Prof. A.F.

Guimarães
Mathematical Physics 1 – Problems 1
Problem 1
‫ݎ‬ଷଶ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ଵଶ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶଶ ൅ ʹ‫ݎ‬ଵ ‫ݎ‬ଶ …‘•ሺߠଶ െ ߠଵ ሻ
Consider two vectors ‫ܝ‬૚ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૛ at the plane defined by (1.9)
polar coordinates of their end points:ሺߠଵ ǡ ‫ݎ‬ଵ ሻƒ†ሺߠଶ ǡ ‫ݎ‬ଶ ሻ. If
‫ܝ‬૜ ൌ ‫ܝ‬૚ ൅ ‫ܝ‬૛ is defined byሺߠଷ ǡ ‫ݎ‬ଷ ሻ, show how ߠଷ ƒ†‫ݎ‬ଷ are The expression in (1.9) is known as law of cosines. If we
related toߠଵ ǡ ߠଶ ǡ ‫ݎ‬ଵ ƒ†‫ݎ‬ଶ . calculated the scalar product to obtain the magnitude of ‫ܝ‬૜
Solution: we would have:
In the Cartesian coordinates:
‫ ܝ‬૜ ή ‫ ܝ‬૜ ൌ ሺ‫ ܝ‬૚ ൅ ‫ ܝ‬૛ ሻଶ
‫ܝ‬૚ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଵ ܑ ൅ ‫ݕ‬ଵ ‫ܒ‬ ‫ܝ‬૜ ൌ ‫ܝ‬ଶ૚ ൅ ‫ܝ‬ଶ૛ ൅ ૛‫ܝ‬૚ ή ‫ܝ‬૛
ଶ

‫ܝ‬૛ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ܑ ൅ ‫ݕ‬ଶ ‫ܒ‬ (1.10)

(1.1)
Where ‫ܝ‬૚ ή ‫ܝ‬૛ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ …‘•ሺߠଶ െ ߠଵ ሻ (here ‫ݑ‬ଵ ƒ†‫ݑ‬ଶ are the
In polar coordinates, ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬are related to ߠƒ†‫ ݎ‬by means magnitudes of ‫ܝ‬૚ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૛). Also the last expression in (1.10)
of: leads to law of cosine.

‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݎ‬ή …‘• ߠ Problem 2

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݎ‬ή •‹ ߠ
(1.2) Calculate the angle between the two vectors

Then, ‫ܝ‬૚ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૛ can be rewritten as:
‫ܝ‬૚ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ଵ ሺ…‘• ߠଵ ܑ ൅ •‹ ߠଵ ‫ܒ‬ሻ
‫ܝ‬૛ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ଶ ሺ…‘• ߠଶ ܑ ൅ •‹ ߠଶ ‫ܒ‬ሻ
(1.3)
The vector ‫ܝ‬૜ is given by:
‫ܝ‬૜ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ଷ ሺ…‘• ߠଷ ܑ ൅ •‹ ߠଷ ‫ܒ‬ሻ
(1.4)
‫ ܖ܁‬ൌ …‘• ߙ௡ ݅ ൅ …‘• ߚ௡ ݆ ൅ …‘• ߛ௡ ݇Ǣ ሺ݊ ൌ ͳǡʹሻ
Solution:
Such vectors are given by:
‫܁‬૚ ൌ …‘• ߙଵ ܑ ൅ …‘• ߚଵ ‫ ܒ‬൅ …‘• ߛଵ ‫ܓ‬
‫܁‬૛ ൌ …‘• ߙଶ ܑ ൅ …‘• ߚଶ ‫ ܒ‬൅ …‘• ߛଶ ‫ܓ‬
(2.1)
The scalar product of vectors is given by:

And the expression ‫ܝ‬૜ ൌ ‫ܝ‬૚ ൅ ‫ܝ‬૛ leads to:
‫ݎ‬ଷ …‘• ߠଷ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ଵ …‘• ߠଵ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶ …‘• ߠଶ
‫ݎ‬ଷ •‹ ߠଷ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ଵ •‹ ߠଵ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶ •‹ ߠଶ
(1.5)
By the use of the expressions of (1.5), we can write the
following expression for ߠଷ :
‫ݎ‬ଵ •‹ ߠଵ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶ •‹ ߠଶ
‫ߠ݃ݐ‬ଷ ൌ
‫ݎ‬ଵ …‘• ߠଵ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶ …‘• ߠଶ
(1.6)
‫܁‬૚ ή ‫܁‬૛ ൌ …‘• ߠ
(2.2)
Where ߠ is the angle between the two vectors. By the use of
the expressions (2.1), the scalar product (2.2) can be written
as:
‫܁‬૚ ή ‫܁‬૛ ൌ ሺ…‘• ߙଵ …‘• ߙଶ ሻሺܑ ή ܑሻ ൅ ሺ…‘• ߚଵ …‘• ߚଶ ሻሺ‫ ܒ‬ή ‫ܒ‬ሻ
൅ ሺ…‘• ߛଵ …‘• ߛଶ ሻሺ‫ ܓ‬ή ‫ܓ‬ሻ
‫܁‬૚ ή ‫܁‬૛ ൌ …‘• ߙଵ …‘• ߙଶ ൅ …‘• ߚଵ …‘• ߚଶ ൅ …‘• ߛଵ …‘• ߛଶ
(2.3)

We can use Pythagorean theorem to find an expression for So, we can conclude that:
‫ݎ‬ଷ . Then:
…‘• ߠ ൌ …‘• ߙଵ …‘• ߙଶ ൅ …‘• ߚଵ …‘• ߚଶ ൅ …‘• ߛଵ …‘• ߛଶ
‫ݎ‬ଷଶ ൌ ሺ‫ݎ‬ଷ …‘• ߠଷ ሻଶ ൅ ሺ‫ݎ‬ଷ •‡ߠଷ ሻଶ (2.4)
(1.7)
Problem 3
By the help of expressions of (1.5), the equation in (1.7) can
be given by: We can define the mixed vector product of three vectors by
means of the expression ൣ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ‫ܟ‬ሿ൧. Show that for any
‫ݎ‬ଷଶ ൌ ሺ‫ݎ‬ଵ …‘• ߠଵ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶ …‘• ߠଶ ሻଶ ൅ ሺ‫ݎ‬ଵ •‹ ߠଵ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶ •‹ ߠଶ ሻଶ
three vectors, the next expression is valid:
‫ݎ‬ଷଶ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ଵଶ ൅ ‫ݎ‬ଶଶ ൅ ʹ‫ݎ‬ଵ ‫ݎ‬ଶ ሺ…‘• ߠଵ …‘• ߠଶ ൅ •‹ ߠଵ •‹ ߠଶ ሻ
(1.8)
ൣ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ‫ܟ‬ሿ൧ ൅ ൣ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܟ‬ൈ ‫ܝ‬ሿ൧ ൅ ൣ‫ ܟ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿ൧ ൌ Ͳ
But …‘• ߠଵ …‘• ߠଶ ൅ •‹ ߠଵ •‹ ߠଶ ൌ …‘•ሺߠଶ െ ߠଵ ሻ. Then:
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Suggestion: Use the following identity vector ͵ ͵ ʹ ͸ ʹ ʹ ͸ ͵
‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ቆ൬െ ൰ ή െ ή ቇ ܑ ൅ ൬ ή െ ή ൰ ‫ܒ‬
͹ ͹ ͹ ͹ ͹ ͹ ͹ ͹
ൣ‫ ܉‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܊‬ൈ ‫܋‬ሿ൧ ൌ ‫܊‬ሺ‫ ܉‬ή ‫܋‬ሻ ൅ ‫܋‬ሺ‫ ܉‬ή ‫܊‬ሻ ͸ ͸ ͵ ʹ
൅ ൬ ή െ ൬െ ൰ ή ൰ ‫ܓ‬
͹ ͹ ͹ ͹
The last expression is known as Jacobi identity and it
appears in many contexts in physics and math. ͵ ʹ ͸
‫ܝ‬ൈ‫ ܞ‬ൌ െ ܑെ ‫ܒ‬൅ ‫ ܓ‬ൌ ‫ܟ‬
Solution: ͹ ͹ ͹
The Jacobi identity leads to: (4.3)

ൣ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ‫ܟ‬ሿ൧ ൌ ‫ܞ‬ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ‫ܟ‬ሻ െ ‫ܟ‬ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ‫ܞ‬ሻ And the other results: ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ‫ ܟ‬ൌ ‫ ܟ†ƒܝ‬ൈ ‫ ܝ‬ൌ ‫ܞ‬. So the
ൣ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܟ‬ൈ ‫ܝ‬ሿ൧ ൌ ‫ܟ‬ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ‫ܝ‬ሻ െ ‫ܝ‬ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ‫ܟ‬ሻ vectors form a positively oriented triplet in given sequence.
ൣ‫ ܟ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿ൧ ൌ ‫ܝ‬ሺ‫ ܟ‬ή ‫ܞ‬ሻ െ ‫ܞ‬ሺ‫ ܟ‬ή ‫ܝ‬ሻ (b) The vector u is the new component i’ of the rotated
(3.1) system. Then:

In (3.1), the products that appear in the brackets are ͸ ͵ ʹ

commutative (scalar product of vectors). Then if we add the ‫ ܝ‬ൌ ܑᇱ ൌ ܑ െ ‫ ܒ‬൅ ‫ܓ‬
͹ ͹ ͹
expressions in (3.1), we can write: (4.4)

ൣ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ‫ܟ‬ሿ൧ ൅ ൣ‫ ܞ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܟ‬ൈ ‫ܝ‬ሿ൧ ൅ ൣ‫ ܟ‬ൈ ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿ൧ ൌ Ͳ The same applies to the others. We write the rotation matrix
(3.2) as:

͸ െ͵ൗ ʹൗ
Problem 4 ‫ ۍ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ې‬
‫ʹ ێ‬ൗ ͸ൗ ͵ൗ ‫ۑ‬
Consider the following vectors in space: ‫ ێ‬͹ ͹ ͹‫ۑ‬
െ͵ െʹൗ ͸ൗ
‫ ۏ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ے‬
଺ ଷ ଶ ଶ ଺ ଷ ଷ ଶ ଺
‫ ܝ‬ቀ ǡ െ ǡ ቁ ǡ ‫ ܞ‬ቀ ǡ ǡ ቁ ƒ†‫ ܟ‬ቀെ ǡ െ ǡ ቁ. (4.5)
଻ ଻ ଻ ଻ ଻ ଻ ଻ ଻ ଻

