W ATER SUPPLY

AND SEWERAGE
FIFTH EDITION

E. W. Steel
Formerly University of Texas

Terence J. McGhee
Tulane University

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION

1McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

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 CONTENTS

Preface xi

List of Abbreviations xiii

Introduction l
Work or the Sanitary Engineer. Water Supply. Sewerage. Effects or Sanitary
Engineering Upon City Life. Magnitude of the Problem.

2 Quantity of Water and Sewage 7

Water. Forecast ing Population. Consumption for Various Purposes. Factors
Afiecting Consumption. Size of City. Characteristics or Population. Industries
and Commerce. Climatic Conditions. Metering. Variations in Rate of Con-
sumption. Fire Demand. Density or Population. Zoning. Periods of Design
and Water Consumption Data Required. Sources or Sewage. Relation to Water
Consumption. lnfiltration and Inflow. Fluctuations in Sewage Flow. Design
Periods and Use of Sewage Flow Data.

3 Rainfall and Runoff 26

Hydrology. Sources or Information. Precipitation. Measurement of Precipita-
tion. Types of Storms. Precipitation Data and Their Adjustment. Rainfall
Intcnsity-Duration-Frequency Relationsbips. Depth-Area Relationship. Precipi-
tation Detìciency. Artificial Rainfall Comrol. Runoff. Measurement or Runoff.
The Hydrograph. Factors Which Affect Runoff. Jntìltration. Determ ination or
lnfiltration Raies. Evaporation rrom Water Surfaces. Evaporation rrom Land
Surfaces. Transpiration. Evapotranspiration. Multiple Correlation Method of
,,j CONTFI'TS

Forecasting Runoff. Yie ld. Reservoir Storage by Mass Diagram. Flood Flows.
Thc Ra tional Method. The Overland Flow Hydrograph . Thc Un it Hydrograph.
Flood Frequencies. Silt ing or Reservoirs.

4 Groundwater 55
Groundwater. Occurrence or Aq uirers. Types or Wells. Groundwater Flow.
Groundwater Hydraulics. The Equilibrium Equations ror Flow ofWater in t o Wells.
Specific Capacity. The Nonequilibrium Analysis. The Nonequi librium Formula.
Modified Nonequilibrium Formula. Interrerences in t'. quircrs. Appraisa l or
Groundwater Resources. Recharge or Aquifers. Shallow Well Construction.
Deep Well Construction. Well Screens. Development of Wells. The Gravel-
packed Well. The Ranney Method. Cementing Wells. Groundwater Projects.
Well Specifications. Well Trou bles. Springs.

5 Aqueducts and Water Pipes 84

Water Carriage. Open Channels. Aqueducts. Stresses in Pipes. Pipe Lines.
Cast-iron Pipe. Lined Cast-iron Pipe. Flanged Cast-iron Pipe. Joints in Cast -
iron Pipe. Cast-iron Fittings. Steel Pipe. Protection and Maintenance of Steel
Pipe. Concrete Pipe. Asbestos Cement Pipe. Plastic Pipe. Corrosion of Meta!.
Protection Against Corrosion. G r ounding of Electrical Wiring to Water Pipes.
Use or I nert Materials.

6 Collection and Distribution of Water 104

Intakes. Intakes from lmpoundin g Reservoirs. Lak e Intakes. River lntakes.
The l ntake Conduit. Meth ods of D istribution. Storage Necessary. Fire Flow.
Pressures. Pressure Zones. The Motor Pumper. The Pipe System. Design or
Water Distribution Systems. Flow in Pipes. Equivalent-pipe Method. The
Circle Metbod. Fire-How Tests. Hardy Cross Method or Analysis of Flow in a
Pipe Network. Computers and Electric Analyzers for Pipe Networks. T wo-
mainSystem. TheService Pipe. Meters. Valves. Fire Hydrants. Coostruction
Excavation and Backfilling. Pipe Handling and Laying. Submerged P ipes.
Hydrant Placement. Valve Placement. Maintenance or Valves. Disinfection of
New a nd Old Water Mains. Testing. Water Waste Surveys. Leak and Pipe
Location. Cleaning of Water Mains.' Thawing Pipes.

7 Purnps and Pumping Statiom 153

Need for Pu mping. C lassification of Pumps. Work and Efficiency of Pu mps.
Act ion of the Centrifugai Pump. Effect of Varying Speed. Characteristics or
Centrifugai Pumps. Suctioo Lift.. Cavitation. Pump Selection. Variation in
Capacity. Deep-well Pumps. Miscellaneous Pumps. Choice of Prime Mover.
Steam Power. Steam Turbines. The Diesel Engine. The Gasoline Engine.
Electric Motors. Pumping Station Location. Architecture. Capacity an d Opera-
tion. Auxiliary Pumping Stations. Valves and Piping Details.

