturing tolerances or thermal
shown in Figure 4.6.7A . Slotted plate holes
effects during construction can cause
may provide for horizontal adjustment and
misalignments that can only be fixed by
additional shims for vertical adjustment as
removal and replacement. Maintaining the
shown in Figure 4.6.7B.
SECOND FILL
f SECOND FILL
APPLICATION
I. r...re
-?NCRETE
APPLICATION ;ECTlONS
Figure 4.6.6 Initial Rail Installations-Base Material
4-69
The use of steel ties or gauge rods is a factor

ANCHOR BOLTS in stray current control design. Individual
DRILLED AND PLATE WlTH ANCHOR
GROUTED 1N PLACE7 BOLTS CAST IN PLACE7 trough isolation is impossible due to the steel
tie or rod extending beyond the trough or rail
area. Gauge rods can usually be insulated
within individual cross troughs; however the
installation is cumbersome and quality control
CONCRETE SLAB is difficult. Steel ties are even more difficult
A B due to their irregular cross section.
Figure 4.6.7 Rail Fastening installations
The use of steel ties and gauge bars in
Rail fastening embedded track designs must embedded track sections tends to produce a
consider the ability of the rail to distribute surface crack in rigid pavements directly
lateral loads to the rail fasteners. If the rails above or near the embedded tie or bar. To
are rigidly secured at centers of 900 to 1000 control surface deterioration, a scored crack
millimeters (approximately 35 to 40 inches), control slot or indentation is recommended.
and the surrounding embedment materials are This may not be specifically necessary in
more flexible, the track will have hard spots installations where the pavement surface
that will cause the rail to wear abnormally. consists of brick or other individual pavers.
Elastomer pads should be considered to
dampen the hard spots. Direct fixation rail
4.6.4.1.2 Stray Current Protection
fasteners may be used to secure the rail to the Requirements
base slab. The fasteners provide resiliency in An effective mitigation barrier against stray
all directions as well as electrical isolation. current corrosion is to protect both the rails
and nearby metallic structures from
Anchor plates may also be used. The benefits
electrolytic corrosion. The track structure
of using anchor plates in embedded track are:
requires an electrical barrier be provided at
l Rigid control of rail position during two-
the rail location as shown in Figure 4.6.8,
pour initial installations
unless the bathtub design (Figure 4.6.5) can
l Anchor plates can be reused during future confine currents within the overall track
rail changeout to control rail position structure. Refer to Chapter 8 for additional
details on the theories of stray current.
l Track can be used in partially completed
installations to either confirm track
Principal measures to minimize traction
installation or maintain revenue service
current leakage are:
l The use of continuous welded rail
Steel ties or gauge rods can be intermixed
providing superior traction power return
with anchor plates in embedded track to assist
over conventional electrically bonded
in controlling the rail and establishing the track
jointed track.
gauge. Gauge bars spaced at 1,500
millimeters (5 feet) on curves and 3,000 l Insulating either individual rails or the
millimeters (10 feet) on tangents are common. entire track structure from the earth.
Steel ties in every fourth fastening position
may also be considered.
4-70
BARRIER SPANS BOTH SURFACES l Ductwork that must be provided in the

TO PROMDE LARGER EQUAL
BONDING SURFACES FOR RETENSION I embedment materials.
0 Provision for rail bond jumpers

exothermically welded to the rail on either
side of a bolted joint or completely around
special trackwork components prior to
embedding the track.
Prior to installation of the embedded track

structure, a corrosion survey should be
bNSULATlNG BARRIER
undertaken to establish the existing baseline
Figure 4.6.8 Insulating Surface Barrier at stray current levels. Periodic monitoring
Trough Edges should be performed after installation of
embedded track to detect current leakage and
Insulating embedded switch machines to control or improve insulation performance.
and any other track system appliances
from the earth. Stray current protection design can include
one or more of the following concepts:
Continuous welding of the steel
Coating of the rail surface (except the
reinforcement in the supporting base slab
head and gauge face) with an insulating
to act as a stray current collector and
dielectric epoxy such as coal tar.
electrical drains to carry intercepted
current back to the traction power Embedding the rail and filling the entire
substation. trough with an insulating dielectric
polyurethane or other suitable insulating
Cross bonding of rails with cables
material.
installed between the rails to maintain
equal potentials for all embedded rails. Lining the rail trough with an insulating
dielectric material, which provides a
Rail bond jumpers at mechanical rail
barrier between the potentially conductive
connections, especially within the special
trough fill material and the concrete track
trackwork installations.
slab.
Key details concerning the above measures Lining the rail in an elastomeric boot,
that affect the track structure design are: thereby totally encapsulating the surface
Type of insulation to be installed, whether except for head and gauge face.
it is located at the rail face, along trough
Insulating the anchor bolts or anchor
edges, or around the entire periphery of
inserts that require insulation due to
the track structure as in the bathtub
penetration beyond the insulated rail
concept.
trough zone into the base concrete track
Type of insulation to be installed at switch slab. This insulating design can be
mechanisms or track mechanisms accomplished by either coating the
Provisions for cross bond cables between penetrating stud or anchor insert to
rails on each track and occasionally provide a continuous seal at the base of
between rails on different tracks. the concrete trough or insulating liner
location.
4-71
l insulation at the trough edge containing the rail base not in contact with extruded
the rail is critical in stray current corrosion sections, is an important requirement.
control, including the interface at the top Extruded sections are available in separate
of embedment. A wide band or insulating parts that encase the entire rail as shown in
barrier is required to retard surface Figure 4.6.9 These designs require a
current leakage through water, dirt and specific concrete base installation sequence
debris that may accumulate on the to provide complete support under the base of
surface as shown in Figure 4 6.8. rail. As an insulating material, extruded
elastomer has proven to meet the required
Additional information on corrosion control is
bulk resistivity of IO” ohm-cm that is needed
included in Chapter 8 of this handbook.
to be effective.
4.6.4.1.3 Rail Embedment Materials

