A STUDY OF BLACK -AND-RED WARE

WESTERN INDIAN CHALCOLITHIC CULT

A NATURAL SCIENCE APPROACH

A SUMMARY OF THE THESIS SUBMITTED TO

THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

BY
KAJAL SHAH

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY

FACULTY OF ARTS
BARODA

NOVEMBER 2001
 SUMMARY

The research presented here is an attempt to understand and enunciate the position of
the Black-and-Red Ware within the ceramic assemblage of three selected Chalcolithic
sites in southeast Rajasthan and north Gujarat. Since Black-and- Red Ware has served
as a culturally diagnostic tool in understanding sites found in various temporal and
spatial contexts, it presents an interesting example of how pottery has been used in the
study of the past.

Black-and-Red Ware: The creation of an ‘enigma’

The term Black-and-Red Ware is generally understood to designate a class of pottery
characterised by a red slip on the exterior surface and a black slip on the interior
surface, which is the result of a firing process that produces two colours from the same
slip.

Between 1955 - 1962, some important Chalcolithic sites excavated in western India,
such as Rangpur (Rao 1962-63) Lothal (Rao 1979), Somnath (1955-57), Amra and
Lakhabaval(I.A.R. 1955- 56) in Gujarat, Ahar (IAR 1954-55, 1955-56, Sankalia et al
1969) in south-east Rajasthan and Maheshwar-Navdatoli (Sankalia et al 1952-53) in
Central India confirmed that certain kind of Black-and-Red Ware also had a strong
presence in the Chalcolithic. The underlying theme in the various theories put forward
to explain the wide occurrence of this pottery, was to regard the Black-and-Red Ware as
a single ceramic ‘culture’ and a distinct people, and the issues addressed revolved
around a search for its authors and origins, both in ancient communities and in
archaeological entities.

Different scholars have considered the Black-and-Red Ware to be the defining cultural
equipment of ethnic groups whose existence is known through traditional literature and
linguistics but who have eluded identification in tangible material terms. Sankalia
(1963), Dixit (1969), Srivastava (1969), Agrawal (1966) and Sinha (1961) ascribed the
authorship of the Black-and-Red Ware to the Aryans while Subbarao (1962) and
Soundararajan (1962) argued for the Dravidians. Thapar (1975-76), by examining
ancient lineage accounts traced the development of Black-and-Red Ware by connecting

1
them with the Yadavas while Champaklakshmi (1975-76) believed that it represented
the Velirs. The spread of the Black-and-Red Ware across the land is then ascribed to
the movement of these communities and its changing forms and decorations to
acculturation and contact.

Attempts have also been made to trace the origin of the Black-and-Red Ware in
archaeological cultures through the primacy of its occurrence at various sites. The
Black-and-Red Ware in later cultures in North, East, Central and South India is
conceived to have come from a single source, either from Ahar or from Gujarat
(Harappans) and several routes are cited for the movement (Agrawal 1967-68;
Dhavalikar 1970-7; Dikshit 1969; Thapar 1975-76; Singh 1982). A generic relationship
between the 'Ahar Fabric' and the megalithic Black-and-Red Ware is also suggested.

The above review of archaeological literature on Black-and-Red Ware reveals that, this
ware provided a vital explanatory link to archaeologists who were in search for a
common element which could serve to tie up the various and divergent material culture
traits that had emerged following research in post-independence times. The use of the
Black-and-Red Ware in this was rather flexible, depending upon the larger question,
which sought to be answered.

The crux of the older approaches was the treatment of the Black-and-Red Ware as a
single culture complex identifiable with an ethnic group, despite the stated diversity of
temporal, spatial and material contexts and its own variable nature in them. At the other
extreme the same variability led to a dismissal of the Black-and-Red Ware as ‘just a firing
technique’ with no cultural or typological identity, following die shapes of the major
wares it was associated with in the different contexts.

Keeping in mind the many ways and contexts in which the Black-and-Red Ware has been
studied and divergent opinions on its significance, this piece of research maintains a
selective regional focus. It chooses, as case studies, three sites from differentiated
cultural-geographical and temporal contexts with a view to studying the Black-and-Red
Ware at these sites. It also chooses to step beyond the conventional typological route used
so far, by employing die method of Fabric characterisation, which is done by using the
petrographic technique of thin-section analysis.