The relationship between the new components with the old

(a) Make sure that these vectors are unitary, orthogonal in
pairs and form a positively oriented triplet in this sequence. is given by:
(b) Find the rotation matrix that transforms the old
͸ െ͵ൗ ʹൗ
components of a vector (related to i, j, k) in their new ‫ܝ‬ ‫ ۍ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ܑ ې‬
components (related to u, v, w). ቈ ‫ ܞ‬቉ ൌ ‫ʹ ێ‬ൗ͹ ͸ൗ
͹
͵ൗ ‫ ۑ‬ή ൥ ‫ ܒ‬൩
͹‫ۑ‬
(c) Compute by means of matrix multiplication the new ‫ܟ‬ ‫ێ‬ ‫ܓ‬
െ͵ൗ െʹൗ ͸ൗ
coordinates of the vectors ‫܉‬ሺͲǡ͵ǡʹሻǡ‫܊‬ሺെͳǡͶǡ െ͵ሻǡ ‫ۏ‬ ͹ ͹ ͹‫ے‬
‫܋‬ሺʹǡ െʹǡ െʹሻ. Give the geometric meaning of curious (4.6)
behaviour of vector c.
Solution (c) The new coordinates of vector a:
(a) The magnitude of vector u is given by:
͸ െ͵ൗ ʹൗ
‫ ۍ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫Ͳ ې‬
ଶ ଶ ଶ
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ට ‫ݑ‬௫ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௬ ൅ ‫ ݑ‬௭ ᇱ
‫ ܉‬ൌ ൗ͹ ‫ێ‬ ʹ ͸ൗ͹ ͵ൗ͹‫ ۑ‬ή ൥͵൩
‫ێ‬ ‫ʹ ۑ‬
െ͵ െʹൗ ͸ൗ
ξ͸ଶ ൅ ͵ଶ ൅ ʹଶ ‫ ۏ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ے‬
‫ݑ‬ൌ ൌͳ
͹
(4.1) ͸ ͵ ʹ
‫ۍ‬ ή Ͳ ൅ ൬െ ൰ ή ͵ ൅ ή ʹ ‫ې‬
‫ ێ‬͹ ͹ ͹ ‫ۑ‬
So the vector u is unitary. The same applies to the others. ᇱ ‫ێ‬ ʹ ͸ ͵ ‫ۑ‬
‫ ܉‬ൌ ήͲ൅ ή͵൅ ήʹ
Let us now calculate the scalar product, e.g. ‫ ܝ‬ή ‫ܞ‬. ‫ێ‬ ͹ ͹ ͹ ‫ۑ‬
‫͵ ێ‬ ʹ ͸ ‫ۑ‬
‫ ܝ‬ή ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௫ ‫ݒ‬௫ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௬ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௭ ‫ݒ‬௭ ‫ۏ‬൬െ ͹൰ ή Ͳ ൅ ൬െ ͹൰ ή ͵ ൅ ͹ ή ʹ‫ے‬
͸ ʹ ͵ ͸ ʹ ͵
‫ ܝ‬ή ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ή ൅ ൬െ ൰ ή ൅ ή ൌ Ͳ ͷ
͹ ͹ ͹ ͹ ͹ ͹ ‫ۍ‬െ ൗ͹‫ې‬
(4.2)
‫܉‬ᇱ ൌ ‫ʹ ێ‬Ͷൗ͹ ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ‫ۑ‬
The result in (4.2) shows that u and v are orthogonal. And ‫ ۏ‬͸ൗ͹ ‫ے‬
the same applies to ‫ ܝ‬ή ‫ ܟ‬and ‫ ܟ‬ή ‫ܞ‬. Now, the product of (4.7)
vectors, e.g. ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬:
The new coordinates of vector b:
‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ൫‫ݑ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௭ െ ‫ݑ‬௭ ‫ݒ‬௬ ൯ܑ ൅ ሺ‫ݑ‬௭ ‫ݒ‬௫ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ‫ݒ‬௭ ሻ‫ ܒ‬൅ ൫‫ݑ‬௫ ‫ݒ‬௬ െ ‫ݑ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௫ ൯‫ܓ‬

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 ͸ െ͵ൗ ʹൗ ‫ܝ‬ή‫܋‬ ʹ ξ͵
‫ ۍ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ ې‬െͳ ‫•‘… ׵‬ሺ‫ܝ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൌ
ᇱ ‫ێ‬ ʹൗ ͸ൗ ͵ൗ ‫ۑ‬ ܿ ʹξ͵ ͵
‫ ܊‬ൌ
‫ ێ‬͹ ͹ ͹‫ ۑ‬ή ൥ Ͷ ൩ (4.13)
െ͵ െʹൗ ͸ൗ െ͵
‫ ۏ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ے‬
And the same applies to the others:
͸ ͵ ʹ
‫ۍ‬ ή ሺെͳሻ ൅ ൬െ ൰ ή Ͷ ൅ ή ሺെ͵ሻ ‫ې‬
‫ێ‬ ͹ ͹ ͹ ‫ۑ‬ ‫ܞ‬ή‫܋‬ െʹ ξ͵
ʹ ͸ ͵ …‘•ሺ‫ܞ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൌെ
‫܊‬ᇱ ൌ ‫ێ‬ ή ሺെͳሻ ൅ ή Ͷ ൅ ή ሺെ͵ሻ ‫ۑ‬ ܿ ʹξ͵ ͵
‫ێ‬ ͹ ͹ ͹ ‫ۑ‬ (4.14)
‫͵ ێ‬ ʹ ͸ ‫ۑ‬
ሺ ሻ ሺ ሻ
‫ۏ‬൬െ ͹൰ ή െͳ ൅ ൬െ ͹൰ ή Ͷ ൅ ͹ ή െ͵ ‫ے‬ ‫ܟ‬ή‫܋‬ െʹ ξ͵
…‘•ሺ‫ܟ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൌെ
ʹͶ ܿ ʹξ͵ ͵
‫ۍ‬െ ൗ͹‫ې‬ (4.15)
‫܊‬ᇱ ൌ ‫͵ͳ ێ‬ൗ͹ ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ‫ۑ‬
ʹ͵ The results in (4.10) – (4.15) show that:
‫ۏ‬െ ൗ͹‫ے‬ …‘•ሺܑǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ …‘•ሺ‫ܝ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻǢ …‘•ሺ‫ܒ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ …‘•ሺ‫ܞ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ƒ† …‘•ሺ‫ܓ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ
(4.8) …‘•ሺ‫ܟ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ. The angles have not changed. This leads us to
conclude that the vector c is the axis of the aforementioned
And the new coordinates of vector c: rotation.
͸ െ͵ൗ ʹൗ
‫ ۍ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ʹ ې‬ Problem 5
‫ ܋‬ᇱ ൌ ‫ʹ ێ‬ൗ͹ ͸ൗ
͹
͵ൗ ‫ ۑ‬ή ൥െʹ൩
͹‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ െʹ (a) Show that the mixed product of the vectors
െ͵ െʹൗ ͸ൗ
‫ ۏ‬ൗ͹ ͹ ͹‫ے‬ ‫ܝ‬ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݑ‬ଷ ሻǡ ‫ܞ‬ሺ‫ݒ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻƒ†‫ܟ‬ሺ‫ݓ‬ଵ ǡ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ݓ‬ଷ ሻ can be given by
determinant:
͸ ͵ ʹ
‫ۍ‬ ή ʹ ൅ ൬െ ൰ ή ሺെʹሻ ൅ ή ሺെʹሻ ‫ې‬ ‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݓ‬ଷ
‫ ێ‬͹ ͹ ͹ ‫ۑ‬
ʹ ͸ ͵ ሺ‫ ܟ‬ή ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿሻ ൌ อ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ อ
‫ ܋‬ൌ‫ێ‬
ᇱ
ሺ ሻ
ή ʹ ൅ ή െʹ ൅ ή െʹ ሺ ሻ ‫ۑ‬
‫ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ
‫ێ‬ ͹ ͹ ͹ ‫ۑ‬
‫͵ ێ‬ ʹ ͸ ‫ۑ‬
ሺ ሻ ሺ ሻ
‫ۏ‬൬െ ͹൰ ή ʹ ൅ ൬െ ͹൰ ή െʹ ൅ ͹ ή െʹ ‫ے‬ (b) Show, by means of the mixed product, if a matrix 3 x 3 is
orthogonal, then its determinant can have only two values,
ʹ +1 or –1.
‫ ܋‬ᇱ ൌ ൥െʹ൩ (c) Consider the matrices below:
െʹ
(4.9) ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ξ͵Τʹ ͳΤʹ Ͳ
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ൥Ͳ ͳ Ͳ ൩ǡ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ቎ ͳΤʹ െ ξ͵Τʹ Ͳ ቏ǡ
The result in (4.9) shows that the new coordinates of vector Ͳ Ͳ െͳ Ͳ Ͳ െͳ
c, in the (u, v, w) system, have the same values as the
coordinates in the (i, j, k) system. This occurs because the
െͳ Ͳ Ͳ ʹξ͵Τͷ െ ͵ξ͵ΤͳͲ ͳΤʹ
(u, v, w) system rotates around the vector c. Let us now
‫ܥ‬ ൌ ൥ Ͳ െͳ Ͳ൩ ǡ ‫ܦ‬ ൌ ቎ ʹΤͷ െ ͵ΤͳͲ ξ͵Τʹ቏Ǥ
calculate the cosines of the angles between the vectors c and
(i, j, k) and between the vectors c and (u, v, w), by means of Ͳ Ͳ ͳ Τ
͵ ͷ Τ
Ͷ ͷ Ͳ
scalar product. Then,
And indicate which of them represent rotations. Also
ܑή‫܋‬ ʹ ξ͵ describe the geometric meaning of others.
…‘•ሺܑǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൌ Solution
ܿ ʹξ͵ ͵
(a) Let us calculate the vector product of following vectors:
(4.10)
‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ሺ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ െ ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻܑ ൅ ሺ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݒ‬ଵ െ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻ‫ ܒ‬൅ ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ െ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଵ ሻ‫ܓ‬
‫ܒ‬ή‫܋‬ െʹ ξ͵ (5.1)
…‘•ሺ‫ܒ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൌെ
ܿ ʹξ͵ ͵
(4.11) Let us now calculate the scalar product:

‫ܓ‬ή‫܋‬ െʹ ξ͵ ‫ ܟ‬ή ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿ ൌ

…‘•ሺ‫ܓ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൌെ ൌ ‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ െ ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ሻܑ ή ܑ ൅ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݒ‬ଵ െ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଷ ሻ‫ ܒ‬ή ‫ܒ‬
ሺ
ܿ ʹξ͵ ͵
(4.12) ൅ ‫ݓ‬ଷ ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ െ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଵ ሻ‫ ܓ‬ή ‫ܓ‬
‫ ܟ ׵‬ή ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿ ൌ ‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ െ ‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݒ‬ଵ െ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଷ
‫ܝ‬ή‫܋‬ ͳ ʹ ͵ ʹ ൅ ‫ݓ‬ଷ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ െ ‫ݓ‬ଷ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଵ
…‘•ሺ‫ܝ‬ǡ ‫܋‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൤ʹ ή ൅ ʹ ή െ ʹ ή ൨ (5.2)
ܿ ʹξ͵ ͹ ͹ ͹

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The result in (5.2) represents the determinant
aforementioned. ʹξ͵Τͷ െ ͵ξ͵ΤͳͲ ͳΤʹ ͳ
ቮ ʹΤͷ െ ͵ΤͳͲ ξ͵Τʹቮ ൌ െ ʹ
(b) Orthogonal matrices have some properties, namely: the ͵Τͷ ͶΤͷ Ͳ
rows are mutually orthogonal and the magnitudes of rows (5.8)
are unitary. Consider that the aforementioned matrix is
orthogonal, so: So, D does not represent a rotation matrix. D represents a
parallelepiped of volume given by:
‫ܝ‬ൈ‫ܞ‬ൌ‫ܟ‬
(5.3) ͳ
ܸ ൌ ȁ†‡– ‫ ܦ‬ȁ ൌ
ʹ
Or, (5.9)

‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ ܞ‬ൌ െ‫ܟ‬

Problem 6
(5.4)
The following matrix represents a rotation of the axes in the
Then,
plane.
‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݓ‬ଷ
…‘• ߠ •‹ ߠ
อ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ อ ൌ ሺ‫ ܟ‬ή ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿሻ ‫ܣ‬ൌቂ ቃ
‫ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ െ •‹ ߠ …‘• ߠ

‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݓ‬ଷ Show that:

อ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ อ ൌ ‫ ܟ‬ή ‫ ܟ‬ൌ ͳ
‫ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ …‘• ʹߠ •‹ ʹߠ
‫ܣ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ ܣܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ
(5.5) െ •‹ ʹߠ …‘• ʹߠ

And
Or,

‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݓ‬ଷ …‘• ͵ߠ •‹ ͵ߠ

‫ܣ‬ଷ ൌ ‫ ܣܣܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ
อ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ อ ൌ ሺ‫ ܟ‬ή ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿሻ െ •‹ ͵ߠ …‘• ͵ߠ
‫ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ
And give a geometric interpretation of these results.
‫ݓ‬ଵ ‫ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݓ‬ଷ Solution
อ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଷ อ ൌ ‫ ܟ‬ή ሺെ‫ܟ‬ሻ ൌ െͳ We have two rotations (ʹߠ) with ‫ܣ‬ଶ :
‫ݒ‬ଵ ‫ݒ‬ଶ ‫ݒ‬ଷ
…‘• ߠ •‡ߠ …‘• ߠ •‡ߠ
(5.6) ‫ܣ‬ଶ ൌ ቂ ቃήቂ ቃ
െ•‡ߠ …‘• ߠ െ•‡ߠ …‘• ߠ
(c) The rows of A are mutually orthogonal and their
ሺ…‘• ߠ ሻଶ െ ሺ•‡ߠሻଶ ʹ …‘• ߠ•‡ߠ
magnitudes are unitary. However their determinant is –1. ‫ܣ‬ଶ ൌ ൤ ൨
So, this matrix does not represent a rotation. Rotation െʹ …‘• ߠ•‡ߠ ሺ …‘• ߠ ሻଶ െ ሺ•‡ߠሻଶ
matrices should be orthogonal and their determinants have
…‘• ʹߠ •‡ʹߠ
to be +1. The matrix A executes only rotation of z axis ‫ܣ‬ଶ ൌ ቂ ቃ
െ•‡ʹߠ …‘• ʹߠ
(ߨ‫ )݀ܽݎ‬in the system (x,y,z). (6.1)
The rows of B are mutually orthogonal and their
magnitudes are unitary. The determinant of B is given by: And we have three rotations (3ߠ) with ‫ܣ‬ଷ :

ξ͵Τʹ ͳΤʹ Ͳ …‘• ʹߠ •‡ʹߠ …‘• ߠ •‡ߠ

ቮ ͳΤʹ െ ξ͵Τʹ Ͳ ቮ ൌ ‫ܣ‬ଷ ൌ ‫ܣ‬ଶ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃήቂ ቃ
െ•‡ʹߠ …‘• ʹߠ െ•‡ߠ …‘• ߠ
Ͳ Ͳ െͳ
‫ܣ‬ଷ ൌ
ξ͵ ξ͵ ͳ ͳ …‘• ʹߠ …‘• ߠ െ •‹ ʹߠ •‹ ߠ …‘• ʹߠ•‡ߠ ൅ …‘• ߠ•‡ʹߠ
ൌ ቆെ ቇ ሺെͳሻ ൅ Ͳ ൅ Ͳ െ ሺെͳሻ ή െ Ͳ െ Ͳ ൌ ൅ͳ ൌ൤ ൨
ʹ ʹ ʹ ʹ െሺ…‘• ʹߠ•‡ߠ ൅ …‘• ߠ•‡ʹߠሻ …‘• ʹߠ …‘• ߠ െ •‹ ʹߠ •‹ ߠ
(5.7)
…‘• ͵ߠ •‡͵ߠ
‫ܣ‬ଷ ൌ ቂ ቃ
Then we can conclude that B is a rotation matrix. െ•‡͵ߠ …‘• ͵ߠ
The rows of C are mutually orthogonal and their (6.2)
magnitudes are unitary. Their determinant is +1. Then, C
represents a rotation matrix. It executes a rotation of both x
and y axes (ߨ‫)݀ܽݎ‬.
The determinant of D is given by:

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 భ మ మ
Problem 7 ʹ െͳ Ͳ య య య
‫ܣ‬ଵ ൌ ൥ ͳ ͳ ͳ൩ Ǣ ‫ܣ‬ଶ ൌ ቎ Ͳ െ ͳΤξʹ ͳΤξʹ ቏;
Consider the following matrix: െ͵ Ͳ Ͷ ʹξʹΤ͵ െ ξʹΤ͸ െ ξʹΤ͸
…‘• ߮ •‹ ߮
‫ܤ‬ൌ൤ ൨ െభయ െమయ మ
ͳ ͵ ʹ
•‹ ߮ െ …‘• ߮ య
‫ܣ‬ଷ ൌ ቎െమయ మ
య
భ
య ቏ Ǣ‫ܣ‬ସ ൌ ൥ͳ െͳ Ͳ൩.
Show that B is not a rotation matrix. Give a geometric
మ భ మ ʹ Ͳ ͳ
య య య
interpretation of matrix B. (Suggestion: Draw the old and
new axes and the straight line ‫ ݕ‬ൌ –ƒ ߮Τʹ). And discuss the cases ‫ܣ‬ଶ ǡ ‫ܣ‬ଷ ‡‫ܣ‬ସ .
Solution: Solution:
The determinant of B is given by: Let us calculate the ‫ܤ‬ଵ :

…‘• ߮ •‹ ߮ ‫ܤ‬ଵ ‫ܣ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ܫ‬

ฬ ฬ ൌ െሺ…‘• ߮ሻଶ െ ሺ•‹ ߮ሻଶ ൌ െͳ
•‹ ߮ െ …‘• ߮ (8.1)
(7.1)
Or,
The result of (7.1) shows that B does not represent a ܾଵଵ ܾଵଶ ܾଵଷ ʹ െͳ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ
rotation matrix. Let us now calculate the components of the ൥ܾଶଵ ܾଶଶ ܾଶଷ ൩ ή ൥ ͳ ͳ ͳ ൩ ൌ ൥Ͳ ͳ Ͳ൩
new axes. ܾଷଵ ܾଷଶ ܾଷଷ െ͵ Ͳ Ͷ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ
(8.2)
ܑԢ …‘• ߮ •‡߮ ܑ
൤ ൨ ൌ ቂ•‡߮ െ …‘• ߮ቃ ή ൤ ൨
‫ܒ‬Ԣ ‫ܒ‬ Calculating (8.2) we have:
(7.2)
ʹܾଵଵ ൅ ܾଵଶ െ ͵ܾଵଷ െܾଵଵ ൅ ܾଵଶ ܾଵଶ ൅ Ͷܾଵଷ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ
Then, ൥ʹܾଶଵ ൅ ܾଶଶ െ ͵ܾଶଷ െܾଶଵ ൅ ܾଶଶ ܾଶଶ ൅ Ͷܾଵଷ ൩ ൌ ൥Ͳ ͳ Ͳ൩
ʹܾଷଵ ൅ ܾଷଶ െ ͵ܾଷଷ െܾଷଵ ൅ ܾଷଶ ܾଷଶ ൅ Ͷܾଷଷ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ
ܑᇱ ൌ ܑ …‘• ߮ ൅ ‫߮‹•ܒ‬ (8.3)
‫ܒ‬ᇱ ൌ ܑ •‹ ߮ െ ‫߮ •‘… ܒ‬
(7.3) The result is given by:

The figure 7.1 represents the situation. ସ ସ ଵ

‫ ۍ‬ଽ ଽ
െଽ ‫ې‬
‫ێ‬ ଻ ଼ ଶ
‫ܤ‬ଵ ൌ െଵହ ଵହ െଵହ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬ଵ ଵ ଵ ‫ۑ‬
‫ݕ‬ ‫ ۏ‬ହ ହ ହ ‫ے‬
‫ݔ‬Ԣ (8.4)
࣐
࢟ ൌ ࢞ ‫ ܖ܉ܜ‬૛
Let us now calculate ‫ܤ‬ଶ :
߮
‫ݔ‬ ‫ܤ‬ଶ ‫ܣ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ܫ‬
߮ (8.5)

‫ݕ‬Ԣ Or yet:
ଵ ଶ ଶ
ܾଵଵ ܾଵଶ ܾଵଷ ଷ ଷ ଷ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ
Figure 7.1 ൥ܾଶଵ ܾଶଶ ܾଶଷ ൩ ή ൦ Ͳ െ ͳΤξʹ ͳΤξʹ ൪ ൌ ൥ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ൩
ܾଷଵ ܾଷଶ ܾଷଷ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ
The figure 7.1 shows that B exchanges old axes with respect ʹξʹΤ͵ െ ξʹΤ͸ െ ξʹΤ͸
to straight line ‫ ݕ‬ൌ –ƒ ߮Τʹ. The axes ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ݔ‬ǯ are arranged (8.6)
symmetrically with respect to straight line at an angle ߮Τʹ.
And the axes ‫ ݕ‬and ‫ݕ‬ǯ are arranged oppositely to the first Calculating the multiplication, we have:
case at an angle ሺߨ െ ߮ሻΤʹ.
௕భభ మξమ ଶ௕భభ ್భమ ್భయ ξమ ଶ௕భభ ್భమ ್భయ ξమ
‫ ۍ‬ଷ ା య ܾଵଷ ଷ
ି
ξమ
ష
ల ଷ
ା
ξమ
ష
ల ‫ې‬
ͳ Ͳ Ͳ
Problem 8 ‫ێ‬௕మభ మξమ ଶ௕మభ ್మమ ್మయ ξమ ଶ௕మభ ್మమ ್మయ ξమ‫ۑ‬
ା
‫ ێ‬ଷ య ଶଷ ܾ ଷ
ି ష
ల ଷ
ା ష
ల ‫ۑ‬
ൌ ൥ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ൩
ξమ ξమ
‫ێ‬௕యభ మξమ ଶ௕యభ ್యమ ್యయ ξమ ଶ௕యభ ್యమ ್యయ ξమ‫ۑ‬ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ
Find the inverse of the following matrices, calculating the ‫ ۏ‬ଷ ା య ܾଷଷ ଷ
ି
ξమ
ష
ల ଷ
ା
ξమ
ష
ల ‫ے‬
equations ‫ܤ‬௞ ‫ܣ‬௞ ൌ ‫ܫ‬. (8.7)

The result of (8.7) is given by:

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 ଵ
‫ۍ‬ଷ Ͳ ʹξʹΤ͵ ‫ې‬ Problem 9
ଶ
‫ܤ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ێ‬ଷ െ ͳΤξʹ െ ξʹΤ͸‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ଶ ‫ۑ‬ Let ሺ‫ ݔ‬ᇱ ǡ ‫ݕ‬Ԣሻ be the coordinates of a point in an oblique
‫ۏ‬ଷ ͳΤξʹ െ ξʹΤ͸‫ے‬ Cartesian system in the plane. And let ߙƒ†ߚ be the angles
(8.8) between axes ‫ ݔ‬ᇱ ƒ†‫ݕ‬Ԣ with respect to the ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬axes
respectively (Figure 9.1). Show that the equation of a circle
‫ܤ‬ଶ is the transpose of ‫ܣ‬ଶ , or, ‫ܤ‬ଶ ൌ ‫்ܣ‬ଶ . We can observe that with radius ܴ and centre at origin is given by:
‫ܣ‬ଶ is orthogonal and its determinant is +1. So, ‫ܣ‬ଶ represents
a rotation matrix. ‫ݔ‬Ԣଶ ൅ ‫ݕ‬Ԣଶ ൅ ʹ‫ݔ‬Ԣ‫ݕ‬Ԣ …‘•ሺߚ െ ߙ ሻ ൌ ܴଶ .