Rail embedment or trough fill materials range
from very elaborate and expensive to simple
and moderately priced, including elaborate
extruded elastomer sections, cast-in-place
resilient polyurethane components, concrete
fills of various compositions, and an asphaltic
bituminous mortar FIRST POUR
Embedment designs for resilient track that Figure 4.6.9 Extruded Elastomer Trough
utilize the general track structure, as Components
described above, have incorporated the
4.6.4.1.3.2 Resilient Polyurethane.
following materials to retain and allow for
Polyurethane components can be used as
designated rail deflections with varying
trough fillers. Resilient polyurethane has
success.
proven to be an ideal rail base support
4.6.4.1.3.1 Extruded Elastomeric Trough material that provides a minimum of rail
Components. Extruded elastomeric sections deflection. Altering the urethane compound to
or components are designed to fit the rail adjust its durometer hardness can control the
contour. Generally these materials are only actual amount of deflection.
placed above the base of rail and other
Elastomeric polyurethane is an effective stray
measures must be taken to prevent stray
current protection barrier that binds well to
current migration from the rail base. Using
both cleaned rail surfaces and concrete trough
extruded insulation requires the two-pour
surfaces. It is, however, expensive, both for
method for base slab installation, including
material procurement and the labor
installation of the rail prior to placing the
associated with mixing and installation. To
surrounding extruded component sections.
reduce the volume of polyurethane required,
Finally the top pavement is then placed on the
premolded rail filler blocks shaped to fit the
gauge and field sides of the extrusion. Stray
web of the rails can be used as shown in
current corrosion protection may be provided
Figure 4.6.10. The embedment design must
by the material used to fabricate the extruded
consider rail base deflections. Embedment
sections. Providing insulating protection to
materials for the rail head and web areas
the total rail surface, including any portion of
4-72
MB FtLLER BLOCKS TO damage the elastomer pads, proper drainage

ZND POUR TROUGH FILLER
REDUCE TROUGH FILL
MATERIAL OUANTITY
TO THE TOP Gf RAIL WlTH of the rail trough should improve performance,
FORMED FLANGEWAY
7 provide assurance that the expected life cycle
will be realized, and increase the
effectiveness of the pads as a stray current
deterrent The embedded track design must
consider rail base deflections with matching
L IST POUR TRDUGti FILLER
resilient rail web and head embedment
ABOM THE BASE RAIL materials to atlow for rail movement. Solid or
Figure 4.6. IO Polyurethane Trough Filler non-resilient embedment materials
with Web Blocks surrounding the rail will defeat the elastomer
pad’s resiliency and lead to premature failure
should both be resilient in nature to allow for of the non-resilient materials.
the rail movement. Solid or non-resilient
encasement materials surrounding the rail will As an insulating agent, either synthetic
negate the resilient characteristics of the elastomer compounds or natural rubber have
polyurethane and lead to premature failure of met required bulk resistivity of 10” ohm-cm.
the non-resilient materials.
4.6.4.1.3.4 Elastomeric Fastenings (Direct
Polyurethanes are a difficult and expensive Fixation Fasteners). To duplicate successful
material for in-track construction. Urethanes open direct fixation track design with
are highly susceptible to chemical reaction acceptable rail deflections, embedded track
with moisture in the air, the fine sand additive designs have incorporated direct fixation
for bulk, and surface dampness during concepts. Bonded direct fixation fasteners
application. Their chemical characteristics and component plate and elastomer pad
make it essential that mixing, handling and fastenings may be considered
application be undertaken carefully by
qualified contractors. Polyurethanes in the Successful direct fixation fasteners or
liquid form seek a level surface, adding to the fastening designs are essential to embedded
difficulty of installation in embedded tracks track design. Direct fixation fastener design
with an inclined profile grade line. features are discussed in Chapter 5 of this
Handbook.
As an insulating material, polyurethane has
proven to meet the required bulk resistivity of The embedment design must consider rail
10” ohm-cm. deflection at the fastener. The surrounding
embedment materials must be resilient, with
4.6.4.7.3.3 Elastomer Pads for Rail Base. extruded prefabricated sections that conform
Elastomer pads are a satisfactory rail base to the rail fishing zone with clearance
support material that provide a minimum apertures for the fastener and clip assembly
amount of rail deflection depending on the as shown in Figure 4.6.11. Solid or non-
spring rate of the elastomer and its specific resilient embedment materials surrounding the
durometer hardness. Natural rubber rail will defeat the direct fixation fastener’s
elastomer pads mixed with proper quantities resiliency and potentially lead to premature
of carbon black and wax have exhibited failure of the non-resilient materials.
satisfactory performance and long life.
Although water seepage typically will not
4-73
tee rail sections and popular girder groove

