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MATERIALS SCIENCE
1
Why
Study
Materials
Science?
2
ClassificaBon
of
Materials
1.
Metals
2.
Ceramics
3.
Polymers
4.
Composites
5.
Semiconductors
6.
Biomaterials
7.
Nanomaterials
3
Syllabus
1. IntroducBon
to
Crystallography
2. Principle
of
Alloy
FormaBon
3. Binary
Equilibria
4. Mechanical
ProperBes
5. Heat
Treatments
6. Engineering
Materials
7. Advanced
Materials
4
Recommended
Books
A
point
la*ce
7
Unit
Cells
• The unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal
structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and
the atom positions within.
• This size and shape of the unit cell can be described in terms of their
lengths (a,b,c) and the angles between then (α,β,γ). These lengths and
angles are the lattice constants or lattice parameters of the unit cell.
10
1. Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
11
2. Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
12
3. Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)
13
Average Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
Since the atoms in a unit cell are shared by the neighboring
cells it is important to know the average number of atoms per
unit cell. In cubic structures, the corner atoms are shared by 8
cells (4 from below and 4 from above), face atoms are shared
by adjacent two cells and atoms in the interior are shared by
only that one cell. Therefore, general we can write:
Nav = Nc / 8 + Nf / 2 + Ni / 1
Where,
Nav = average number of atoms per unit cell.
Nc = Total number of corner atoms in an unit cell.
Nf = Total number of face atoms in an unit cell.
Ni = Centre or interior atoms.
14
• Simple cubic (SC) structures: In these structures there are
8 atoms corresponding to 8 corners and there are no atoms
on the faces or in the interior of the unit cell. Therefore,
Nc = 8, Nf = 0 and Ni = 0
Using above eqn. we get, Nav = 8/8 + 0/2 + 0/1 = 1
15
2. Body centered cubic (BCC) structures: In these
structures, there are 8 atoms at the 8 corners and one
atom in the interior, i.e. in the centre of the unit cell with
no atoms on the faces. Therefore Nc = 8, Nf = 0 and Ni = 1
Using above eqn. we get, Nav = 8/8 + 0/2 + 1/1 = 2
16
3. Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC): In these structures,
there are 8 atoms at the 8 corners, 6 atoms at the centers
of 6 faces and no interior atom
Therefore Nc = 8, Nf = 6 and Ni = 0
Using above eqn. we get, Nav = 8/8 + 6/2 + 0/1 = 4
17
4. Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Structures:
In these structures, there are 12 corner atoms (6 at the bottom face and 6 at
the top face), 2 atoms at the centers of the above two faces and 3 atoms in
the interior of the unit cell.
For hexagonal structures, the corner atoms are shared by 6 cells (3 from
below and 3 from above), face atoms are shared by adjacent 2 cells and
atoms in the interior are shared by only one cell. Therefore, in general the
number of atoms per unit cell will be as: Nav = Nc / 6 + Nf / 2 + Ni / 1
Here Nc = 12, Nf = 2 and Ni = 3
Hence, Nav = 12 / 6 + 2 / 2 + 3 / 1 = 6
18
Co-‐ordina&on
Number
20
3.
Face
Centered
Cubic
Structure:
21
4.
Hexagonal
Close
Packed
Structure:
22
Stacking
Sequence
for
SC,
BCC,
FCC
and
HCP
•
La\ce
structures
are
described
by
stacking
of
idenBcal
planes
of
atoms
one
over
the
other
in
a
definite
manner
A
A
23
2.
Stacking
Sequence
of
Body
Centered
Cubic
Structure:
•
Stacking
sequence
of
body
centered
cubic
structure
is
ABABAB….
•
Any
one
atom
from
the
second
plane
occupies
any
one
intersBBal
site
of
the
first
atom.
•
Third
plane
is
stacked
in
a
manner
idenBcal
to
the
first
and
fourth
plane
is
stacked
in
an
idenBcal
manner
to
the
second
and
so
on.
A
This
results
in
a
bcc
structure.
B
A
B
24
3.
Stacking
Sequence
of
Face
Centered
Cubic
Structure:
•
Stacking
sequence
of
face
centered
cubic
structure
is
ABCABC….
