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Se wGs d
1 w
Gs w (Gs Se ) w
d
1 e 1e
(Gs e) w
sat
1 e
11
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS
Poorly graded
Importance
Soil compaction is a method of improving the strength and
settlement performance of soils and lowering the hydraulic
conductivity. It is one of the most popular and effective
methods of improving soils for foundations.
Compactive
effort
+ water =
Purposes of Compaction
Compaction is the application of energy to soil to reduce the
void ratio
– This is usually required for fill materials, and is sometimes used for
natural soils
Gs Gs
γd = γw γw
1 + e 1 + wG s / S
To find : (γ d ) max ; w opt
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FIELD EQUIPMENT
25
Soil is permeable material because it contains
voids.
Water flows through continuous voids.
Flow of water through soil is called seepage.
Seepage affects the design and construction of
many civil engineering structures.
Examples of seepage problems:
Seepage through earth dams and canals .1
Flow of water towards wells .2
Excavation of open cut in water bearing sand .3
Consolidation of clay .4
Uplift pressure on foundation .5
landfill liners and covers .6
26
What is permeability?
A measure of how easily a fluid (e.g., water)
can pass through a porous medium (e.g.,
soils)
water
Bernoulli’s Equation
For flow through soils, velocity (and thus
velocity head) is very small. Therefore,
0
fluid particle
Velocity head
+
z
Total head = Pressure head
+ datum
Elevation head
u
h z Unit of each term is length (m or ft)
SIVA w 28
Copyright©2001
Some Notes
Hydraulic gradient (i) between A and B is
the total head loss per unit length.
TH A TH B
i water
l AB
A B
Darcy’s Law
Velocity (v) of flow is proportional to the
hydraulic gradient (i) – Darcy (1856)
v=ki
Permeability
• or hydraulic conductivity
• unit of velocity (cm/s)
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Copyright©2001
Fines Coarse
31
SIVA
Measurement of k
• Laboratory Methods
• Constant Head Method:
• Falling Head Method
• In-Situ Permeability Tests
32
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER
Physical modeling
Procedure
Draw the structure and soil mass to a suitable
scale.
Identify impermeable and permeable
boundaries. The soil-impermeable boundary
interfaces are flow lines because water can flow
along these interfaces. The soil-permeable
boundary interfaces are equipotential lines
because the total head is constant along these
interfaces.
Sketch a series of flow lines (4 or 5) and then
sketch an appropriate number of equipotential
lines such that the area between a pair of flow
lines and a pair of equipotential lines (cell) is
approximately a curvilinear square. You would
have to adjust the flow lines and equipotential
lines to make curvilinear squares. You should
check that the average width (b) and the
average length (l) of a cell are approximately
equal. You should also sketch the entire flow
net before making adjustments.
soil z
u w zw u
u
'
'
( sat w )z z
' '
Muni Budhu “Foundations
Retaining Structures,” John Wile
36
EXAMPLE – EFFECTIVE VERTICAL
STRESS
, ' , u (kPa)
33.6
u
'
39.2 73.6 112.8
37
CONSOLIDATION OF CLAY
End of
Construction
Time
SAND
Settlement CLAY
39
Consolidation Process ( Spring
Analogy
• Assumptions:
• One dimensional consolidation
• clay is saturated.
• Compression only due to squeeze of water
out of soil voids (solid particles and water
are incompressible).