APPETURE FOR SPRING CLIP
and guard rail sections. Boots are also
DIRECT FIXATION EMBEDMENT
FASTENER --\ available for dual tee rail and bolted
restraining rail assemblies.
As an insulating material, the rail boots have

met the required bulk resistivity of 1012 ohm-
cm.
4.6.4.1.3.6 Concrete and Bituminous

Asphalt Trough Fillers. Concrete,
RUNOFF PIPE
cementitious grout components are available
Figure 4.6.11 Direct Fixation Fastener with to use as trough fillers. The first-pour trough
In ternal Drain System filler encapsulating the rail base and providing
continuous support below the rail can be a
Direct fixation fasteners with surrounding non-shrink cementitious grout. The
flexible elastomers are subject to infiltration cementitious grout with a reduced aggregate
seepage into the rail seat cavity. Although size, less than 12 millimeters (0.5 inches) to
water seepage may not seriously damage the ensure the rail base cavity is entirely filled,
elastomer components, proper drainage should be placed from one side of the rail to
should improve performance and provide be certain no voids are formed in the base
electrical insulation at the direct fixation cementitious pour.
fastener for stray current control.
The second-pour trough filler, which
As an insulating agent, direct fixation completes the cavity fill, can be a concrete
fasteners meet the required bulk resistivity of mix with a 20-millimeter (0.75inch) aggregate
10j2 ohm-cm. size. Application of silicate fume ash to the
concrete mix has proven beneficial in
4.6.4.1.3.5 Rail Boot for Embedded Track. controlling stray currents. To control eventual
Rail boot designs have proven to be a concrete shrinkage cracks, polyethylene fibers
satisfactory rail base support material that 50 to 65 millimeters (2 to 2.5 inches) long can
provides minimal rail deflection depending on be included in the second-pour surface trough
the design. Natural rubber elastomers mixed filler.
with proper quantities of carbon black and wax
exhibit satisfactory performance. Both filler materials should have a minimum
Configuration of the elastomeric rail boot with concrete strength of 27.6 MPa (4,000 psi) at
voids and the elastomer spring rate allow for a 28 days.
specific magnitude of rail deflection both
vertically and horizontally. Bituminous asphaltic components have been
used as a trough filler material. Similar care
The rail boot installation design is subjected to must be taken during placement to be certain
water seepage entering both inside and that voids are not generated at the rail
outside the boot area. To improve support. Bituminous asphalt materials with
performance, proper drainage of both areas of resistivity characteristics can be used as an
the rail installation should be provided. Rail insulating barrier.
boot designs are currently available for both
4-74
4.6.4.1.4 Embedded Track Drainage pavement is crowned in the conventional