•
The
close
packed
planes
are
inclined
at
an
angle
to
the
cube
faces
and
are
known
as
octahedral
planes
25
26
4.
Stacking
Sequence
of
Hexagonal
Close
Packed
Structure:
•
Stacking
sequence
of
HCP
structure
is
ABABAB…..
•
Third
plane
is
stacked
similar
to
first
and
fourth
similar
to
second
and
so
on.
27
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Atomic packing factor is the fraction of volume or
space occupied by atoms in an unit cell. Therefore,
28
1.
Simple
Cubic
Structures:
In
simple
cubic
structures,
the
atoms
are
assumed
to
be
placed
in
such
a
way
that
any
two
adjacent
atoms
touch
each
other.
If
a
is
the
la\ce
parameter
of
the
simple
cubic
structure
and
r
is
the
radius
of
atoms,
it
is
clear
from
the
fig
that:
r
=
a/2
APF of body centered cubic structure is 0.68 or 68%
31
3.
Face
Centered
Cubic
(FCC)
Structures:
In
face
centred
cubic
structures,
the
atoms
at
the
centre
of
faces
touch
the
corner
atoms
as
shown
in
figure.
If
a
is
the
la\ce
parameter
of
FCC
structure
and
r
is
the
atomic
radius
(DB)2
=
(DC)2
+
(CB)2
i.e.
(4r)2
=
a2
+
a2
Therefore,
r
=
a
/
2√2
APF
=
Average
number
of
atoms/cell
x
Volume
of
an
atom
Volume
of
the
unit
cell
=
4
x
4
/
3
x
π
(a/2√2)3
=
0.74
a3
APF
of
face
centered
cubic
structure
is
0.74
or
74%
32
4.
Hexagonal
Close
Packed
(HCP)
Structures
The
volume
of
the
unit
cell
for
HCP
can
be
found
by
finding
out
the
area
of
the
basal
plane
and
then
mulBplying
this
by
its
height
33
APF
=
Average
number
of
atoms/cell
x
Volume
of
an
atom
Volume
of
the
unit
cell
APF
=
6
x
4π/3
r3
3
a2
sin
60
x
c
APF
=
6
x
4π/3
(a/2)3
3
a2
sin
60
x
c
APF
=
π
a
3
c
sin
60
The
c/a
raBo
for
an
ideal
HCP
structure
consisBng
of
uniform
spheres
packed
as
Bghtly
together
as
possible
is
1.633.
Therefore,
subsBtuBng
c/a
=
1.633
and
Sin
60o
=
0.866
in
above
equaBon
we
get:
APF
=
π
/
3
x
1.633
x
0.899
=
0.74
APF
of
face
centered
cubic
structure
is
0.74
or
74%
34
Atomic
Packing
Factor
35
Crystallographic
Points,
Planes
and
DirecBons
1. Point
Coordinates
hen
dealing
with
crystalline
materials
it
olen
becomes
necessary
to
W
specify
a
parBcular
point
within
a
unit
cell.
The
posiBon
of
any
point
located
within
a
unit
cell
may
be
specified
in
terms
of
its
coordinates
as
fracBonal
mulBples
of
the
unit
cell
edge
lengths.
36
37
2.
Plane
Coordinates
1. Find
out
the
intercepts
made
by
the
plane
at
the
three
reference
axis
e.g.
p,q
and
r.
2. Convert
these
intercepts
to
fracBonal
intercepts
by
dividing
with
their
axial
lengths.
If
the
axial
length
is
a,
b
and
c
the
fracBonal
intercepts
will
be
p/a,
q/b
and
r/c.
3.
Find
the
reciprocals
of
the
fracBonal
intercepts.
In
the
above
case
a/p,
b/q
and
c/r.
4. Convert
these
reciprocals
to
the
minimum
of
whole
numbers
by
mulBplying
with
their
LCM.
5. Enclose
these
numbers
in
brackets
(parenthesis)
as
(hkl)
Note:
If
plane
passes
through
the
selected
origin,
either
another
parallel
plane
must
be
constructed
within
the
unit
cell
by
an
appropriate
translaBon
or
a
new
origin
must
be
established
at
the
corner
of
the
unit
cell.