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The primary objective of the work is to evaluate the position of the Blaek-and-Red
Ware in the specific framework of three Chalcolithic sites, each in a different cultural
and temporal context, from two separate regions. The sites are Balathal in southeast
Rajasthan which is a Banas Culture site, Nagwada in north Gujarat which has been
classified as an Anarta Chalcolithic site with mature Harappan affiliations and
Ratanpura, a Late Harappan site, also in north Gujarat. To gain an understanding of the
different aspects of the Black-and-Red Ware and its relationship with the associated
wares an integrated approach has been adopted, for which it is proposed to:

1. carry out a typological study of the Black-and-Red Ware and the associated wares at
all three sites.
2. carry out Fabric characterization and textural analysis on the Black-and-Red Ware
and associated pottery at the above mentioned sites to gain an insight into:
a. the modification of the raw material and paste characteristics
b. the relationship between different Fabric groups within each site and the position
of Black-and-Red Ware in this respect
c. the relationship of Fabric groups with specific pottery types
d. the provenance of the raw material
3. conduct physical tests of hardness and porosity on the ceramics of the three sites to
see how they relate to the manufacturing processes of the ceramics such as paste
character, surface finish and firing and in this respect, and how they differ in the
different ceramics and through these methods,
4. elucidate the position of Black-and-Red Ware at the above mentioned sites

Methods of Study

The pottery that provides the data for this research comes from stratified horizons of the
three Chalcolithic sites of Balathal in southeast Rajasthan, and Nagwada and Ratanpura in
north Gujarat. These belong to the Banasian (Aharian), Mature Harappan affiliated
Anarta and Late Harappan cultural contexts respectively.

The pottery at each of these sites was classified on the basis of morphological features of
form (features of rim, base and body), finish (colour, slip, wash, burnish and decorations),

3
forming and finishing impressions (striations, joints, undulation) and fabric1 (core and
firing characters, pores, inclusions, fineness/coarseness).

The pottery encountered at the three sites was differentiated into very fine, fine, medium
fine, medium coarse and coarse to very coarse fabrics. The criteria adopted to
differentiate between clay paste characteristics are defined below. At different sites, these
fabrics present individual characters of the core, pores and inclusions and that variability
is detailed separately while describing the wares.

Very fine fabric: A fabric which has a smooth, very well refined and processed clay
paste, virtually free of inclusions, is well fired with uniformly coloured core and margins
(grey, red or buff) and pores, if present, are miniscule.

Fine fabric: A fabric which has a finely levigated clay paste and small as well as thin,
longitudinal pores.

Medium fine fabric: A fabric which has a fine sandy to sandy clay paste. There are
comparatively few more degraissants (roughly 15 - 20% and visible in the core) in this
fabric than in the fine fabric, but the degraissants are still small in size, with the rare
occurrence of bigger inclusions.

Medium coarse fabric: A fabric in which the clay paste is sandy and inclusions are
many, making up roughly 30-40% of the fabric. The size of the inclusions are also larger
- approximately 0.5 - 1mm and occur at frequent intervals. The clay paste is probably
tempered and feel of the fabric is rough. Pores are larger and longitudinal and fabric well
to medium or even ill fired and core colour can vary accordingly from uniformly oxidised
to partly unoxidised zones with lighter margins.

Coarse to Very Coarse Fabric, contains abundant and large degraissants that occur at
close intervals and comprise approximately 40 - 50% of the fabric. Inclusions range
from approximately 0.5 - 2mm in diameter, but mostly lie on the larger side of the range.

1 The word ‘fabric’ is used at two levels - the macroscopic and the microscopic. In references to
macroscopic characters of the wares, the term fabric is used with a lower case ‘f, while for microscopic
connotations, ‘F in the upper case is used.

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This initial classification served as a basis for choosing samples for Fabric analysis and
characterisation using petrographic methods.

Fabric Characterisation
Fabric characterisation is an optical method of micromorphologieal analysis of the fired
clay paste which uses various criteria such as the nature and birefringence of the matrix,
mineralogical composition of the non-plastic inclusions and their textural features of
shape (angularity-roundness), sphericity, size range, frequency, sorting2, orientation, size-
distribution character and the nature and size of voids. The microstructural characteristics
of the clay paste were studied using compositional and textural criteria as mentioned
above. Based on an assessment of the above-mentioned Fabric features, Fabric Groups
were formed. A Fabric group thus comprised of thin-sections which shared common
features of mineralogy, matrix birefringence and colour, character of clay mass, size,
shape, frequency and sorting of non-plastic inclusions within a small variation limit.