Let us calculate ‫ܤ‬ଷ :

‫ݕ‬
‫ܤ‬ଷ ‫ܣ‬ଷ ൌ ‫ܫ‬
(8.9) ‫ݕ‬Ԣ

Or,
ଵ ଶ ଶ
െ െଷ
ܾଵଵ ܾଵଶ ܾଵଷ ‫ ۍ‬ଷ ଷ‫ې‬ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ‫ݔ‬Ԣ
ଶ ଶ ଵ‫ۑ‬
൥ܾଶଵ ܾଶଶ ܾଶଷ ൩ ή ‫ێ‬െଷ ଷ ଷ
ൌ ൥Ͳ ͳ Ͳ൩
ܾଷଵ ܾଷଶ ܾଷଷ ‫ ێ‬ଶ ଵ ଶ‫ۑ‬ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ ߚ
ߙ
‫ۏ‬ଷ ଷ ଷ‫ے‬
‫ݔ‬
(8.10)

Calculating the multiplication, we have:

Figure 9.1
ଵ ଶ ଶ
‫ۍ‬െଷή௕భభିయή್భమశయή್భయ
మ మ
െଷή௕భభାమయή್భమశభయή್భయ భ మ
ή௕ ା ή್ శ ή್
ଷ భభ య భమ య భయ ‫ې‬ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Solution:
‫ێ‬െଵή௕ ିమή್ శమή್ ଶ
െଷή௕మభାమయή್మమశభయή್మయ
ଶ భ మ ‫ۑ‬ ൌ ൥Ͳ ͳ
‫ ێ‬ଷ మభ య మమ య మయ ή௕ ା ή್ శ ή್
ଷ మభ య మమ య మయ ‫ۑ‬
Ͳ൩ According to figure 9.1, we can make the following
‫ ێ‬ଵ ଶ ଶ ‫ۑ‬ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ arrangement of the axes and the circular arc with radius R
‫ۏ‬െଷή௕యభିయή್యమశయή್యయ
మ మ
െଷή௕యభାమయή್యమశభయή್యయ భ మ
ή௕ ା ή್ శ ή್
ଷ యభ య యమ య యయ ‫ے‬
(8.11) (figure 9.2).

The result of (8.11) is given by:

‫ݕ‬
ଵ ସ ଷ
ି
‫ ۍ‬ହ െହ ହ‫ې‬ ‫ݕ‬Ԣ
‫ܤ‬ଷ ൌ ‫ێ‬െଶ ଶ ଵ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬ଷ ଷ ଷ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ଷ ଵ ହ‫ۑ‬
‫ۏ‬ସ ସ ଼‫ے‬
(8.12)
ߚെߙ
‫ݔ‬Ԣ
The determinant of ‫ܣ‬ଷ is –1. So ‫ܣ‬ଷ does not represent a ‫ݕ‬Ԣ
ߚ ܴ
rotation.
ߙ ‫ݔ‬Ԣ
At last, let us calculate ‫ܤ‬ସ : ‫ݔ‬

‫ܤ‬ସ ‫ܣ‬ସ ൌ ‫ܫ‬

(8.13) Figure 9.2

Or, So, by the help of law of cosines we have:

ܾଵଵ ܾଵଶ ܾଵଷ ͳ ͵ ʹ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ܴଶ ൌ ‫ݔ‬Ԣଶ ൅ ‫ݕ‬Ԣଶ ൅ ʹ‫ݔ‬Ԣ‫ݕ‬Ԣ …‘•ሺߚ െ ߙ ሻ

൥ܾଶଵ ܾଶଶ ܾଶଷ ൩ ή ൥ͳ െͳ Ͳ ൩ ൌ ൥Ͳ ͳ Ͳ൩ (9.1)
ܾଷଵ ܾଷଶ ܾଷଷ ʹ Ͳ ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ͳ
(8.14) Problem 10
However, we can verify that the determinant of ‫ܣ‬ସ is null. Show that the vector ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ʹܑ ൅ ‫ ܒ‬െ ͸‫ ܓ‬cannot be written as a
So, ‫ܣ‬ସ does not have an inverse matrix. linear combination of vectors ‫ܝ‬૚ ൌ ܑ ൅ ‫ ܒ‬൅ ʹ‫ ܓ‬, ‫ܝ‬૛ ൌ ͵ܑ െ ‫ܒ‬
and ‫ܝ‬૜ ൌ ʹܑ ൅ ‫ܓ‬. Show that the vector ‫ ܟ‬ൌ െʹ‫ ܒ‬െ ͵‫ ܓ‬can be
written by this way and by lot of different ways. Give an
algebraic explanation about of these facts. And also, give a
geometric explanation.

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Solution: The vectors ‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૜ are in the same plane (coplanar).
Let us write the vector v as a combination of the We can observe this if we calculate the determinant of the
vectors‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૜: matrix constituted by their coefficients:

‫ ܞ‬ൌ ‫ܝܣ‬૚ ൅ ‫ܝܤ‬૛ ൅ ‫ܝܥ‬૜ ͳ ͳ ʹ

(10.1) อ͵ െͳ Ͳอ ൌ Ͳ
ʹ Ͳ ͳ
Where ‫ܣ‬ǡ ‫ ܥ†ƒܤ‬are scalars. By the use of the expressions (10.10)
(10.1), ‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૜ , we have:
We can conclude that the vector v cannot be written as a
ʹܑ ൅ ‫ ܒ‬െ ͸‫ ܓ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬ሺܑ ൅ ‫ ܒ‬൅ ʹ‫ܓ‬ሻ ൅ ‫ܤ‬ሺ͵ܑ െ ‫ܒ‬ሻ ൅ ‫ ܥ‬ሺʹܑ ൅ ‫ܓ‬ሻ linear combination of the vectors ‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૜, because it
(10.2) does not belong to the plane of aforementioned vectors. We
can verify this if we calculate the determinant of the matrix
By the development of the expression in (10.2), we have: constituted by the coefficients, e.g.: ‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ܞ‬:

ʹܑ ൅ ‫ ܒ‬െ ͸‫ ܓ‬ൌ ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ͵‫ ܤ‬൅ ʹ‫ ܥ‬ሻܑ ൅ ሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ ܒ‬൅ ሺʹ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ሻ‫ܓ‬ ͳ ͳ ʹ
อ͵ െͳ Ͳ อ ൌ ͵Ͷ ് Ͳ
(10.3)
ʹ ͳ െ͸
(10.11)
Or a system of equation given by:
The result in (10.11) is not null. This proves that v does not
‫ ܣ‬൅ ͵‫ ܤ‬൅ ʹ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ʹ
belong to the plan of vectors ‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૜.
൝ ‫ܣ‬െ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͳ
ʹ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ െ͸
(10.4) However, we can conclude that the vector w belongs to the
aforementioned plane, because the determinant of the
By the use of the second equation in (10.4), we have matrix constituted by the coefficients, e.g.: ‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ ܞ‬is
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ ܤ‬൅ ͳ. So: null:

ͳ ͳ ͳ ʹ
൝ ʹ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ʹ อ͵ െͳ Ͳ อ ൌ Ͳ
ʹ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ െͺ Ͳ െʹ െ͵
(10.5) (10.12)

The system of equation in (10.5) shows that there is not Problem 11

solution of (10.4). So, v cannot be written as a linear
combination of ‫ܝ‬૚ ǡ ‫ܝ‬૛ ƒ†‫ܝ‬૜. Calculate the integral below along the circle ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ ͳ;
Let us now consider the case of w. As done in the previous use the Green’s theorem if appropriate.
case:
(a) ‫ ܝ ׯ‬ή ݀‫ܛ‬, ‫ ܝ‬ൌ ሺʹ‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ݕ‬ሻܑ ൅ ሺͶ‫ ݕݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ሻ‫;ܒ‬
െʹ‫ ܒ‬െ ͵‫ ܓ‬ൌ ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ͵‫ ܤ‬൅ ʹ‫ ܥ‬ሻܑ ൅ ሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ ܒ‬൅ ሺʹ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ሻ‫ܓ‬ (b) ‫ׯ‬ሺʹ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫;ݕ‬
(10.6) (c) ‫ ܞ ׯ‬ή ݀‫ ܖ‬ǡ ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ሻܑ െ ʹ‫ܒݕݔ‬ǡ ݀‫ ܖ‬ൌ ݀‫ ܑݕ‬െ ݀‫ܒݔ‬
Solution:
Or a system of equation given by: (a) Let us use a parameter ‫ ݐ‬and write:

‫ ܣ‬൅ ͵‫ ܤ‬൅ ʹ‫ ܥ‬ൌ Ͳ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ …‘• ‫ ݔ݀ ֜ ݐ‬ൌ െ•‹‫ݐ݀ݐ‬

൝ ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ െʹ (11.1)
ʹ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ െ͵
(10.7) And

By the use of the second equation in (10.7), we have ‫ ݕ‬ൌ •‹‫ ݕ݀ ֜ ݐ‬ൌ …‘• ‫ݐ݀ݐ‬
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ ܤ‬െ ʹ, so: (11.2)
ʹ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ͳ Then ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ݀‫ ܑݔ‬൅ ݀‫ ܒݕ‬ൌ ሾሺെ•‹‫ݐ‬ሻܑ ൅ ሺ…‘• ‫ݐ‬ሻ‫ܒ‬ሿ݀‫ݐ‬Ǣ Ͳ ൑ ‫ ݐ‬൑ ʹߨ.
ቄ
ʹ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ͳ The integral is given by:
(10.8)

The system of equation in (10.8) shows infinity of solution ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ර ‫ݑ‬௫ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ݑ‬௬ ݀‫ݕ‬
for the system of equation in (10.7). E.g.: If ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͳ implies
(11.3)
‫ ܣ‬ൌ െͳƒ†‫ ܥ‬ൌ െͳ. So:
By the use of the relations (11.1) and (11.2), we have:
‫ ܟ‬ൌ െͳ‫ܝ‬૚ ൅ ‫ܝ‬૛ െ ͳ‫ܝ‬૜ ‫ ܟ ׵‬ൌ െʹܑ െ ͵‫ܓ‬
(10.9)