8 Quality of Water Supplies 179

lmpurities ofWater. Waterborne Diseases. Methemoglobinemia. Lead Poison-
ing. Fluoride. Radioactivity in Water. Water Bacteria. Relationship Between
Pathogens and Coliforms. Determinat ion of Bacterial Numbers. Fecal Coli-
form/ Fecal Strep Ratio. Multiple Tube Fermentation. Viruses in Water. Micro-
 CO~TENTS vii

scopic Organisms. Worms. Turbidity. Co lor. Alkalinity and Acidity. pH.

Soluble Minerallmpurities. Iron and Manganese. Chlorides. Gaseous impurit-
ies. Sampling Methods. EPA Standards. Governmental Contro! or Water
Supplies. Liability for Unsare Water. Characteristies or Waterborne Epidemics.
The Sanitary Survey. Watershed and Reservoi r Sanitation. Lake Overturns. The
Water Treatment Plant. Groundwater Supplies. Pumping Plant, Pipes, and
Reservoirs . Cross Connections. Plu mbing Derects. The Piping System . Drink-
ing Fountains. Tracing Pollution.

9 Treatment of Water-Ciarification 206

Clarification. Storage. Screens. Principles ofSedimentation-Discrete Particles.
Flocculent Suspensions. Hindered Settling. Scour. Scdimentation Tank Details.
Presedimentadon. Purposes and Action or Coagulants. Simplified Coagulation
Reactions. Polymeric Coagulants. Coagulant Aids. Mixing. Flocculation.
Suspended Solids Contact Clarifiers. Design Criteria. Chemical Feeding Methods.

10 Treatment of Water-Filtration 24()

Fiher Types. The Rapid Filter. Theory or Filtration Through Coarse Media.
Filter Media. Mixed Media. Grave!. Filtration Rates. The Underdrain System.
The Filter Unit and Washwater Troughs. Tihe Washing PrO<:ess. The Contro!
System. Pipe Galleries and Piping. Negative 1-!ead. Operating Difficulties.
Laboratory Contro! and Records. 'the Clear Well and Plant Capacity. Filter
Galleries. Pressure Filters. Diatomaoeous Earth Filter. Upflow Filters. Other
Fillration Prooesses.

11 Miscellaneous Water Treatment Methods 274

Quality Considerations. Chlorine in Water. Chlorination. Chloramines. Use
ofChlorine Gas. Hypochlorination. Ozonation. Other Disinfection Techniques.
Algae Contro!. Aeration. Prevention of Odors. Activated Carbon. Removal
of lron and Manganese. Water Softening. The Lim~-soda Method. Suspended
Solids Contaci Units. The Cation-exchange Method. Hydrogen Exchange and
Demineralizing. Desalination. Color Removal. Treatment of Boiler Waiers.
Stabilization of Water. Fluoridation. Defluoridation or Water. Radioisotope
Removal by Water Treatment. Water Treatment Wastes.

12 Sewerage-General Considerations 316

lntroduction. Definitions. Generai Considerations. Combined vs. Separate
Sewers. Liability for Damages Caused by Sewage.

13 Amount of Storm Sewage 320

Estimation of Storm Fio w. The Rational Method. Runolr Coefficients. T ime of
Concentration. Rainfall lntensity. lntensity Curves and Formulas. Use of
lntensity-Duration-Frequency Data. Other Techniques.

14 Sewer Pipes 331

Pipe Materials. Clày Sewer Pipe. Strength and Loading of Vitrified Clay Pipe.
Plain Concrete Sewer Pipe. Reinforoed Concrete Sewer Pipe. Asbestos Cement
viii CONTcNTS

Pipe. Plastic Truss Pipe. Otho:r Sewer Materials. ln fìltration and Sewer Joints.
Sewers Built In Piace. Design o r Concrete Sewers. Corrosion or Sewers.

15 Flow in Sewers 3S
Conditions of Flow. Flow Formu las. The Hyd raulic Grade Line, or Piezometric
Head · Line. Required Yclocities. Flow Diagrams. Partial-flow Diagrams.
Sewcr Shapes.

16 Sewer Appurtenances
Operational Requ irements. Manholes. lnlets. Catch Basins. Flushing Devices.
Sand, Grease, and Oil Traps. Regulators. Junctions. Sewer Outlets. lnverted
Siphons. Sewer Crossings. Need ror Pumping. Pumps for Sewage. Pumping
Stations. Sump Pumps. Sewage. Ejectors. Yacuum Collection Systems.
Grinder Pumps.