38
1.
Intercepts:
p,q
and
r.
2. FracBonal
intercepts:
p/a,
q/b
and
r/c.
3.
Reciprocals:
a/p,
b/q
and
c/r.
4. Convert
to
whole
numbers
5. Enclose
these
numbers
in
brackets
(parenthesis)
as
(hkl)
39
Step
1
:
IdenBfy
the
intercepts
on
the
x-‐
,
y-‐
and
z-‐
axes.
In
this
case
the
intercept
on
the
x-‐axis
is
at
x
=
1
(
at
the
point
(1,0,0)
),
but
the
surface
is
parallel
to
the
y-‐
and
z-‐axes
so
we
consider
the
intercept
to
be
at
infinity
(
∞
)
for
the
special
case
where
the
plane
is
parallel
to
an
axis.
The
intercepts
on
the
x-‐
,
y-‐
and
z-‐axes
are
thus
Intercepts
:
1
,
∞
,
∞
Step
2
:
Specify
the
intercepts
in
fracBonal
co-‐ordinates
Co-‐ordinates
are
converted
to
fracBonal
co-‐ordinates
by
dividing
by
the
respecBve
cell-‐dimension
-‐
This
gives
FracBonal
Intercepts
:
1/1
,
∞/1,
∞/1
i.e.
1
,
∞
,
∞
Step
3
:
Take
the
reciprocals
of
the
fracBonal
intercepts
This
final
manipulaBon
generates
the
Miller
Indices
which
(by
convenBon)
should
then
be
specified
without
being
separated
by
any
commas
or
other
symbols.
The
Miller
Indices
are
also
enclosed
within
standard
brackets
(….).
The
reciprocals
of
1
and
∞
are
1
and
0
respecBvely,
thus
yielding
Miller
Indices
:
(100)
So
the
surface/plane
illustrated
is
the
(100)
plane
of
the
cubic
crystal.
40
Intercepts
:
1
,
1
,
∞
FracBonal
intercepts
:
1
,
1
,
∞
Reciprocal:
1,1,0
Miller
Indices
:
(110)
Intercepts
:
1
,
1
,
1
FracBonal
intercepts
:
1
,
1
,
1
Reciprocal:
1,1,1
Miller
Indices
:
(111)
41
Intercepts
:
½
,
1
,
∞
FracBonal
intercepts
:
½
,
1
,
∞
Reciprocal:
2,1,0
Miller
Indices
:
(210)
43
Exercise
44
Exercise
45
Exercise
46
Exercise
47
48
If
the
plane
passes
through
the
origin,
the
origin
has
to
be
shiled
for
indexing
the
plane
49
50
Miller
Indices
of
Planes
for
Hexagonal
Crystals
•
Crystal
Plane
in
HCP
unit
cells
is
commonly
idenBfied
by
using
four
indices
instead
of
three.
• The
HCP
crystal
plane
indices
called
Miller-‐Bravis
indices
are
denoted
by
the
lepers
h,
k,
i
and
l
are
enclosed
in
parentheses
as
(hkil)
• These
four
digit
hexagonal
indices
are
based
on
a
coordinate
system
with
four
axes.
• The
three
a1,
a2
and
a3
axes
are
all
contained
within
a
single
plane
(called
the
basal
plane),
and
at
1200
angles
to
one
another.
The
z-‐axis
is
perpendicular
to
the
basal
plane.
• The
unit
of
measurement
along
the
a1,
a2
and
a3
axes
is
the
distance
between
the
atoms
along
these
axes.
• The
unit
of
measurement
along
the
z-‐
axis
is
the
height
of
the
unit
cell.
•
The
reciprocals
of
the
intercepts
that
a
crystal
plane
makes
with
the
a1,
a2
and
a3
axes
give
the
h,
k
and
I
indices
while
the
reciprocal
of
the
intercept
with
the
z-‐axis
gives
the
index
l.
51
52
53
Miller Indices of Directions for Cubic Crystals
•
The
length
of
the
vector
projecBon
on
each
of
the
three
axes
is
determined.