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 ଶగ
ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ൌ න ሾʹ …‘• ଶ ‫ ݐ‹• ݐ‬െ ͵ •‹ସ ‫ ݐ‬൅ …‘• ସ ‫ ݐ‬൅ •‹ଷ ‫ݐ •‘… ݐ‬ሿ ݀‫ݐ‬
ଶగ ଴
ൌ න ሾሺʹ •‹ଶ ‫ ݐ‬െ ͵ …‘•ଶ ‫ݐ‹• ݐ‬ሻሺെ•‹‫ݐ‬ሻ (11.11)
଴
൅ ሺͶ …‘• ‫ ݐ‹• ݐ‬െ …‘•ଷ ‫ݐ‬ሻ …‘• ‫ݐ‬ሿ݀‫ݐ‬ The integration in (11.11) results in:
(11.4)
රሺʹ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫ ݕ‬ൌ ͵ߨ
This leads to:
(11.12)
ଶగ
න ሾെʹ •‹ଷ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ͵ …‘•ଶ ‫‹• ݐ‬ଶ ‫ ݐ‬൅ Ͷ …‘• ଶ ‫ ݐ‹• ݐ‬െ …‘•ସ ‫ݐ‬ሿ݀‫ݐ‬ By use of the Green’s theorem:
଴
(11.5)
߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲ ଷ
ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ ൌ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ
By the help of the integrals table, e.g.: Spiegel, M. R.; Schaun’s ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬
outline series, Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and (11.13)
Tables, McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1968, USA, we can write:
And

ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲

ൌ ሺʹ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ͵‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ ൌ െͻ‫ ݕ‬ଶ
ଷ
…‘• ‫ݐ‬
ଶగ
‫‹• ݐ‬Ͷ‫ݐ‬ ଶగ
…‘• ‫ݐ‬ ଷ ଶగ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
ൌ ቈെ …‘• ‫ ݐ‬൅ ቉ ൅ ͵൤ െ ൨ െ Ͷቈ ቉ (11.14)
͵ ଴ ͺ ͵ʹ ଴ ͵ ଴
͵‫‹• ݐʹ‹• ݐ‬Ͷ‫ ݐ‬ଶగ Let us use the results from (11.13) and (11.14) in (11.7):
െ൤ ൅ ൅ ൨
ͺ Ͷ ͵ʹ ଴
‫ ׵‬ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ Ͳ රሺʹ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫ ݕ‬ൌ
(11.6) ଵ ඥଵି௫ మ
ൌ න ݀‫ ݔ‬න ݀‫ݕ‬ሺ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ͻ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ሻ
Let us now use Green’s theorem. This theorem is given by: ିଵ ିඥଵି௫ మ
(11.15)
߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௫
ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ර ‫ݑ‬௫ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ݑ‬௬ ݀‫ ݕ‬ൌ ඵ ቆ െ ቇ ݀‫ݕ݀ݔ‬ Hence:
௦ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
(11.7) ଵ ඥଵି௫ మ ଵ
ඥଵି௫ మ
න ݀‫ ݔ‬න ݀‫ݕ‬ሺ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ͻ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ሻ ൌ න ݀‫ ݔ‬ሾ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬൅ ͵‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሿ
ିඥଵି௫ మ
Let us calculate the partial derivatives: ିଵ ିඥଵି௫ మ ିଵ
ଵ
య
ଶඥ
߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲ ൌ ͸ න ቀ‫ݔ‬ ͳെ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ሺͳ െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻమ ቁ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ
ൌ ሺͶ‫ ݕݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ሻ ൌ Ͷ‫ ݕ‬െ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ିଵ
ଵ
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ξͳ െ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ƒ”…•‹‫ݔ͵ ݔ‬ξͳ െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ͵ƒ”…•‹‫ݔ‬
(11.8) ൌ ͸ቈ ൅ ൅ ൅ ቉ ൌ ͵ߨ
ͺ ͺ ͺ ͺ ିଵ
And (11.16)

߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲ This represents the same result obtained as that from

ൌ ሺʹ‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ Ͷ‫ ݕ‬െ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ
߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ (11.12).
(11.9) (c) Now, the last integral. Let us use the expressions from
(11.1) and (11.2).
By the use of (11.8) and (11.9) in (11.7), we have:
ර ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫ ܖ‬ൌ රሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ሻ݀‫ ݕ‬൅ ʹ‫ݔ݀ݕݔ‬
ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ඵ ሺͶ‫ ݕ‬െ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ Ͷ‫ ݕ‬൅ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ݀‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬ൌ Ͳ ଶగ
௦ ൌ න ሺ…‘• ‫ ݐ‬െ ʹ •‹ଶ ‫ݐ •‘… ݐ‬ሻ ݀‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳ
(11.10) ଴
(11.17)
The equation in (11.10) shows the same result as that
obtained by means of the direct integration. By the use Green’s theorem:

(b) By the use of the relations (11.1) and (11.2), we have: ߲‫ݑ‬௫
ൌ ʹ‫ݔ‬
߲‫ݔ‬
(11.18)
රሺʹ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ሻ݀‫ ݕ‬ൌ
And

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 ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ሺଶǡ଼ሻ ଶ
ൌ െʹ‫ݔ‬ න ʹ‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬െ ʹ‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬ൌ ʹ න ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ ͵‫ ݔ‬ହ ሻ݀‫ݔ‬
߲‫ݕ‬ ሺ଴ǡ଴ሻ ଴
(11.19) ଶ
‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫଺ݔ‬
ൌ ʹ ቈ െ ቉ ൌ െ͸Ͳ
In this case we have: ʹ ʹ ଴
(12.6)
߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௬
ර ‫ݒ‬௫ ݀‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ݒ‬௬ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ ඵ ቆ ൅ ቇ ݀‫ݕ݀ݔ‬ (b) The directional derivative is given by:
௦ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
(11.20) ݀‫ܨ‬ ߲‫ݕ݀ ܨ߲ ݔ݀ ܨ‬
ൌ ݃‫ ܨ݀ܽݎ‬ή ‫ ܖ‬ൌ ൅
Then, ݀݊ ߲‫݊݀ ݕ߲ ݊݀ ݔ‬
(12.7)
߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௬
ර ‫ݒ‬௫ ݀‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ݒ‬௬ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ ඵ ቆ ൅ ቇ ݀‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬ൌ Ͳ And the figure 12.1 shows the situation.
௦ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
(11.21)
‫ݕ‬
Problem 12
Consider ‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ . Calculate: ݀‫ܛ‬ ݀‫ݕ‬
݀‫ܖ‬
‫ݐ‬
ሺଶǡ଼ሻ ‫ݐ‬
(a) ‫׬‬ሺ଴ǡ଴ሻ ሺ݃‫ܨ݀ܽݎ‬ ή ݀‫ܛ‬ሻ over the path ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ . ‫ݕ‬Ԣ
݀‫ݔ‬
డி
(b) ‫ׯ‬ ݀‫ ݏ‬over the closed path ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ ͳ. ‫ݐ‬
డ௡
Ͳ ‫ݔ‬Ԣ ‫ݔ‬
డி
Here, డ௡ is the directional derivative of ‫ ܨ‬in the direction of
the outward normal and ݀‫ ݏ‬ൌ ȁ݀‫ܛ‬ȁ. Figure 12.1
Solution:
(a) The gradient of scalar ‫ ܨ‬is given by: We can observe from the figure 12.1 that:
߲‫ܨ‬ ߲‫ܨ‬ ߲‫ܨ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݃‫ ܨ݀ܽݎ‬ൌ ܑ൅ ‫ܒ‬൅ ‫ܓ‬ ൌ …‘• ‫ݐ‬
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ݀݊
(12.1) (12.8)

So, the gradient of ‫ ܨ‬is: And

݃‫ ܨ݀ܽݎ‬ൌ ʹሺ‫ ܑݔ‬െ ‫ܒݕ‬ሻ ݀‫ݕ‬

(12.2) ൌ •‹ ‫ݐ‬
݀݊
(12.9)
Let us now write the integral:
These expressions, (12.8) – (12.9), show that the problem
ሺଶǡ଼ሻ ሺଶǡ଼ሻ
becomes easier if we use ‫ݐ‬, ሺͲ ൑ ‫ ݐ‬൑ ʹߨሻ, as parameter. So:
න ሺ݃‫ ܨ݀ܽݎ‬ή ݀‫ܛ‬ሻ ൌ න ʹ‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬െ ʹ‫ݕ݀ݕ‬
ሺ଴ǡ଴ሻ ሺ଴ǡ଴ሻ
(12.3) ‫ ݔ‬ൌ …‘• ‫ ݕ‡ݐ‬ൌ •‹ ‫ݐ‬
(12.10)
With ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ݀‫ ܑݔ‬൅ ݀‫ܒݕ‬. Let us calculate the integral:
Then
ሺଶǡ଼ሻ ଶ ଼
න ʹ‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬െ ʹ‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬ൌ න ʹ‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬െ න ʹ‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬ൌ Ͷ െ ͸Ͷ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ •‹ ‫ ݕ݀‡ݐ݀ ݐ‬ൌ …‘• ‫ݐ݀ ݐ‬
ሺ଴ǡ଴ሻ ଴ ଴ (12.11)
ሺଶǡ଼ሻ
‫׵‬න ʹ‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬െ ʹ‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬ൌ െ͸Ͳ
ሺ଴ǡ଴ሻ
In this case ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ݀‫ ܑݔ‬൅ ݀‫ܒݕ‬, so, we have:
(12.4)
݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ሺെ •‹ ‫ ܑ ݐ‬൅ …‘• ‫ܒ ݐ‬ሻ݀‫ݐ‬
If we use ‫ ݔ‬as parameter, we have: (12.12)

݀‫ ݕ‬ൌ ͵‫ ݔ‬ଶ ݀‫ݔ‬ So ȁ݀‫ܛ‬ȁ ൌ ݀‫ݐ‬. Now, by the use of the expressions in (12.8) –
(12.5) (12.11) into (12.7), we have

By the use of the (12.5) into (12.3), we have:

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 ݀‫ܨ‬ ߲߮
ൌ ʹሺ…‘• ଶ ‫ ݐ‬െ •‹ଶ ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ߮ ֜ ݖݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݖݕݔ‬൅ ‫ܭ‬
݀݊ ߲‫ݔ‬
(12.13) (13.8)