in all but the driest climates, the success of manner, the pavement cross slope results in
any embedded track design will depend the track being out of cross level in tangents
directly on the efficiency of the embedded and perhaps even negatively superelevated
tracks drainage systems. This includes not curves For additional information on
only systems for intercepting surface runoff, surfacing and cross level refer to Chapter 3.
but also methods for draining water that seeps
into the rail cavity zone. Experience has Whenever possible, the profile and cross
shown that surface water will seep and section of the road should be modified to
accumulate in the rail area, particularly around conform to the optimum track profile and cross
the rail base and web. This moisture can section. This often requires that the roadway
cause rail corrosion and deterioration of the geometry be compromised to accommodate
surrounding embedment material, eventually rail elevations, curb and gutter elevations, and
leading to failure of the pavement and the rail sidewalk grades.
fastening system.
The surface runoff entering the flangeways
Drainage of the rail embedment trough or should be minimized and trackway road
cavity is of the utmost importance. Sealing surfaces should slope away from the rail
the interface between the rail and the locations. Some transit system designs have
adjoining embedment material is virtually sloped the road surface within the track gauge
impossible. Similarly, construction joints area toward the track centerline and the
between the rail trough and slab concrete or “dummy gauge” zone to a line of drains
surface sealants are susceptible to potential midway between the tracks. The road
water seepage. Regardless of how well the surfaces on the field side of the rails should
surface sealants are designed and installed, slope toward the curb line or the surrounding
seepage will eventually occur and possibly roadway surfaces.
lead to deterioration or disintegration of the fill
components, particularly in climates Inevitably, some runoff will get into the
susceptible to freeze/thaw cycles. To prevent flangeways. This water must be drained
this, the embedment trough or rail cavity zone away. Transverse lateral drainage chases
must be designed with a reliable permanent should always be provided at low points on
drainage system as shown in Figure 4.6.11. vertical curves, immediately up-grade at
embedded special trackwork and at transitions
Another penalty of poor drainage or no between embedded track and any open track
drainage is that trapped or standing water can design. Additional drainage chases should be
result in unacceptable levels of stray current provided periodically along straight track
leakage, particularly in areas where streets grade sections so that runoff, debris, sand, or
are salted. other material can be carried away and the
flangeway kept relatively clear.
4.6.4.1.4.1 Surface Drainage. Embedded
track installations complicate pavement Drains in embedded track areas are typically
surface drainage because the exposed rail transverse drains or drainage chases
head and flangeways intercept and redirect perpendicular to the rails. They consist of a
stormwater runoff. The road profile and cross grate-covered chamber that is connected to
slopes direct the runoff toward the rail and the adjacent storm sewer system. The design
flangeways. In addition, if the roadway of the rail through the drainage chase opening
4-75
should consist of the exposed bare rail transverse drain can act as a dividing point
supported on each side of the chase, wherein between the different designs used in
the rail acts as a suspended beam. The embedded main line track and special
bottom of the track flangeway must have an trackwork.
opening wide enough to ensure that it will not
become clogged with leaves or other debris. 4.6.4.1.4.2 Internal Drainage. Embedded
This is easily undertaken with tee rail track systems require internal drainage of the
construction. If girder rail is employed, it is rail cavity zone when loose extruded
common to machine a slot in the bottom of the components or non-adhering trough fill
flangeway. Such slots typically cannot be materials are selected Polyurethane fill
much more than 25 to 30 millimeters (1 to material totally encapsulating the rail and
1.125 inches) wide. They also frequently get bonded to the trough walls does not appear to
clogged. Where clogging is likely, an require internal drainage. Drainage slots
improved design might be to cut away the perpendicular to the rail base should be
girder rail lip in the drainage chase area. provided for adequate drainage at the base of
the rail or the bottom of the rail trough zone.
When the embedded track design includes Longitudinal drain pipes outside of the rail
individual longitudinal troughs in the concrete trough and fastening system should be
for each rail, the transverse track drainage provided to collect and carry accumulated
chases can also drain seepage from the inner water away from the rail cavity zone as shown
rail trough or rail cavity. The design exposes in Figure 4.6.12.
the end faces of the concrete rail troughs on
each side of the drainage chase as shown in
Figure 4.6.12. The exposed faces can be 4.6.4.2 Ballasted Track Structure With
utilized as rail trough or rail cavity drainage Embedment
systems. Frequent drainage chases, spaced Early 20th century embedded track designs
less than 150 meters (500 feet) apart, should for urban trams included ballasted track with
be considered and connected to the internal timber crossties constructed to railway
longitudinal drainage pipe system to provide standards and subsequently embedded to the
adequate drainage and allow periodic top of rail. These standards still exist today
maintenance flushing of the system. and are perpetuated by the original transit
agencies, although contemporary embedded
The transverse trough drains should act as track designs are being contemplated.
lateral drainage collectors for the embedded
longitudinal drain pipes. The longitudinal Embedded track design using standard
drain pipes, opened at the trough drains, can ballasted track design requires use of a fill
also be used for periodic flushing of the material to the top of rail as shown in Figure
embedded pipes. This provides a continuous 4.6.43. In contemporary track design, the
and maintainable drainage system. negative return running rail must be insulated
Transverse trough drains should be placed to control or confine stray current leakage.
immediately in front of switchpoint
Typical ballasted track elements used in
components to protect embedded special
embedded track design include an insulating
trackwork installations. Transverse drains in
barrier at the rail, tie plate and fastening to
these locations collect water that drains
isolate the rail from the timber or concrete
toward the special trackwork In addition, the
4-76
rCHANNEL GRATES
BOLTED IN POSITION
HIGH DENSITY POLYETHELENE
PROVDES STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION
r RAIL TROUGH
BOOT ENDS EXPOSED

AT DRAINAGE CHASE TO NOTE:
ALLOW LONGITUDINAL
DRAINAGE CHASE AT SPECIAL TRACKWORK
SEEPAGE DRAIN
BOUNDARIES TO BE MODIFIED TO DRAIN
LONGITUDINAL DRAIN PIPE FOR BATHTUB AREAS AND SPECIAL TRACKWORK
DRAINING & FLUSH CLEANING COMPONENTOPENINGS
Figure 4.6.12 Cut Away Section Embedded Track Drainage Chase
POLYETHELENE DMDING SHEET