40
q kN/m2
SAND
GWT
CLAY
A σ΄z ,
uo
SAND
41
Total Excess Pore
Stress Pressure
Time Time
Effective Settlement
Stress
Time Time
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Laboratory One-Dimensional Consolidation
Test: The Oedometer
Load Displacement
Loading cap measuring device
Cell
water
Soil sample
Porous disks
43
Presentation of the Results
• Deformation- pressure curves (most popular void
ratio-log pressure)
• Dial reading versus time curves (most popular square
root time and log time methods )
• Calculated Parameters
1. Cc = compression index
2. Cr = recompression index
3. eo = initial void ratio
4. σ΄p = maximum past preconsolidation pressure
5. Cv = coefficient of consolidation
6. k = coefficient of permeability
44
The maximum Past
Preconsolidation Pressure (σ΄p)
D
e
A C
E B
pc
log (’)
45
Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR)
46
Causes of Overconsolidation:
Removal of soil or load
Soil
Soil removed
removed
NC clay OC clay
47
Causes of Overconsolidation:
Rise in groundwater table
Ground
water rose
NC clay OC clay
48
Computation of Consolidation settlement
Normally Consolidated Clay (NC):
σ΄p= σ΄vo
Cr σ΄vo+ Δσz
1
Cc Cc H o z
e Sc Log vo
1 eo vo
Cr 1
1
Log p΄
49
Overconsolidated Clay (OC):
case 1: σ΄vo+ Δσz < σ΄p Only recompression will happen
σ΄vo
σ΄vo+ Δσz
σp
Cr
e Cc
Cr 1
Log
΄p
Cr H o z
Sc Log vo
1 eo
vo
case 2: σ΄vo+ Δσz < σ΄p
Both recompression and primary compression will happen
σvo
σp
Cr
σ΄vo +Δσz
e Cc
Cr
΄Log p
Cr H o p C c H o z
Sc Log Log vo
1 eo vo 1 eo p
Time Rate of Consolidation
Assumptions:
1. Soil is saturated
2. Darcy's Law for flow of water in soil is valid (v=ki)
3. Soil solid particles and water are incompressible and
deformation occurs only due to flow of water out of soil
voids.
4. Flow of water only occurs in vertical direction (one-
dimensional ) and thus the settlement is only vertical
5. The coefficient of permeability k and the coefficient of
volume change mv are constant during the load
increment
52
Terzaghi One-Dimensional
Consolidation Equation
u u 2
Cv 2
t z
Where:
Δu = excess pore water pressure (water pressure in excess of hydrostatic water pressure),
k
Cv = coefficient of consolidation = (k and mv were defined above)
mv w
t = time
z = depth
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Solution
in terms of two dimesionless parameters T
and U
Time Factor T
54
T and U are related:
At t =0, T=0, U =0
At t= t , T = T , U = U
At t= , T = , U = 1 or 100% consolidation
Useful Approximations:
U%
For U < 60 % T U2 ( )2
4 4 100
55
U (%) T
0 0
10 0.007
20 0.0314
30 0.0707
40 0.126 0
50 0.196 20
U (%) 40
60 0.286
60
70 0.403
80
80 0.567
100
90 0.848 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
T
95 1.13
99 1.78
99.9 2.71
100
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Method to Determine the Coefficient of
Consolidation (CV): Casagrande Log
time fitting method
Ro
R1 a
R a
Primary
t1 t2 consolidation
Dial R50
Reading Secondary
(mm) t50 compression
R100
Log t
T 50( H / 2) 2
For U=50%, T = 0.197 (from table or chart). Thus Cv (The sample in
t50
consolidation test is double drained 57
Taylor Square Root Method
Ro
Dial
Reading 0.15d
(mm) d
R90
t90
t
T90 ( H / 2) 2
Cv 58
t90
Why study shear strength of soils?
• Shear strength of soils is of great importance
and the determination of the shear strength is
one of the most frequent tasks in geotechnical
engineering.
• Problems in civil engineering require the
knowledge of shear strength are:
1. Bearing capacity of foundations,
2. Retaining walls ,
3. Stability of slopes,
4. Stability of dams
5. Pavements
Shear failure
Soils generally fail in shear
embankment
strip footing
f c tan
friction angle
cohesion
f
c
f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take
without failure, under normal stress of . 62
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…
GL
c
Y c
c
h h’ u
X
= X
+ X
effective stresses
total stresses
h’ v’ h v
u
Envelopes in terms of & ’
Identical specimens
initially subjected to f
different isotropic stresses
(c) and then loaded c c
axially to failure
c c
uf
Initially… Failure
c,
in terms of
At failure,
3 = c; 1 = c+f c’, ’
3’ = 3 – uf ; 1’ = 1 - uf in terms of ’
Determination of the Shear
Strength of Soil
• The laboratory tests are:
1. Direct shear
2. Triaxial
3. Unconfined compression
Load cell to
Motor measure
drive Shear Force
Soil
Porous plates
Rollers
Triaxial Test Apparatus
piston (to apply deviatoric stress)
failure plane
O-ring
impervious
membrane
soil sample at
failure
porous
stone
perspex cell
water
cell pressure
pore pressure or
back pressure
pedestal volume change
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Types of Triaxial Tests
deviatoric stress ()
yes no yes no
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Shear Strength Description of
Sand
NC Clay
(or loose
sand)
Axial
strain
Δv
Dilation (increase
in volume) Axial
strain
NC Clay
Compression (or loose
(decrease in sand)
volume.