•
These
three
numbers
are
mulBplied
or
divided
by
a
common
factor
to
reduce
them
to
the
smallest
integer
values.
54
55
For
direcBon
not
originaBng
from
origin
the
origin
has
to
be
shiled
56
Examples
of
direcBons
with
shil
of
origin
57
58
Family
of
Symmetry
Related
Planes
_
(
1
1
0
)
(1
1
0)
_
(
1
0
1
)
(
1
0
1
)
_
(
0
1
1
)
(
0
1
1
)
{
1
1
0
}
{
1
1
0
}
=
Plane
(
1
1
0
)
and
all
other
planes
related
by
symmetry
to
(
1
1
0
)
59
Family
of
Symmetry
Related
DirecBons
[
0
0
1
]
IdenBcal
properBes
_
[
1
0
0
]
〈
1
0
0
〉
[
0
1
0
]
_
[
1
0
0
]
[
0
1
0
]
〈1
0
0〉=
[
1
0
0
]
and
all
other
z _
[
0
0
1
]
direcBons
related
to
[
1
0
0
]
by
symmetry
y
x 60
SUMMARY OF MEANINGS OF PARENTHESES
q r s represents a point
61
Anisotropy
of
crystals
191.1 GPa
Young s
modulus
of
FCC
Cu
130.3 GPa
66.7
GPa
62
Anisotropy
of
crystals
(contd.)
Different
crystallographic
planes
have
different
atomic
density
And
hence
different
properBes
Si
Wafer
for
computers
63
Linear
and
Planar
DensiBes
Linear
Density
•
Linear
density
(LD)
is
defined
as
the
number
of
atoms
per
unit
length
whose
centers
lie
on
the
direcBon
vector
LD
=
number
of
atoms
centered
on
direcBon
vector
length
of
direcBon
vector
71
Tetrahedral
sites
in
HCP
72
Voids:
Tetrahedral
and
Octahedral
Sites
•
The
packing
of
spheres
and
the
formaBon
of
tetrahedral
and
octahedral
sites
or
holes
are
shown
below.
73
74
What is the radius of the largest sphere that can be placed in a tetrahedral
void without pushing the spheres apart?
To solve a problem of this type, we need to construct a model for the analysis.
Use the diagram shown here as a starting point, and construct a tetrahedral
arrangement by placing four spheres of radius R at alternate corners of a cube.
• What is the length of the face diagonal fd of this cube in terms of R?
Since the spheres are in contact at the centre of each cube face, fd = 2 R.
• What is the length of the edge for such a cube, in terms of R?
Cube edge length a = √2 R
• What is the length of the body diagonal bd of the cube in R?
bd = √6 R
• Is the center of the cube also the center of the tetrahedral hole?
Yes
• Let the radius of the tetrahedral hole be r, express bd in terms
of R and r
If you put a small ball there, it will be in contact with all four spheres.
bd = 2 (R + r). r = (2.45 R) / 2 - R
= 1.225 R - R
= 0.225 R
• What is the radius ratio of tetrahedral holes to the spheres?
r / R = 0.225 75
Derive the relation between the radius (r) of the octahedral void and the
radius (R) of the atom in a close packed structure
(Assume largest sphere in an octahedral void without pushing the parent atom)
Single Crystal
77
silicon single crystal
Micrograph of a polycrystalline
stainless steel showing grains
and grain boundaries
78
79
Polymorphism
80
Ceramic
Crystal
Structures
•
Ceramics
are
compounds
between
metallic
&
nonmetallic
elements
e.x.
Al2O3,
FeO,
SiC,
TiN,
NaCl
•
They
are
hard
and
briple
•
Typically
insulaBve
to
the
passage
of
electricity
&
heat
Crystal
Structures
•
Atomic
bonding
is
mostly
ionic
i.e.
the
crystal
structure
is
composed
of
electrically
charged
ions
instead
of
atoms.
•
The
metallic
ions,
or
caBons
are
posiBvely
charged
because
they
have
given
up
their
valence
electrons
to
the
nonmetallic
Ions
or
anions,
which
are
negaBvely
charged
81
Ionic
bonding
82
•
In
a
ceramic
material
two
characterisBcs
of
the
component
ions
influence
the
crystal
structure:
1. Charge
neutrality
2.