NOTCHED AT FASTENING -A
INSULATING COVER EMBEDMENT CONCRETE
AT FASTENING p\ (OR OTHER MATERIAL)
lNSULATlNG COVER
FLANGEWAY- \
q -. . . -.
. 0’ Q a 0
*
.
. w
- BALLAST BED BALLAST BED
F. . .
RAILsEcn0tiATTIE RAILSECnON
ATTHECRIB
Figure 4.6.13 Ballasted Track Structure with Embedment
4-77
crosstie and the surrounding embedment treatment and quite possibly a different design
concrete or other fill material. concept from the main line embedded track
design.
The embedded ballasted track structure is a
proven standard that provides a long, durable In contemporary light rail transit systems,
track life with minimal maintenance, other than embedded special trackwork generally
rail grinding and occasional road surface consists of turnouts grouped to act as single
repair for more serious deterioration. This crossovers for alternate track operations.
longevity can be attributed to the built-in Operating requirements may dictate the
drainage system provided by the ballast and installation of a double crossover with four
sub-ballast trackbeds. However, this drainage turnouts and a crossing (diamond). An
system also experiences ballast abrasion and extensive embedded track transit system
settlement that degrades track performance. could utilize complex embedded special
Embedded ballasted tie track has a history of trackwork arrangements beyond simple single
inferior rail and road surface alignment. This and double crossovers. For additional
includes rails sinking below the top of the information on embedded special trackwork
embedment or road surface, fracturing of the design, refer to Chapter 6.
embedment surface especially at the
designated crosstie spacings, concrete The magnitude of the components, the
surface fractures, and bituminous concrete requirements for stray current protection, and
surface cracks and sagging between the need to secure the components dictate
crossties. special trackwork embedment design. Stray
current protection at the rail face, as well as
Embedded ballasted tie track installed with an component surfaces with irregular
independent roadway surface such as brick, configurations, potential gauge bars and
pavers or Belgian Block with a sand mortar gauge plates, may be difficult. To simplify the
were relatively successful. The success of installation, the bathtub design concept is
the old systems, it is believed, was due recommended for embedded special
entirely to the flexibility of the brick and trackwork.
blockstone pavements and their resultant
ability to adjust to vehicle loads and thermally The bathtub design allows for stray current
induced movements. The key to this was the protection to be clear of the special trackwork
use of hot tar to seal the joints between the switches, frogs and crossing (diamond)
pavers, thereby excluding most moisture. The components. This simplifies trackwork
down side was extensive electrolytic corrosion installation and improves stray current
due to the base of rail being in contact with protection as shown in Figure 4.6.14.
ballast and the sand bedding of the pavers.
Their performance in this regard might be Embedded special trackwork will also require
improved by an insulated bathtub design. the use of special plates to support the
various track elements. These must be
designed to develop uniform deflections.
4.6.5 Embedded Special Trackwork
The embedded special trackwork portion of

any transit system will require special
4-78
STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION AT

THE “BATHTUB” PERIMETER AREA IST POUR TROUGH FILLER
TO THE BASE OF RAlL
ND POUR TROUGH FILLER TO THE TO
F RAIL w1Ti-l FORMED FLANGEWAY TYPICAL SPECIAL TRACKWORK COMPONENTS
ANCHOR BOLTS DRILLED MOUNTED ON LARGE PLATE FASTENINGS
I
2ND POUR CONCRETE
SPECIAL TRACKWORK
BASE WITHIN BATHTUB CONCEPT
Figure 4.6.74 Special Trackwork-Embedded “Bathtub” Design
4.6.6 Noise and Vibration Noise and vibration control should be

considered in the vehicle truck design,
Vehicle wheel loads are transmitted from the particularly with respect to the use of resilient
wheel/rail interface to the track structure. wheels and the details of the primary
Unlike ballasted or direct fixation track with suspension system. The primary suspension
load distribution to the ties or fasteners, is located between the journal and the truck
embedded track uses a concrete slab and frame. The primary suspension
continuous elastomeric system to distribute characteristics are dependent on the spring
the load throughout the surface of the rail elements, number of layers or total deflection,
base. This design concept spreads the load and their angular formation. The elastomeric
more evenly along the resilient rail installation. spring of the suspension reduces noise by
Embedded track with a fully supported rail acting as a vibration isolator. It also acts as a
base provides an improved track structure. barrier to the transmission of structure borne
noise.
Resilient elastomers dampen the rail, reducing
rail vibration and rail-radiated noise. The In selecting the suspension characteristics of
resilient elastomer controls the degree of the extruded elastomer, elastomeric base pad,
vibration and deflection. A softer elastomer or the rail boot elastomer used to support the
provides a lower spring rate in the elastomer rail, vehicle parameters such as normal
material, leading to reduced vibration in the weight and crush loads must be considered.
rail . Each light rail vehicle, with different truck
suspensions, wheel bases and weights, may
The spring rate is used in determining the require a different track dynamic suspension
track modulus or track stiffness and the system. The advice of a noise and vibration
amount of vertical deflection in the rail. The expert in this endeavor is recommended as
elastomer, in conjunction with the vehicle stated in Chapter 9 of this Handbook.
suspension system, affects the vehicle/rail
interface - specifically, track performance,
noise, and vibration in the immediate rail area.
4-79
4.6.7 Transit Signal Work the contact wire remains near the track
centerline.
Transit signal requirements in embedded track
sections differ from the general design The traction power return system definitely
standards for ballasted and direct fixation impacts the design of the rail installation in
track. Embedded track within city streets or embedded track. Unlike ballasted and direct
transit malls may be exposed to mixed traffic fixation track standards, where the rail is
conditions and may share the right-of-way actually insulated from the ground at the base
with automobiles, trucks and buses. Signal of rail or within the fastening system, the
equipment, such as switch machines or loops entire rail surface except top of rail and gauge
for train-to-wayside signals, may need to be face must be insulated in embedded track
installed in this area. Space must be provided designs This requirement contributes to the
to mount these devices as well as drainage challenge of designing embedded rails that
pipes and conduits for cables to control these provide an insulated, resilient and durable
devices. Conduits for power and track circuits track system using off-the-shelf materials.
may be needed. Reinforcing bars in the
concrete may impact the reliable operations of Embedded ductwork within the track structure
track circuits. provides access for power cables and cross
bonds to achieve equalization in the rails.
4.6.8 Traction Power For additional information on stray current