Then, the result of the integral is given by: Where ‫ ܭ‬is an arbitrary constant. And the same applies to
the others components:
ଶగ
߲‫ܨ‬
ර ݀‫ ݏ‬ൌ ʹ න ሺ…‘• ଶ ‫ ݐ‬െ •‹ଶ ‫ݐ‬ሻ݀‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳ ߲߮
߲݊ ଴ ൌ ‫ ߮ ֜ ݔݖ‬ൌ ‫ ݖݕݔ‬൅ ‫ܭ‬
(12.14) ߲‫ݕ‬
(13.9)
Problem 13
߲߮
ൌ ‫ ߮ ֜ ݕݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݖݕݔ‬൅ ‫ܭ‬
Show that the vector field ‫ ܝ‬ൌ ‫ ܑݖݕ‬൅ ‫ ܒݔݖ‬൅ ‫ ܓݕݔ‬is both ߲‫ݖ‬
(13.10)
irrotational and solenoidal. Find ߮ such that ݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ ‫ܝ‬.
Could a vector field ‫ ۯ‬exist such that ܿ‫ ۯ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ‫?ܝ‬
Solution: So,߮ ൌ ‫ ݖݕݔ‬൅ ‫ܭ‬. The following identity ݀݅‫ ۯ݈ݎݑܿݒ‬ൌ Ͳ
remains valid if ܿ‫ ۯ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ‫ܝ‬, because ݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ Ͳ.
The curl of a vector field is given by:

߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ Problem 14

ܿ‫ ܝ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ቆ െ ቇܑ൅ ൬ െ ൰‫ ܒ‬൅ ቆ െ ቇ‫ܓ‬
߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
Demonstrate the following identities for scalar fields ݂ǡ ߮
(13.1)
and vector fields ‫ܝ‬ǡ ‫ ܞ‬of space:
Let us calculate the partial derivatives:
(a) ݃‫݀ܽݎ‬ሺ݂߮ሻ ൌ ݂݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬൅ ߮݃‫;݂݀ܽݎ‬
߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ (b) ܿ‫݈ݎݑ‬ሺ݂‫ܝ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ܿ‫ ܝ݈ݎݑ‬൅ ሾ݃‫ ݂݀ܽݎ‬ൈ ‫ܝ‬ሿ;
ൌ ‫ݕ‬Ǣ ൌ ‫ݖ‬Ǣ ൌ ‫ݖ‬Ǣ ൌ ‫ݔ‬Ǣ ൌ ‫‡ݔ‬ ൌ‫ݕ‬ (c) ݀݅‫ݒ‬ሾ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሿ ൌ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ܿ‫ܝ݈ݎݑ‬ሻ െ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ܿ‫ܞ݈ݎݑ‬ሻ.
߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬
(13.2) Solution:
(a) The gradient is given by:
By the use of expressions from (13.2) into (13.1), we have:
߲ ሺ݂߮ሻ ߲ሺ݂߮ሻ ߲ሺ݂߮ሻ
ܿ‫ ܝ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ሻܑ ൅ ሺ‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ݕ‬ሻ‫ ܒ‬൅ ሺ‫ ݖ‬െ ‫ݖ‬ሻ‫ ܓ‬ൌ Ͳ ݃‫݀ܽݎ‬ሺ݂߮ሻ ൌ ܑ൅ ‫ܒ‬൅ ‫ܓ‬
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
(13.3)
(14.1)
The expression of the divergence of a vector field is given
Let us calculate the partial derivatives of (14.1):
by:
߲ሺ݂߮ሻ ߲݂ ߲߮
߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ ൌ ή߮൅݂ή
݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ ൅ ൅ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ (14.2)
(13.4)
߲ሺ݂߮ሻ ߲݂ ߲߮
The partial derivatives in (13.4) are null. So: ൌ ή߮൅݂ή
߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
(14.3)
݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ Ͳ
(13.5)
߲ሺ݂߮ሻ ߲݂ ߲߮
ൌ ή߮൅݂ή
We can conclude from the results in (13.3) and (13.5) that u ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
(14.4)
is a vector field irrotational and solenoidal. Let us now use
the expression of the gradient of a scalar field:
By the use of the expressions from (14.2) – (14.4) into
߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮ (14.1), we have:
݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ ܑ൅ ‫ܒ‬൅ ‫ܓ‬
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲݂ ߲߮ ߲݂ ߲߮
(13.6) ݃‫݀ܽݎ‬ሺ݂߮ሻ ൌ ൬ ή ߮ ൅ ݂ ή ൰ܑ ൅ ൬ ή ߮ ൅ ݂ ή ൰‫ܒ‬
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
߲݂ ߲߮
If ݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ ‫ ܝ‬we have: ൅൬ ή߮ ൅ ݂ ή ൰‫ܓ‬
߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮
ܑ൅ ‫ܒ‬൅ ‫ ܓ‬ൌ ‫ ܑݖݕ‬൅ ‫ ܒݔݖ‬൅ ‫ܓݕݔ‬ ߲݂ ߲݂ ߲݂
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ݃‫݀ܽݎ‬ሺ݂߮ሻ ൌ ൬ ܑ൅ ‫ܒ‬൅ ‫ܓ‬൰ ߮
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
(13.7) ߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮
൅݂ ൬ ܑ ൅ ‫ܒ‬൅ ‫ܓ‬൰
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
So:
10
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 ࢛ࣔࢠ ࢛ࣔ࢟ ࢛ࣔ࢞ ࢛ࣔࢠ
‫݀ܽݎ݃ ׵‬ሺ݂߮ሻ ൌ ߮݃‫ ݂݀ܽݎ‬൅ ݂݃‫߮݀ܽݎ‬ ݀݅‫ݒ‬ሺ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሻ ൌ ࢜࢞ ቆ െ ቇ ൅ ࢜࢟ ൬ െ ൰
ࣔ࢟ ࣔࢠ ࣔࢠ ࣔ࢞
(14.5) ࢛ࣔ࢟ ࢛ࣔ࢞ ߲‫ݒ‬௭ ߲‫ݒ‬௬
൅ ࢜ࢠ ቆ െ ቇ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ቆ െ ቇ
ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢟ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
(b) The curl is given by:
߲‫ݒ‬௫ ߲‫ݒ‬௭ ߲‫ݒ‬௬ ߲‫ݒ‬௫
െ ‫ݑ‬௬ ൬ െ ൰ െ ‫ݑ‬௭ ቆ െ ቇ
߲݂‫ݑ‬௭ ߲݂‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
ܿ‫݈ݎݑ‬ሺ݂‫ܝ‬ሻ ൌ ቆ െ ቇܑ (14.10)
߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
߲݂‫ݑ‬௫ ߲݂‫ݑ‬௭
൅൬ െ ൰‫ܒ‬ The red part represents the scalar product of the vectors ‫ܞ‬
߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬
߲݂‫ݑ‬௬ ߲݂‫ݑ‬௫ and ܿ‫ܝ݈ݎݑ‬. And the other part represents the scalar product
൅ቆ െ ቇ‫ܓ‬ of the vectors ‫ ܝ‬and ܿ‫ܞ݈ݎݑ‬. So:
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
݀݅‫ݒ‬ሺ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ܿ‫ܝ݈ݎݑ‬ሻ െ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ܿ‫ܞ݈ݎݑ‬ሻ
߲݂ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲݂ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ (14.11)
ܿ‫݈ݎݑ‬ሺ݂‫ܝ‬ሻ ൌ ቆ‫ݑ‬௭ ൅݂ െ ‫ݑ‬௬ െ݂ ቇܑ
߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
߲݂ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲݂ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ Problem 15
൅ ൬‫ݑ‬௫ ൅݂ െ ‫ݑ‬௭ െ݂ ൰‫ܒ‬
߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬
߲݂ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲݂ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ By the use of the theorems of divergence and Stokes, if
൅ ቆ‫ݑ‬௬ ൅݂ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ െ݂ ቇ‫ܓ‬
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ convenient, calculate the following integrals:

ࣔࢌ ࣔࢌ ࣔࢌ ࣔࢌ (a) ‫װ‬௦ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ, where ‫ ܝ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ܑ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ ‫ ܒ‬൅ ‫ ݖ‬ଷ ‫ ܓ‬and S is the
ܿ‫݈ݎݑ‬ሺ݂‫ܝ‬ሻ ൌ ൬࢛ࢠ െ ࢛࢟ ൰ ܑ ൅ ൬࢛࢞ െ ࢛ࢠ ൰ ‫ܒ‬
ࣔ࢟ ࣔࢠ ࣔࢠ ࣔ࢞ sphere with radius R and centred in origin;
ࣔࢌ ࣔࢌ
൅ ൬࢛࢟ െ ࢛࢞ ൰ ‫ܓ‬ (b) ‫װ‬௦ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ, where ‫ ܞ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ହ ܑ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ହ ‫ ܒ‬൅ ‫ ݖ‬ହ ‫ ܓ‬and S is the
ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢟
߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ sphere from (a);
൅ ݂ ቈቆ െ ቇܑ ൅൬ െ ൰‫ܒ‬ (c) ‫װ‬௦ ሺ‫ ݖ݀ݕ݀ݔ‬൅ ‫ ݔ݀ݖ݀ݕ‬൅ ‫ݕ݀ݔ݀ݖ‬ሻ, where S is the sphere
߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬
߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ from (a);
൅ቆ െ ቇ ‫ܓ‬቉
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ (d) ‫ ୻ׯ‬ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ܛ‬ሻ, where ‫ ܝ‬ൌ െ͵‫ ܑݕ‬൅ ͵‫ ܒݔ‬൅ ‫ ܓ‬and Ȟ is the circle
(14.6) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ ͳ, located in the plane ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ʹ.
Solution:
We can observe that the first part in (14.6), written in red, (a) Let us write x, y and w in spherical coordinates. Then:
represents the product of the vectors gradient of ݂and the
vector ‫ܝ‬. The second one in square brackets represents the ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ܴ •‹ ߠ …‘• ߮Ǣ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ܴ •‹ ߠ •‹ ߮݁‫ ݖ‬ൌ ܴ …‘• ߠ
curl of ‫ܝ‬. So: (15.1)

‫݈ݎݑܿ ׵‬ሺ݂‫ܝ‬ሻ ൌ ሾ݃‫ ݂݀ܽݎ‬ൈ ‫ܝ‬ሿ ൅ ݂ ή ܿ‫ܝ݈ݎݑ‬

(14.7) The infinitesimal element of area is given by:

(c) The divergent is given by: ݀‫ ܁‬ൌ ܴଶ •‹ ߠ݀ߠ݀߮‫ܚ‬

(15.2)
߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௭
݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ ൅ ൅
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ Where, r is the unitary vector at radial direction. It is given
(14.8) by:

The product of vectors is given by: ͳ

‫ܚ‬ൌ ሺ‫ ܑݔ‬൅ ‫ ܒݕ‬൅ ‫ܓݖ‬ሻ
ܴ
ܑ ‫ܒ‬ ‫ܓ‬ (15.3)
‫ܝ‬ൈ‫ ܞ‬ൌ อ ௫ ‫ݑ‬ ‫ݑ‬ ௬ ‫ݑ‬ ௭อ
‫ݒ‬௫ ‫ݒ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௭ By the use of the expressions from (15.1) – (15.3), we have:
ൌ ൫‫ݑ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௭ െ ‫ݒ‬௬ ‫ݑ‬௭ ൯ܑ ൅ ሺ‫ݑ‬௭ ‫ݒ‬௫ െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ‫ݒ‬௭ ሻ‫ ܒ‬൅ ൫‫ݒ‬௬ ‫ݑ‬௫ െ ‫ݑ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௫ ൯‫ܓ‬
‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܁‬ൌ ܴ •‹ ߠ݀ߠ݀߮ሺ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ସ ൅ ‫ ݖ‬ସ ሻ
(14.9)
ൌ ܴ •‹ହ ߠ …‘• ସ ߮ ൅ •‹ହ ߠ •‹ସ ߮ ൅ •‹ ߠ …‘• ସ ߠ ሻ
ହሺ