The
relaBve
sizes
of
the
caBons
and
anions
83
1.
Charge
neutrality:
each
crystal
should
be
electrically
neutral
e.x.
NaCl
and
CaCl2
84
2.
The
relaBve
sizes
of
the
caBons
and
anions
85
•
CoordinaBon
number
is
related
to
the
caBon-‐anion
raBo
86
87
88
PredicBng
Structure
of
FeO
89
90
AX-‐TYPE
STRUCTURES
•
Equal
number
of
caBons
and
anions
referred
to
as
AX
compounds
rO
=
0.140
nm
93
AmXp-‐TYPE
STRUCTURES
•
number
of
caBons
and
anions
are
different,
referred
to
as
AmXp
compounds
94
AmBnXp-‐TYPE
STRUCTURES
•
Ceramic
compound
with
more
than
two
types
of
caBons,
referred
to
as
AmBnXp
compounds
95
Crystal
defects
(ImperfecBons
in
Solids)
• Perfect order does not exist throughout a crystalline material
on an atomic scale. All crystalline materials contain large
number of various defects or imperfections.
96
Crystal defects / imperfections are broadly classified
into three classes:
1. Point
defect
(zero
dimensional
defects)
Vacancy,
Impurity
atoms
(
subs&tu&onal
and
inters&&al)
Frankel
and
Scho]ky
defect
Grain
boundaries
Twin
boundary
Stacking
faults
97
1. Point defects
Vacancy
98
Vacancy
• If an atom is missing from its regular site, the defect produced
is called a vacancy
• All crystalline solids contain vacancies and their number
increases with temperature
• The equilibrium concentration of vacancies Nv for a given
quantity of material depends on & increases with temperature
according to
Where:
N is the total number of atomic sites
Qv is the energy required for the formation of a vacancy
T is the absolute temperature &
k is the gas or Boltzmann s constant i.e. 1.38 x 10-23 J/atom-K or
8.62 X 10-5 eV/atom-K
99
100
Vacancies aid in the movement (diffusion) of atoms
101
Impurity
atoms
(
subs&tu&onal
and
inters&&al)
102
• Impurity point defects are of two types
1. Substitutional
2. Interstitial
103
• Impurity atoms generate stress in the lattice by distorting the
lattice
• The stress is compressive in case of smaller substitutional
atom and tensile in case of larger substitutional atom
• These stresses act as barriers to movement of dislocations and
thus improve the strength / hardness of a material
• These stresses also act as barriers to the movement of
electrons and lower the electrical conductivity (increases
resistivity) of the material
104
Frankel
and
Scho]ky
defects
105
• Frenkel and Schottky defects occur in ionic solids like ceramics
• An atom may leave its regular site and may occupy nearby
interstitial site of the matrix giving rise to two defects
simultaneously i.e. one vacancy and the other self interstitial.
These two defects together is called a Frenkel defect. This can
occur only for cations because of their smaller size as
compared to the size of anions.
106
2. Line defects
DislocaBons
107
Edge Dislocation
109
ElasBc
stress
field
responsible
for
electron
scapering
and
increase
in
electrical
resisBvity
112
When Dislocations Interact
113
Mixed Dislocations
114
DislocaBons
as
seen
under
Transmission
Electron
Microscope
(TEM)
115
3. Surface defects
Grain
Boundary
• Grain boundary is a defect which separates grains of different
orientation from each other in a polycrystalline material.
• When this orientation mismatch is slight, on the order of a few
degrees (< 15 degrees) then the term small- (or low- ) angle
grain boundary is used. When the same is more than 15
degrees its is know as a high angle grain boundary.
• The total interfacial energy is lower in large or coarse-grained
materials than in fine-grained ones, since there is less total
boundary area in the former.
• Mechanical properties of materials like hardness, strength,
ductility etc are influenced by the grain size.
• Grains grow at elevated temperatures to reduce the total
boundary energy.