control and traction power, refer to Chapters 8
Traction power requirements in embedded and 11, respectively.
track sections differ from the standards for
ballasted or direct fixation track. The
immediate traction power impacts of catenary 4.6.9 Typical Embedded Concrete Slab
pole location and isolation of the negative Track Design Guideline
return rail play a major part in embedded track
design. Embedded track areas in downtown The previous sections describe the various
business sections, on city streets and in embedded track concepts, designs, and
transit malls generally avoid positioning materials available to the track designer. The
catenary poles between the tracks. The issue track designer must develop a set of
of catenary poles within central business installation drawings and corresponding
districts is so controversial that, in many specifications to allow for construction of the
designs, the contact wire and catenary system embedded track segments of the transit
was suspended from the sides of existing system. These must reflect an understanding
buildings or on poles in sidewalk areas. The of the various track and vehicle parameters.
total system and track design must consider
A typical embedded track design guideline
catenary pole locations that blend into the
follows. The design described herein is
existing environment without severely
arbitrary; actual track design should be
impacting the current roadways, sidewalks
developed by the track designer based on
and general public’s perception of an area.
site-specific requirements, economics, and
The tight track curvature within central
aesthetics to match the environment. The
business districts also impacts the design and
goals of embedded track design are to
installation of the catenary system, because
produce a track system that provides long-
many more poles are needed to ensure that
term performance, with a minimum of individual tie plates, as well as anchor

interference to the neighboring structures, and bolts. This creates a cold joint at the base
is relatively easy to maintain or replace. of rail.
After the base slab is poured and cured,

The embedded track design guideline is
the track is available for vehicle testing
illustrated in Figure 4.6.15. The author, as a
and operation
track designer, selected this embedment
arrangement for the following reasons. The forming of two rail troughs provides a
. This embedded track design allows for joint that facilitates concrete removal for
shared street operation with other replacement of worn rail.
vehicles or may be used in a pedestrian The use of a rail boot or other insulating
mall. elastomeric system is needed to isolate
. The vertical and horizontal position of the rail The rail boot is shown, but any of
concrete base slab is established by these systems may be equally effective.
survey, using the constructed skeleton The elastic spring clip arrangement
track method. simplifies the rail hold down and provides
l The concrete base slab first pour encases a degree of rail base flexure
the steel ties or leveling beams and
(;, OF TRACK
I-
NOTE:
r 1
@J PLATE f
TRACK GAUGE
l-l-+
a
THE ITEM NO’s REFER
TO DESCRIPTIONIN
SECTION 4.6.9 EMBEDDED
TRACK DESIGN GUIDELINE.
i
SLOPE ’ SLOPE
SUBGRADE AND i
@ 0 SUB BALLAST
Figure 4.6.15 Typical Embedded Track Design
4-81
l The protective covers over the rail d The concrete base slab
fastening components allow for their encases and secures the
reuse at the time of rail replacement. The embedded track rail fastening
intent is to retain the steel ties and system.
individual plates in the base slab pour, e The base slab has concrete
allowing for similar rail section positioning
placed up to the base of rail or
and rapid replacement. This facilitates a
resilient boot. This provides a
quick return to revenue service
construction cold joint between
operations.
the first and second concrete
pours, just below the trough fill
The following notes are meant to augment the
material embedding the rail.
detailed embedded track design shown in
The finished base slope in the
Figure 4.6.15. The item numbers refer to the
trough zone should be sloped
component number in the figure.
toward formed drainage slots.
Item 1 This includes the well- Item 3 a. The embedded track drainage
compacted subgrade and sub- system built within the concrete
ballast system with an adequate base slab consists of transverse
storm drainage system track drainage chases and a
connected to existing or new longitudinal drainage system at
street storm drains. A the rail cavity zone.
protective barrier sheeting,
b. The transverse track drainage
Styrofoam barrier, or rockwool
chases are placed at 150- to
batts at the top of sub-ballast
200-meter (500- to 650-foot)
system may be considered for
intervals and strategically
vibration and noise attenuation.
positioned at vertical curve
Item 2 a The reinforced concrete base sags, special trackwork
slab (first pour) should have a approaches, and the ends of
minimum thickness of 300 to embedded track locations.
350 millimeters (12 to 14 These control surface runoff and
inches), to act as a vibration internal rail cavity drainage.
absorption barrier and provide
C. The transverse track drainage
support to the track structure.
chases act as lateral runoffs for
b The base slab may be a single- the embedded longitudinal rail
or double-track configuration as cavity drain pipe system.
needed for specific street
d. The concrete base slab contains
configurations. Concrete pours
a longitudinal drain pipe and
may be single or double track,
periodic drain slots parallel and
depending on track centers.
adjacent to the rail to drain the
c The concrete base slab contains rail zone.
an internal longitudinal track
e The longitudinal drain pipe
drainage runoff system with
should be positioned clear of the
provisions for deeper transverse
rail fastening system.
track drainage chases.
4-82
Track Structure Des&n
f. Drainage systems that are installed providing a void in the