(15.4)
By the use of the expression from (14.9) into (14.8), we
have:
Let us now solve the integration:
߲ ߲
݀݅‫ݒ‬ሺ‫ ܝ‬ൈ ‫ܞ‬ሻ ൌ ൫‫ݑ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௭ െ ‫ݒ‬௬ ‫ݑ‬௭ ൯ ൅ ሺ‫ ݒ ݑ‬െ ‫ݑ‬௫ ‫ݒ‬௭ ሻ గ ଶగ
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ ݕ‬௭ ௫ ඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ܴହ න ݀ߠ න ݀߮ ሺ•‹ହ ߠ …‘• ସ ߮
߲ ௌ ଴ ଴
൅ ൫‫ݒ‬௬ ‫ݑ‬௫ െ ‫ݑ‬௬ ‫ݒ‬௫ ൯ ൅ •‹ହ ߠ •‹ସ ߮ ൅ •‹ ߠ …‘• ସ ߠ ሻ
߲‫ݖ‬
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 ͳʹߨܴ଻
గ
͵ߨ ହ ‫ ׵‬඾ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ
඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ܴହ න ݀ߠ ൬ •‹ ߠ ൅ ʹߨ •‹ ߠ …‘•ସ ߠ൰ ௌ ͹
ௌ ଴ ʹ (15.11)

ͳʹߨܴହ Where the divergence of v, in spherical coordinates, is given

඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ by:
ௌ ͷ
(15.5)
ʹ
݀݅‫ ܞݒ‬ൌ ͷ‫ ݎ‬ସ ൤ •‹ସ ߠ ሺ͵ ൅ …‘• ସ ߮ሻ ൅ …‘• ସ ߠ൨
Let us now use the theorem of divergence: ͺ
(15.12)

඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ම ݀݅‫ܸ݀ܝݒ‬ (c) Let us write the expression for the vector field u:
ௌ ௏
(15.6)
඾ ሺ‫ ݖ݀ݕ݀ݔ‬൅ ‫ ݔ݀ݖ݀ݕ‬൅ ‫ݕ݀ݔ݀ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ
The divergent of u is given by: ௌ ௌ

߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ ‫ ܝ ׵‬ൌ ‫ ܑݔ‬൅ ‫ ܒݕ‬൅ ‫ܓݖ‬

݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ ൅ ൅ ൌ ͵ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൌ ͵‫ ݎ‬ଶ (15.13)
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
(15.7) Where ݀‫ ܁‬ൌ ܑ݀‫ ݖ݀ݕ‬൅ ‫ ݔ݀ݖ݀ܒ‬൅ ‫ݕ݀ݔ݀ܓ‬. The divergent of u is
given by:
The infinitesimal element of volume is given by:
݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ ͵
ܸ݀ ൌ ‫ ݎ‬ଶ •‹ ߠ݀‫߮݀ߠ݀ݎ‬
(15.14)
(15.8)
By the use of the theorem of divergence, we have:
By the use of the expressions from (15.7) and (15.8) into
(15.6), we have:
඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ම ݀݅‫ܸ݀ܝݒ‬
ோ గ ଶగ
ͳʹߨܴହ ௌ ௏
඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ͵ න ‫ ݎ‬ସ ݀‫ ݎ‬න •‹ ߠ݀ߠ න ݀߮ ൌ
ௌ ଴ ଴ ଴ ͷ
Ͷߨܴଷ
(15.9) ඾ ሺ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ͵ ම ܸ݀ ൌ ͵ ή ൌ Ͷߨܴଷ
ௌ ௏ ͵
(b) Let us calculate in the same way as it was done (15.15)
previously. Then:
(d) The theorem of Stokes is given by:
గ ଶగ
඾ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ܴ଻ න ݀ߠ න ݀߮ ሺ•‹଻ ߠ …‘• ଺ ߮
ௌ ଴ ଴ ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ඵ ሺ‫ܝݐ݋ݎ‬ሻ ή ݀‫܁‬
൅ •‹଻ ߠ •‹଺ ߮ ൅ •‹ ߠ …‘• ଺ ߠ ሻ ୻ ௌ
(15.16)
గ
͵ߨ ଻
඾ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ܴ଻ න ݀ߠ ൬ •‹ ߠ ൅ ʹߨ •‹ ߠ …‘•଺ ߠ൰ The curl of u is given by:
ௌ ଴ ʹ
߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݑ‬௬ ߲‫ݑ‬௫
ͳʹߨܴ଻ ܿ‫ ܝ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ቆ െ ቇܑ൅ ൬ െ ൰‫ ܒ‬൅ ቆ െ ቇ‫ܓ‬
඾ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
͹
ௌ ‫ ܝ݈ݎݑܿ ׵‬ൌ ͸‫ܓ‬
(15.10) (15.17)
And by the use of the theorem of divergence, we have: So, we have:
ோ గ ଶగ
͸
඾ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ ͷ න ‫ ݎ݀ ଺ ݎ‬න ݀ߠ න ൬ •‹ହ ߠ ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ඵ ͸‫ ܓ‬ή ݀‫ ܁‬ൌ ͸ߨ
ௌ ଴ ଴ ଴ ͺ
୻ ௌ
ʹ
൅ •‹ହ ߠ …‘• Ͷ߮ ൅ …‘• ସ ߠ •‹ ߠ൰ ݀߮ (15.18)
ͺ
Where ݀‫ ܁‬ൌ ‫ܓݎ݀ߠ݀ݎ‬. Let us now calculate the integral
ͷܴ଻ గ ͳʹߨ ହ without use the theorem of Stokes, in polar coordinates. So:
඾ ሺ‫ ܞ‬ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ න ݀ߠ ൤ •‹ ߠ ൅ ʹߨ …‘•ସ ߠ •‹ ߠ൨
ௌ ͹ ଴ ͺ

ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ͵ ර െ‫ ݔ݀ݕ‬൅ ‫ݕ݀ݔ‬

୻

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 ଶగ ଶగ ‫ ܞݐ݋ݎ‬ൌ ʹɘ‫ܓ‬
ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ͵ න ሺ•‹ଶ ߠ ൅ …‘• ଶ ߠሻ݀ߠ ൌ ͵ න ݀ߠ (16.5)
୻ ଴ ଴

‫ ׵‬ර ‫ ܝ‬ή ݀‫ ܛ‬ൌ ͸ߨ Or

୻
(15.19) ‫ ܞݐ݋ݎ‬ൌ ʹ૑
(16.6)
Where ‫ ݔ‬ൌ …‘• ߠ ‡‫ ݕ‬ൌ •‹ ߠ.
Problem 17
Problem 16
Consider a conductive medium where, the charge density
A flat disc rotates around the axis normal to its plane and ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻ and the current density ۸ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻ vary. Let V be an
passing through its centre. Show that the velocity v of any arbitrary and fixed volume in this medium, bordered by a
point on the disc satisfies the equation: closed surface S, piecewise smooth. Consider the total
charge inside the V and the total charge that enters into V
ܿ‫ ܞ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ʹ૑ per unit time, through the surface S, and deduce that:

Where ૑ is the angular velocity vector.

Solution: ݀
ම ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻܸ݀ ൌ െ ඾ሺ۸ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ
The figure 16.1 shows the situation. ݀‫ݐ‬
௏ ௌ

z By the help of theorem of divergence, deduce the equation of

continuity.

߲ߩ
݀݅‫ݒ‬۸ ൅ ൌͲ
߲‫ݐ‬

Solution:
y’ y
గ The amount of charge within the volume is given by:
R ିߠ
ߠ Ȉ
ଶ
x’ v
x
ܳ ൌ ම ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻܸ݀
௏
Figure 16.1 (17.1)

The components of velocity at x and y axes are given by: For the charge variation rate in time, of this amount, we
have:
‫ݒ‬௫ ൌ െ‫ߠ ‹• ݒ‬Ǣ‫ݒ‬௬ ൌ ‫ߠ •‘… ݒ‬
(16.1)
݀ܳ ݀
ൌ ම ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻܸ݀
The curl of v is given by: ݀‫ݐ݀ ݐ‬
௏
(17.2)
߲‫ݒ‬௭ ߲‫ݒ‬௬ ߲‫ݒ‬௫ ߲‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݒ‬௬ ߲‫ݒ‬௫
ܿ‫ ܞ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ቆ െ ቇܑ ൅൬ െ ൰‫ ܒ‬൅ ቆ െ ቇ‫ܓ‬
߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ This change can only occur if exist a charge flow (electric
(16.2) current). The variation is positive if the amount of charge
increases or whether the electric current enters through the
From figure 16.1, we can write: •‹ ߠ ൌ ೤ೃ ƒ† …‘• ߠ ൌ ೃೣ . So: surface that limits the volume. Otherwise, the change is
negative, that is, the total amount of charge decreases. The
‫ݕ‬ ‫ݔ‬ intensity of electrical current is written as:
‫ݒ‬௫ ൌ െ‫ ݒ‬ή ƒ†‫ݒ‬௬ ൌ ‫ ݒ‬ή
ܴ ܴ
(16.3) ݀ܳ
݅ൌ
݀‫ݐ‬
By the use of the expressions from (16.1) and (16.3) into (17.3)
(16.2), we have:
This intensity is also given by:
ʹ‫ݒ‬
‫ ܞݐ݋ݎ‬ൌ ή‫ܓ‬
ܴ ݅ ൌ۸ή‫܁‬
(16.4) (17.4)

Where ߱ ൌ ೃೡ . Then: Here, J is the current density, and S is the surface crossed by
the charge. In this case, whether charge flows into volume,
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the scalar product in (17.4) will be negative, otherwise, Let us now follow anticlockwise the closed path, starting
positive. The total flow of charge (intensity of electric from point A, and after let us calculate the limit when
current) is given by: οܵ ՜ Ͳ. Thus:

߲߮ ߲߮
߮஺ ؆ ߮௉ ൅ ฬ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ ߳ ሻ ൅ ฬ ሺ‫ ݕ‬െ ߪ ሻ
݅ ൌ ඾ሺ۸ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉
ௌ (18.1)
(17.5)
Once ߮ has partial derivatives calculated in P. So, the
So, by the use of the expressions from (17.2) – (17.5), we can integration is given by:
write:
ර ߮݀‫ ܖ‬ൌ ර ߮݀‫ ܑݕ‬െ ර ߮݀‫ܒݔ‬
݀
ම ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻܸ݀ ൌ െ ඾ሺ۸ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ (18.2)
݀‫ݐ‬
௏ ௌ
(17.6) Here, ݀‫ ܖ‬ൌ ݀‫ ܑݕ‬െ ݀‫ ܒݔ‬is a normal vector to the path and
points out. By the use of the expression from (18.1) into
We must not forget that; charge variation rate has the (18.2), we have:
opposite sign to the total flow, due to the aforementioned
reasons. ර ߮݀‫ ܖ‬ൌ
߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮
Let us now use the theorem of divergence into (17.6). So: ߮௉ ර ݀‫ ܑݕ‬൅ ฬ ර ‫ ܑݕ݀ݔ‬െ ฬ ߳ ර ݀‫ ܑݕ‬൅ ฬ ර ‫ ܑݕ݀ݕ‬െ ฬ ߪ ර ݀‫ܑݕ‬
߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉

݀ ߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮
െ߮௉ ර ݀‫ ܒݔ‬െ ฬ ර ‫ ܒݔ݀ݔ‬൅ ฬ ߳ ර ݀‫ ܒݔ‬െ ฬ ර ‫ ܒݔ݀ݕ‬൅ ฬ ߪ ර ݀‫ܒݔ‬
ම ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻܸ݀ ൌ െ ඾ሺ۸ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ή ݀‫܁‬ሻ ൌ െ ම ݀݅‫ݒ‬۸ܸ݀ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉
݀‫ݐ‬
௏ ௌ ௏ (18.3)

݀ Some integrals from (18.3) are null, namely:

ම ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻܸ݀ ൅ ම ݀݅‫ݒ‬۸ܸ݀ ൌ Ͳ
݀‫ݐ‬
௏ ௏ ර ݀‫ ݕ‬ൌ ͲǢර ‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬ൌ ͲǢර ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͲǢර ‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬ൌ Ͳ
݀ (18.4)
‫׵‬ ߩሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ǡ ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൅ ݀݅‫ݒ‬۸ ൌ ૙
݀‫ݐ‬
(17.7) And the others are not null, namely:

Problem 18 ර ‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬ൌ ο‫ ݔ‬ή ο‫ ݕ‬ൌ οܵǢර ‫ ݔ݀ݕ‬ൌ െο‫ ݔ‬ή ο‫ ݕ‬ൌ െοܵ

Show possible deductions for the following statements: (18.5)

‫ܖ݀߮ ׯ‬ The results (18.5) represent the area bordered by the closed
݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ Ž‹  ሺ‘–Š‡’Žƒሻ path. By the use of the expressions (18.5), (18.4) into (18.3),
οௌ՜଴ οܵ
we have:

‫܁݀߮ ׯ‬ ߲߮ ߲߮
݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ Ž‹  ሺ‹•’ƒ…‡ሻ ර ߮݀‫ ܖ‬؆ ቆ ฬ ܑ ൅ ฬ ‫ܒ‬ቇ οܵ
ο௏՜଴ οܸ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉
(18.6)
Solution:
Let us choose a point P on the plan, as shown in figure 18.1. Let us now calculate the aforementioned limit. Thus A tends
‫ݕ‬ ο‫ݔ‬ to P and hence:

ͳ ߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮
݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ Ž‹ ቆ ฬ ܑ ൅ ฬ ‫ܒ‬ቇ οܵ ൌ ܑ൅ ‫ܒ‬
ܲሺ߳ǡ ߪሻ ݀‫ܖ‬ οௌ՜଴ οܵ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉ ߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬
ο‫ݕ‬
(18.7)

‫ܣ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ǡ ‫ݕ‬ሻ We can extend this reasoning to calculate in space. Let S be a

closed surface such that the point ܲሺ߳ǡ ߪǡ ߜ ሻ is inside. The
normal vector to surface, which points out, is given by:
݀‫ ܁‬ൌ ݀‫ ܑݖ݀ݕ‬൅ ݀‫ ܒݔ݀ݖ‬൅ ݀‫ܓݕ݀ݔ‬. Then:
‫ݔ‬
Figure 18.1

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 Where ‫ܚ‬ǡ ીƒ†‫ ܢ‬are unitary vectors. Thus:
ර ߮஺ ݀‫ ܁‬؆
߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮ ͳ ߲߮ ߲߮
߮௉ ර ݀‫ ܁‬൅ ฬ ර ‫ ݔ‬ሺ݀‫ ܑݖ݀ݕ‬൅ ݀‫ ܒݔ݀ݖ‬൅ ݀‫ܓݕ݀ݔ‬ሻ െ ฬ ߳ ර ݀‫܁‬ ݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ ‫ܚ‬൅ ή ી൅ ‫ܢ‬
߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ݎ‬ ‫ߠ߲ ݎ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
߲߮ ߲߮ (19.7)
൅ ฬ ර ‫ݕ‬ሺ݀‫ ܑݖ݀ݕ‬൅ ݀‫ ܒݔ݀ݖ‬൅ ݀‫ܓݕ݀ݔ‬ሻ െ ฬ ߪ ර ݀‫܁‬
߲‫ ݕ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉
߲߮ ߲߮ The divergence is given by:
൅ ฬ ර ‫ݖ‬ሺ݀‫ ܑݖ݀ݕ‬൅ ݀‫ ܒݔ݀ݖ‬൅ ݀‫ܓݕ݀ݔ‬ሻ െ ฬ ߜ ර ݀‫܁‬
߲‫ ݖ‬௉ ߲‫ ݖ‬௉ ͳ ߲ ߲ ߲
(18.8) ݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ ൤ ሺ‫ ݄ ݄ ݑ‬ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݄ ݄ ݑ‬ሻ ൅ ሺ ‫ݑ‬௭ ݄௥ ݄ఏ ሻ൨
݄௥ ݄ఏ ݄௭ ߲‫ ݎ‬௥ ఏ ௭ ߲ߠ ఏ ௥ ௭ ߲‫ݖ‬
The following integrals are the volume bordered by surface: (19.8)

Hence:
ර ‫ ݖ݀ݕ݀ݔ‬ൌ οܸǢර ‫ ݔ݀ݖ݀ݕ‬ൌ οܸ‡ ර ‫ ݕ݀ݔ݀ݖ‬ൌ οܸ
(18.9) μ‫ݑ‬௥ ‫ݑ‬௥ ͳ μ‫ݑ‬ఏ ߲‫ݑ‬௭
݀݅‫ ܝݒ‬ൌ ൅ ൅ ൅
μ‫ݎ‬ ‫ݎ‬ ‫ ݎ‬μߠ ߲‫ݖ‬
And the others are null. Hence: (19.9)

ͳ ߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮ The curl of a vector field is given by:

݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ Ž‹ ቆ ฬ ܑ ൅ ฬ ‫ ܒ‬൅ ฬ ‫ܓ‬ቇ οܸ
ο௏՜଴ οܸ ߲‫ ݔ‬௉ ߲‫ ݕ‬௉ ߲‫ ݖ‬௉ ͳ ߲ ߲
ܿ‫ ܝ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ൤ ሺ‫ݑ‬௭ ݄௭ ሻ െ ሺ‫ݑ‬ఏ ݄ఏ ሻ൨ ‫ܚ‬
݄ఏ ݄௭ ߲ߠ ߲‫ݖ‬
߲߮ ߲߮ ߲߮ ͳ ߲ ߲
‫ ߮݀ܽݎ݃ ׵‬ൌ ܑ൅ ‫ܒ‬ ‫ܓ‬ ൅ ൤ ሺ‫ ݄ ݑ‬ሻ െ ሺ‫ݑ‬௭ ݄௭ ሻ൨ ી
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݖ߲ ݕ‬ ݄௥ ݄௭ ߲‫ ݖ‬௥ ௥ ߲‫ݎ‬
(18.10) ͳ ߲ ߲
൅ ൤ ሺ‫ݑ‬ఏ ݄ఏ ሻ െ ሺ‫ ݄ ݑ‬ሻ൨ ‫ܢ‬
݄௥ ݄ఏ ߲‫ݎ‬ ߲ߠ ௥ ௥
Problem 19 (19.10)
Calculate the quantities ݄௥ ǡ ݄ఏ ƒ†݄௭ in cylindrical Hence:
coordinates. Write the expressions for gradient, divergence,
curl and Laplacian in aforementioned coordinates. ͳ μ‫ݑ‬௭ ߲‫ݑ‬ఏ μ‫ݑ‬௥ ߲‫ݑ‬௭
Solution: ܿ‫ ܝ݈ݎݑ‬ൌ ൤ െ‫ݎ‬ ൨‫ܚ‬൅൤ െ ൨ી
‫ ݎ‬μߠ ߲‫ݖ‬ μ‫ݖ‬ ߲‫ݎ‬
We have the following expressions to converse from ͳ μሺ‫ݑݎ‬ఏ ሻ ߲‫ݑ‬௥
Cartesian coordinates to cylindrical: ൅ ቈ െ ቉‫ܢ‬
‫ݎ‬ μ‫ݎ‬ ߲ߠ
(19.11)
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ߠ •‘… ݎ‬Ǣ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ߠ ‹• ݎ‬Ǣ ‫ ݖ‬ൌ ‫ݖ‬
(19.1)
And the Laplacian:
The required quantities are given by:
‫׏‬ଶ ߮ ൌ ݀݅‫ ߮݀ܽݎ݃ݒ‬ൌ
ଵ ͳ ߲ ݄ఏ ݄௭ ߲߮ ߲ ݄௥ ݄௭ ߲߮ ߲ ݄௥ ݄ఏ ߲߮
ൌ ൤ ൬ ൰൅ ൬ ൰൅ ൬ ൰൨
߲‫ ݔ‬ଶ ߲‫ ݕ‬ଶ ߲‫ ݕ‬ଶ ଶ ݄௥ ݄ఏ ݄௭ ߲‫݄ ݎ‬௥ ߲‫ݎ‬ ߲ߠ ݄ఏ ߲ߠ ߲‫݄ ݖ‬௭ ߲‫ݖ‬
݄௟ ൌ ቈ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ൅ ൬ ൰ ቉
߲݈ ߲݈ ߲݈ (19.12)
(19.2)
Hence:
Hence:
߲ ଶ ߮ ͳ ߲߮ ͳ ߲ ଶ ߮ ߲ ଶ ߮
భ ‫׏‬ଶ ߮ ൌ ݀݅‫ ߮݀ܽݎ݃ݒ‬ൌ ൅ ൅ ൅
݄௥ ൌ ሾ…‘• ଶ ߠ ൅ •‡ଶ ߠ ൅ Ͳሿ ൌ ͳ
మ ߲‫ ݎ‬ଶ ‫ ݎ ݎ߲ ݎ‬ଶ ߲ߠ ଶ ߲‫ ݖ‬ଶ
(19.13)
(19.3)
భ Where ‫ ׏‬is the nabla operator. In Cartesian coordinates it is
݄ఏ ൌ ሾ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ሺ•‡ଶ ߠ ൅ …‘• ଶ ߠ ሻ ൅ Ͳሿమ ൌ ‫ݎ‬ given by:
(19.4)
߲ ߲ ߲
݄௭ ൌ ͳ ‫ܑ ؠ׏‬ ൅‫ܒ‬ ൅‫ܓ‬
߲‫ݔ‬ ߲‫ݕ‬ ߲‫ݖ‬
(19.5) (19.14)
The gradient is given by:

ͳ ߲߮ ͳ ߲߮ ͳ ߲߮
݃‫ ߮݀ܽݎ‬ൌ ή ‫ܚ‬൅ ή ી൅ ή ‫ܢ‬
݄௥ ߲‫ݎ‬ ݄ఏ ߲ߠ ݄௭ ߲‫ݖ‬
(19.6)
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