116
117
Coarse and fine grain structure
Twin
boundary
Atoms
on
one
side
of
the
boundary
are
located
in
Mirror
image
posiBons
of
the
atoms
on
the
other
side
119
A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is
a specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side of the
boundary are located in mirror-image positions of the atoms on the other
side.
Twins result from atomic displacements that are produced from applied
mechanical shear forces (mechanical twins), and also during annealing
heat treatments following deformation (annealing twins).
Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have the FCC crystal
structure, while mechanical twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals.
Stacking fault
FCC
Stacking 121
PlasBc
DeformaBon
122
Principles
of
Alloy
FormaBon
Solid
Solu&on:
•
A
homogeneous
crystalline
phase
that
contains
two
or
more
chemical
species
•
It
is
an
alloy
in
which
the
atoms
of
solute
are
distributed
in
the
solvent
and
has
the
same
structure
as
that
of
the
solvent
124
Inters&&al
sites
125
2.
Subs&tu&onal
Solid
Solu&on
Alloys
•
Atoms
of
both
metals
are
of
almost
similar
size.
•
Direct
subsBtuBon
takes
place.
126
Some Solid Solution Alloys
127
Hume-‐Rothery s
Rules
of
Solid
Solubility
128
1. Atomic
size
factor:
If
the
atomic
sizes
of
solute
and
solvent
differ
by
less
than
15%,
it
is
said
to
have
a
favourable
size
factor
for
solid
soluBon
formaBon.
If
the
atomic
size
difference
exceeds
15%
solid
solubility
is
limited
2.
Crystal
Structure
factor:
Metals
having
same
crystal
structure
will
have
greater
solubility.
Difference
in
crystal
structure
limits
the
solid
solubility
+
Phase
diagrams:
Phase
or
equilibrium
diagrams
are
diagrams
which
indicate
the
phases
exisBng
in
the
system
at
any
temperature,
pressure
and
composiBon.
Why
study
Phase
Diagrams?
•
Used
to
find
out
the
amount
of
phases
exisBng
in
a
given
alloy
with
their
composiBon
at
any
temperature.
•
From
the
amount
of
phases
it
is
possible
to
esBmate
the
approximate
properBes
of
the
alloy.
134
Most
of
the
studies
are
done
at
constant
pressure
i.e.
one
atmospheric
pressure
and
hence
pressure
is
no
more
a
variable.
For
such
cases,
Gibb s
phase
rule
becomes:
P
+
F
=
C
+
1
In
the
above
rule,
1
represents
any
one
variable
out
of
the
remaining
two
i.e.
temperature
and
concentraBon.
Hence,
Degree
of
Freedom
(F)
is
given
by
F
=
C
–
P
+
1
135
ApplicaBon
of
Gibbs
Phase
Rule
•
C
At
point
A
P
=
1,
C
=
2
F
=
C
–
P
+
1
F
=
2
–
1
+1
F
=
2
The
meaning
of
F
=
2
is
that
both
temperature
and
concentraBon
can
be
varied
independently
without
changing
the
liquid
phase
exisBng
in
the
system
At
point
C
At
point
B
P
=
1,
C
=
2
P
=
2,
C
=
2
F
=
C
–
P
+
1
F
=
C
–
P
+
1
F
=
2
–
1
+1
F
=
2
–
2
+1
F
=
2
F
=
1
The
meaning
of
F
=
2
is
that
both
temperature
The
meaning
of
F
=
1
is
that
any
one
variable
and
concentraBon
can
be
varied
independently
out
of
temperature
and
composiBon
can
be
without
changing
the
liquid
phase
exisBng
in
changed
independently
without
altering
the
the
system
liquid
and
solid
phases
exisBng
in
the
system
136
Types
of
Phase
Diagrams:
137
1. Unary
Phase
diagram
(one
component)
138
2.
Binary
Phase
diagram
(two
components)
•
A
phase
diagram
plot
of
temperature
against
the
139
3.
Ternary
Phase
diagram
(three
components)
•
A
ternary
phase
diagram
has
three
components.