invisible once the construction is trough embedment material.
completed will almost never
d The insulating rubber boot must
receive the maintenance
be a continuously bonded
attention required The ease of
system, utilizing connector
maintenance is critical to a
splices overlapping the boot
successful system.
configuration. To promote
Item 4 a. The rail fastening system internal boot drainage of the
consists of steel ties and zone between the rubber boot
individual steel plates with and rail surface, special drain
appropriate spring clips, welded hoses are incorporated. The
shoulders, protective insulators drain hoses are positioned in
for rubber boot, and a protective the existing drain slots adjacent
housing for the spring clip area. to the rail trough. They project
into the center of the PVC
b. The steel tie is embedded in the
longitudinal drain pipe, to
initial concrete base slab with
provide the required stray
the top of tie level with the top of
current protection.
concrete pour. The steel plates
should similarly be embedded to e. The resilient elastomer rail boot
the top of concrete. The steel must be continuous, providing a
plates are secured to the initial void or holiday free insulation
concrete base slab by anchor system to retard stray electrical
bolts or studs. current leakage.
C. The concrete finish in the rail Item 6 a The surface slab (second pour)
base area between the steel tie is approximately 180 millimeters
and plates is trowelled smooth. (7 inches) high and is placed to
the top of rail Block outs for rail
Item 5 a. The rail is encased in a resilient
troughs are formed. The
elastomer boot or liner,
surface finish is determined by
positioned on the steel tie rail
specific transit requirements,
seat area and the individual
architectural treatment and the
mounting plates. The rubber
type of roadway traffic or
booted rail is fastened to the ties
pedestrian mall.
and plates by spring clips. The
clips have rubber protective rail b. The top surface is finished with
base insulators at each slopes away from the rail cavity
shoulder. toward the centerline of track
and the field side of rail. These
b. Rail deflection is provided
sloped portions within the track
through the resilient rubber boot
gauge drain longitudinally along
liner and minor deflections of
the track to the transverse
the spring clips.
drainage chases.
C To allow for rail deflection and
C. The placement of the surface
movement at the spring clips, a
slab completes the longitudinal
special protective cover is
4-83
drainage slots from the rail the rail and fastenings

cavity to the longitudinal drain completing the surface roadway.
pipe.
b. The surface finish includes a
d. The top concrete surface slab gauge side flangeway for tee rail
requires embedded PVC or entire capsulation to the top
casings for traction power or of the girder rail lip. The field
signal connections between the side has a depression of 6-
rails or tracks. Provision should millimeter depression (0.2- inch)
be made for rail connection throughout, with special
boxes, drainage boxes and depressions in the fixed
periodic transverse drainage adjacent trackwork accessories.
chases. This allows for rail grinding.
Item 7 a. The running rail is insulated for C. The surface slopes beyond the
stray current control utilizing the flangeway and wheel tread
rail boot concept The running depressions slope away from
rails can be either tee rail or the rail head. Track gauge
girder groove rail. pavement slopes intersect at the
center of track. Field side
b. The running rail is continuously
pavement slopes away from the
welded rail (thermite welded or
rail area towards the curb lines.
flash butt) wherever practical.
Precurving of the rail may be
These design concepts are representative of
required to facilitate restricted
the type of considerations required to design
street alignments that result in
embedded track. An alternate set of
sharp track curvature. The weld
parameters will require a similar design
finish is flush with the parent rail
process to coordinate and interface the
steel surface to allow for proper
various disciplines involved. The key design
boot fit. features of any track installation include
c. Various trackwork accessories adequate drainage, corrosion control,
adjacent to the rail must be insulating protection, noise and vibration
individually designed to suit the abatement measures, and accommodation for
rail boot insulation in order to signal and traction power components.
minimize electrical stray current. Understandably, the track design and vehicle
design must be compatible for the
d. The booted rail is checked for
development of a successful transit system.
insulation, clip application, and
the track position is confirmed
prior to application of the 4.6.10 Turf Track: Another Type of
protective housing and the Embedded Track
installation of trough fill.
Item 8 a. The rail trough embedment Over the years, European light rail transit
concrete fill (third pour) is systems have found a need to blend the
placed only after confirmation transit track and system into the landscape.
that rail installation is correct. To fulfill this requirement, a specific track
The embedment encapsulates design similar to embedded track or partially
4-84
embedded track has evolved, recognized as main standards. Landscape embedded track
“turf track II The turf track standard consists of was developed for selected purposes:
concrete plinths or beams running parallel l Reduce the visual effect of ballasted track
under the rail to support the track The rail is l Reduce the noise from trams to the
installed on elastomer base pads. The rails utmost extent
are connected to retain gauge with l Provide year-round greenery in the vicinity
conventional gauge rod bolted to the web of of the track
the rail. The base of rail is not connected to
the concrete plinth. The rail web area is filled A select turf is required to grow to a maximum
with a prefabricated filler block that adheres to height of 30 to 40 millimeters (1.2 to 1 6
the rail. The top of the rail and the filler block inches) requiring minimal watering and
is sealed with a bituminous sealant. The maintenance Landscape track has proven to
vegetation is a special blend of plants reduce noise by 6 to 8 dBA. Other types of
expected to retain a stunted growth and landscape track structure can be designed to
require minimal cutting. The filler blocks and suit the needs of specific locations. To ease
the bituminous sealant provide the stray the concerns of communities and residents
current protection. Figure 4.6.16 shows a along certain sections of the light rail system
typical turf track installation. about transit-related impacts, turf track or
some specific track design may prove to be
Many European cities appear to be adopting very beneficial.
turf track or track landscaping as one of their
r CONCRETE EDGING AND