17 Design-or Sewer Systems

Design Stages. Preliminary lnvestigations. The Underground Survey. The
Survey and Map. Layout of The System. The Profile. Design or a Sanitary
Sewer System. Design or a Storm Sewer System.

18 Sewer Construction
Responslbility. Lines and Grades. Classifìcation or Excavation. Hand Excava-
tion. Machine Excavation. Rock Excavation. Sheeting and Bracing. Removal
or Sheeting and Bracing. Dewatering of Trenches. Pipe Laying. Jointing.
Jackin,&-and Boring. Backfìlling. Concrete Sewers. Tunneling.

19 Maintenance or Sewers 4U
Scope and Cost. Protective Ord inances. Equipment. Stoppage Clearing.
Sewer Clèaning. lnspection Practice. Making Repairs and Connections. C lean-
ing Catch Basins. Gases in Sewers.

20 Characteristics or Sewage 4U
Analyses Required. Physical C haracteristics. Solids Determinations. Chemical
Characteristics. Microbiology or Sewage and Sewage Treatment. Anaerobio
Processes. Aerobic Processes. Other Microorganisms. Biochemical O xygen
Demand (BOD). Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Total Organic Carbon
(TOC). Sampling. Population Equivalents.

21 Sewage Disposal
Disposal Tecbniques. Effects of Stream Discharge. Factors in Selr-purification .
Self-purification of Lakes. Tbe Oxygen Sag Curve. The Criticai Deficit.
Evaluation or Rate Constants. Application of Formulas. The Multiple Correla-
tion Technique. Ooean Discharges. Submarine Outfalls. Land Disposal and
Treatment. D isposal Site Selection. Disposal Site Preparation. Spray l rrigation.
 CONTENTS ÌX

Rapid Jnfiltration. O verland Runoff. Soil Response to Wastewater Disposal.

Evaporation (Total Retention) Systems. Selection of a Disposal System.

22 Preliminary Treatment Systems 456

Purpose. The Parshall Fiume. Racks and Screens. Comminutors. Grit Re-
moval. Grease Removal. Flotation. Preaeration.

23 Primary Treatment Systems 477

Primary Treatment. Plain Sedimentation. Rectangular Tanks. Circular and
Square Tanks. Solids Quantity. Chemical Addition. Other Primary Processes.
Secondary Clarifiers.

24 Secondary Treatment Systems 520

Purpose and Classification. Attached-Growth Processes. lntermi!tent Sand
Filters. Trickling Filters. Filter Classification. Recirculation. Efficiency of
Trickling Filters. Design of Trickling-Filter Systems. Trickling Filter Final
Clarifier Design. Operational Problems of Trickling Filters. Rotating Biologica!
Contacters. Suspended-Growth Processes. Principles of Suspended-Growth
Systems. Completely Mixed Process with Solids Recycle. Activated-Siudge
Process Details. Aeration and Mixing Techniques. Suspended-Growth Process
Clarifier Design. Operational Problems of Activated-Siudge Systems. Completely
Mixed Processes without Solids Recycle. Oxidation Ponds. Upgrading Stabiliza-
tion Pond Effiuent.

25 Sludge Treatment ~nd Disposal 524

Importance. Amount and Characteristics of Sludge. Sludge Conditioning. An-
aerobic Digestion. Ae'robic Digestion. Chemical Conditioning. Elutriation.
Heat Treatment. Other Conditioning Processes. Thickening. Dewatering.
Drying and Conibustion. Ultimate Disposal.

26 Advanced Waste Treatment 552

Scope. Suspended Solids Removal. Nitrogen Removal. Biological Nitrogen
Removal. Chemical Nitrogen Removal. Phosphorus Removal. Biological
Phosphorus Removal. Chemi(:l!l Phosphorus Removal. Refractory Organics.
Dissolved Solids.

27 Miscellaneous Sewage Treatment Problems 569

Disinfection. OdorControl. Garbage Disposal with Sewage. Industriai Wastes.
Excreta Disposal in Unsewered Sections.. The Pit Privy. Septic Tanks. Aerobic
Units. Subsurface Disposal Fields. Sand Filtration.

28 Financial Considerations 580

Viewpoint in Economie Analyses. Cost Estimates. Cost Comparisons. Opti-
mization of Process Selection. Financing of Waterworks. Charges for Service.
Account ing. Financing of Sewage Works. Sewer Charge~.
X CONTENTS

Appendixes

National Drinking Water Regulations 595

II Saturation Values of Dissolved O xygen in Fresh Water and Seawater 611

III Cost Estimation of Sewage Treatment Facilities 613

IV Physical Properties of Water 642

lndex 643