•
It
is
three
dimensional
put
ploped
in
two
dimensions
at
constant
temperature
•
Stainless
steel
(Fe-‐Ni-‐Cr)
is
a
perfect
example
of
a
metal
alloy
that
is
represented
by
a
ternary
phase
diagram.
140
Binary
phase
diagram
The
binary
phase
diagram
represents
the
concentraBon
(composiBon)
along
the
x-‐axis
and
the
temperature
along
the
y-‐axis.
These
are
ploped
at
atmospheric
pressure
hence
pressure
is
constant
i.e.
1
atm.
pressure.
These
are
the
most
widely
used
phase
diagrams.
Types
of
binary
phase
diagrams:
• Binary
isomorphous
system:
Two
metals
having
complete
solubility
in
the
liquid
as
well
as
the
solid
state.
• Binary
eutecBc
system:
Two
metals
having
complete
solubility
in
the
liquid
state
and
complete
insolubility
in
the
solid
state.
• Binary
parBal
eutecBc
system:
Two
metals
having
complete
solubility
in
the
liquid
state
and
parBal
solubility
in
the
solid
state.
• Binary
layer
type
system:
Two
metals
having
complete
insolubility
in
the
liquid
as
well
as
in
the
solid
state.
141
Cooling
curve
for
Pure
Metal
(one
component)
142
Cooling
curve
for
an
alloy
/
solid
soluBon
(two
components)
143
144
Plo\ng
of
Phase
Diagrams
145
Binary
isomorphous
system:
• These
phase
diagrams
are
of
loop
type
and
are
obtained
for
two
metals
having
complete
solubility
in
the
liquid
as
well
as
solid
state.
•
Ex.:
Cu-‐Ni,
Au-‐Ag,
Au-‐Cu,
Mo-‐W,
Mo-‐Ti,
W-‐V.
146
Lever
rule
Finding
the
amounts
of
phases
in
a
two
phase
region
:
1.
Locate
composiBon
and
temperature
in
phase
diagram
2.
In
two
phase
region
draw
the
Be
line
or
isotherm
3.
FracBon
of
a
phase
is
determined
by
taking
the
length
of
the
Be
line
to
the
phase
boundary
for
the
other
phase,
and
dividing
by
the
total
length
of
Be
line
147
%
of
Solid
=
LO
/
LS
X
100=
(Wo-‐Wi)
/
(Ws-‐Wi)
X
100
%
of
Liquid
=
OS
/
LS
X
100=
(Ws-‐Wi)
/
(Ws-‐Wi)
X
100
or
simply
%
Liquid
=
100
-‐
%
of
Solid
or
vice
versa
148
Development
of
Microstructure
during
slow
cooling
in
isomorphous
alloys
149
ProperBes
of
alloys
in
Isomorphous
systems
with
variaBon
in
composiBon
150
151
Binary
EutecBc
System:
These
diagrams
are
obtained
for
two
metals
having
complete
solubility
(i.e.
miscibility)
in
the
liquid
state
and
complete
insolubility
in
the
solid
state.
Examples:
Pb-‐As,
Bi-‐Cd,
Th-‐Ti,
and
Au-‐Si.
152
What
is
a
EutecBc?
•
A
eutec6c
or
eutec6c
mixture
is
a
mixture
of
two
or
more
phases
at
a
composiBon
that
has
the
lowest
melBng
point
•
EutecBc
ReacBon:
Liquid
↔
Solid
A
+
Solid
B
153
Cooling
Curves
in
EutecBc
System
154
Plo\ng
of
EutecBc
Phase
Diagrams
155
Binary
Par&al
Eutec&c
System
These
diagrams
are
obtained
for
two
metals
having
complete
solubility
(i.e.
miscibility)
in
the
liquid
state
and
parBal
solubility
in
the
solid
state.
Examples:
Pb-‐Sn,
Ag-‐Cu,
Sn-‐Bi,
Pb-‐Sb,
Cd-‐Zn
and
Al-‐Si.
156
157
Development
of
microstructure
in
binary
par&al
eutec&c
alloys
during
equilibrium
cooling
158
2.
SolidificaBon
of
the
off
-‐
eutecBc
composiBon
159
3.