TURF SURFACE LEVEL WITH
TOP OF RAIL
-SECOND
I
/,-DOWEL
POUR
PINS
($ TRACK
I
1435 TRACK GAUGE
ORGANIC
F’LL gL TuRF 1
SAND w
4 I\ :i
STEEL LEVELLING BEAM I IeF
\COMPACiED -FIRST PC-. .-

LFIRST POUR. . ~I-MJ-
vv., .INUOUS CONTINUUUS
CONCRETE PLINTH SLAB ROAD BED
CONCRETE
PLINTH SLAB
_ SIDE WITH PLINW _f _ SIDE WTH TRACK
1 TIE CONNECTION
Figure 4.6.16 Turf Track-Another Type of Embedded Track
4-85
Lioht Rail Track Desion Handbook
4.7 REFERENCES [4] AREA Manual of Railway Engineering

(1984) Chapter 22.
[I] Albert S. Rickey, Electric Railway
Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill [5] A.N. Talbot, “Stresses in Railroad
Book Company, Inc., 1924. Track”, Reports of the Special
Committee on Stresses in Railroad
[2] William W. Hay, Railroad Engineering Track, Proceedings of the AREA, First
Second Edition, A Wiley - Interscience Progress Report, Vol. 19, 1918, pp.
Publication ISBN O-471-36400-2. 873-l 062, ibid., Second Progress
Report, Vol. 21, 1920, pp. 645814.
[3] Wilson, lhrig & Associates, Inc.,
“Theoretical Analysis of Embedded
Track Vibration Radiation, San
Francisco Municipal Railway,” Technical
Memorandum to Iron Horse Engineering
co.. 7/l 7197.
4-86

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Chapter “Track Structure Design

4.2 TRACK AND WHEEL GAUGES AND FLANGEWAYS 4-1

4.3 TRACK SUPPORT MODULUS 4-26

4.3.3.3.2 Transition from Embedded Track to

4.5.3.1.2 Cementitious Grout Pad in Concrete Recess 4-49

4.6 EMBEDDED TRACK DESIGN 4-61

4.7 REFERENCES 4-86

Figure 4.2.4 Rail Cant Design and Wheel Contact 4-9

Figure 4.5.7 Rail Cant and Base of Rail Positioning 4-58

Figure 4.5.8 Encased Concrete Crosstie 4-59

Figure 4.5.9 Standard LVT System 4-59

Figure 4.6.1 Embedded Rail Head Details 4-63

Figure 4.6.2 Special Resilient Rail Installation for Vibration

Figure 4.6.4 Two-Pour Concrete Slab with Two Individual

Figure 4.6.5 Three-Pour Concrete ‘Bathtub” Installation 4-68

Figure 4.6.6 Initial Rail Installations-Base Material 4-69

Figure 4.6.7 Rail Fastening Installations 4-70

Figure 4.6.8 Insulating Surface Barrier at Trough Edges 4-71

Figure 4.6.9 Extruded Elastomer Trough Components 4-72

Figure 4.6.10 Polyurethane Trough Filler with Web Blocks 4-73

Figure 4.6.13 Ballasted Track Structure with Embedment 4-77

Figure 4.6.14 Special Trackwork-Embedded “Bathtub” Design 4-79

Figure 4.6.15 Typical Embedded Track Design 4-81

Figure 4.6.16 Turf Track-Another Type of Embedded Track 4-85

Table 4.2.1 Track Construction Tolerances 4-25

Table 4.4.1 Ballasted Track Design Parameters 4-41

4.1 INTRODUCTION diameter wheels, short stub single wheel

The metric equivalents of the ATEA standard

4.2.2.2 Transit Gauge Practice Flangeways can be appreciably narrower;

The key issues to consider in accommodating

roiling stock (such as hopper cars full of maintenance-of-way equipment. It is

practice for future extensions so as to head is difficult at best and misleading at

424.3 Variation of Rail Cant as a Tool for

radius differential on standard rail head

structural implications of loading the rail closer RAiL cANT-+fCONTACT PATOl

lesser amounts of cant can be beneficial by

Figure 4.2.4 illustrates the theoretical contact

cants is 6.32 millimeters (0.249 inch) for a rail

For additional information on various types of

711 (28 00')

2 ALTERNATE WHEEL GAUGE FOR RANSIT

3 REFER TO TABLE 2.1 FOR OTHER NA

4. ALTERNATE WHEEL PROFILE IMPLEMENTING LlO (0.39373')

5. WHEEL PROFILE SHOWN DERIVED FROM

figure 4.2.5 Nytram Plot--Modified AAR-1B Transit Wheel

hi1Nl~Ut.d CLEARANCE POINT

SEE FIGURE 42.12

MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT

r MINIMUM UEARANCE POINT

u”I \ I BACK TO BACK

SEE FIGURE 4.2 12

INITIAL POlNi OF CONTACT

BACK TO BACK WHEEL GAUGE

ATTACK ANGLE DIRECTION OF

1428 TRANSIT WHEEL GAUGE - ;N;T~AL POINT

SECOND POINT RESTRAINING FACE

1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE - OF CONTACT

OF CONTACT FOR 150m CURVE RESTRAINING FACE

ATTACK ANGLE DIRECTION OF

1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE - INITIAL POINT

TRUCK ROTATION SCENARIO

Figure 4.2.11 Nytram Plots-Rotated Truck Position on Track, AA R Wheel Gauge

radial to the track curve. Projecting the points