SolidificaBon
of
composiBons
that
range
between
the
room
temperature
solubility
limit
and
the
maximum
solid
solubility
at
the
eutecBc
temperature
160
Uses
of
Eutec&c
/
Par&al
Eutec&c
Alloys
162
Iron
–
Carbon
Phase
Diagram
163
Phases
in
Iron-‐Carbon
Phase
Diagram
1.
Ferrite:
Solid
soluBon
of
carbon
in
bcc
iron
2.
Austenite:
Solid
soluBon
of
carbon
in
fcc
iron
3.
δ-‐iron:
Solid
soluBon
of
carbon
in
bcc
iron
4.
Cemen&te
(Fe3C):
Intermetallic
compound
of
iron
and
carbon
with
a
fixed
carbon
content
of
6.67%
by
wt.
5.
Pearlite:
It
is
a
two
phased
lamellar
(or
layered)
structure
composed
of
alternaBng
layers
of
ferrite
and
cemenBte
164
Austenite
Cemen&te
165
166
The
iron-‐carbon
system
exhibits
three
important
transformaBons
/
reacBons
as
described
below:
Eutectoid
Reac&on:
Solid1
↔
Solid2
+
Solid3
Austenite
↔
Ferrite
+
CemenBte
Eutec&c
Reac&on:
Liquid
↔
Solid1
+
Solid2
Liquid
↔
Austenite
+
CemenBte
Peritec&c
Reac&on:
Solid1
+
Liquid
↔
Solid2
δ-‐iron
+
Liquid
↔
Austenite
167
What
is
Pearlite?
Pearlite
is
a
two
phased
lamellar
(or
layered)
structure
composed
of
alternaBng
layers
of
ferrite
and
cemenBte
that
occurs
in
some
steels
and
cast
irons
100%
pearlite
is
formed
at
0.8%C
at
727oC
by
the
eutectoid
reacBon
/
PearliBc
transfromaBon
Eutectoid
Reac&on:
Solid1
↔
Solid2
+
Solid3
Austenite
↔
Ferrite
+
CemenBte
168
Development
of
microstructures
in
steel
during
slow
cooling
Eutectoid
Steel
169
Hypoeutectoid
Steel
170
Hypereutectoid
Steel
171
Non-‐Equilibrium
Cooling
•
Non-‐equilibrium
cooling
leads
to
shil
in
the
transformaBon
temperatures
that
appear
on
the
phase
diagram
•
Leads
to
development
of
non-‐equilibrium
phases
that
do
not
appear
on
the
phase
diagram
172
Some
common
binary
phase
diagrams
and
important
alloys
belonging
to
these
systems
Cooper
–
Zinc
(Cu-‐Zn)
Cooper
–
Tin
(Cu-‐Sn)
Copper
–
Nickel
(Cu-‐Ni)
Aluminum
–
Silicon
(Al-‐Si)
Lead
–
Tin
(Pb-‐Sn)
173
Copper
and
copper
alloys
Proper&es:
1. It
has
good
ducBlity
and
malleability
2. It
has
high
electrical
and
thermal
conducBvity
3. It
is
non-‐magneBc
and
has
a
pleasing
reddish
colour
4. It
has
fairly
good
corrosion
resistance
5.
It
has
good
ability
to
get
alloyed
with
other
elements
175
Cooper
–
Tin
(Cu-‐Sn)
176
Copper
–
Nickel
(Cu-‐Ni)
177
Aluminium
and
aluminium
alloys
Proper&es:
1.
It
is
ducBle
and
malleable
2.
It
is
light
in
weight
3.
It
has
good
thermal
and
electrical
conducBvity
4.
It
has
excellent
ability
to
get
alloyed
with
other
elements
like
Cu,
Si,
Mg,
etc.
5.
It
has
excellent
corrosion
and
oxidaBon
resistance
6.
It
is
non-‐magneBc
and
non-‐sparking
Major
Aluminium
Alloys:
1.
Aluminium-‐
silicon
2.
Aluminium
–
copper
3.
Aluminium-‐
Magnesium
178
Aluminum
–
Silicon
(Al-‐Si)
179
Lead
–
Tin
(Pb-‐Sn)
180