Textural Analysis
Fabric characterisation of the pottery of the three sites revealed that pottery sections from
tiie same site fell into several Fabric groups and subgroups on the basis of some
mineralogical factors, but mostly on grounds of texture and fabric. Thus a need was felt
to quantify the textural and mineralogical differences that could have ensued from
modifications of the clay (Darvill and Timby 1982). Sections that were most
representative of the entire Group were chosen for qualitative and quantitative textural
analysis. Textural analysis is a quantitative method used to assess the intra-site variability
in ceramic Fabrics which share similar mineral suites (Betts 1982, Darvill and Timby
1982, Streeten 1982, Middleton et al 1985). The aim was therefore to obtain a
quantitative assessment of intra-site variability in the fabric groups both in terms of the

2
The degree of sorting of components in the thm-section is an expression of the variation in particle size.
The classes used (after Bullock et.al 1985 : 26) are:

perfectly sorted . normally only one size fraction is present

well sorted : 5-10% of fractions other than those stated
moderately sorted: 10-30% of fractions other than those stated
poorly sorted : the sorted component is not the dominant one
unsorted : the particles are of a variety of sizes with no fractions appearing more sorted than
others

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grain-size distribution and the relative abundance of mineral inclusions to assess how far
the variability reflected paste-making techniques and source differences.

Environmental Setting and Archaeological Background of Rajasthan

In this Chapter, the sites taken up for study are set within their broad geographical and
archaeological contexts. Geographically, Rajasthan comprises certain very striking
features such as the Thar Desert in the west and the Aravalli range running tangentially
(NE-SW) across the State which dissects it into two very broad physical, climatic and
even cultural regions - Marwar (an arid/semi-arid land with sandy terrain and low rainfall
located to north and west of the range) and Mewar (well-drained, fertile and semi-humid,
located to the east and southeast of the range). These two regions are constituted by
distinct physiographic zones such as the Thar Desert (characterised by sand-dunes, low
hills and limestone outcrops) and a pediplain merging with the Ghaggar flood plain
(Western Plain), the Aravalli Hill range with multiple erosional surfaces, the pediplain
of south and central Rajasthan (Eastern Plain), a ridge and valley province in North
Rajasthan and the Vindhyan upland merging with the Malwa plateau including the
Chambal Valley (Sinha-Roy et al 1998:18). Rural as well as urban settled agricultural
communities of the Chalcolithic period in Rajasthan are found concentrated in three

areas:

1) The Ghaggar Basin in the extreme northwest comer of the State gives evidence of
Pre/Early Harappan or Sothi-Siswal deposit followed by the Mature Harappan
occupation, best represented at Kalibangan. This area forms a part of Indo-Gangetic
divide and although a thick concentration of Harappan sites occur along the dry beds of
the Ghaggar-Saraswati-Drisadvati in Northwest Rajasthan, the main spread of sites lies
further north in Harayana, Southern Punjab and westwards in Cholistan (Bhawalpur
region) in Pakistan (Dikshit 1984, Stein 1942, Misra 1984, A. Ghosh 1952, Possehl
1999). No Black-and-Red Ware occurs at these sites in the Chalcolithic period. It
occurs generally in a much later context in this area, associated with the Painted Grey
Ware.

2) The Shekhawati Plains covering the districts of Sikar and Jhunjhunu in the west and
fertile Jaipur plains east of Aravalli forms the core region of the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura
(Ochre Coloured Pottery or OCP) Complex. Sites of this complex are contemporary

6
with the pre/Early Harappan and Mature Harappan phase in the Ghaggar Basin. About
200 sites of this culture have been discovered through explorations in Sikar, Jhunjhunu
and Jaipur Districts (IAR 1972-73, 1973-74, 1977-78) of which four have been
excavated, namely, Ganeshwar in Sikar, Jodhpura in Jaipur, Noh in Bharatpur and
Sunari in Jhunjhunu Districts. An important aspect of the excavations was that they
confirmed the stratigraphic position of the unpainted BRW which is said to occur in a
separate horizon above the OCP and below PGW. The C14 date of the Black-and-Red
Ware - Painted Grey Ware overlap at Jodhpura is 383 cal. BC (Possehl 1993) and the
upper OCP levels range between 2500 and 2200 BC. Thus, Black-and-Red Ware in this
region seems to belong to a much later date.

3) The predominant archaeological entity in the Eastern Plains, specifically the Mewar
Plains spanning the valleys of River Banas and its main tributary, the Berach is the Ahar
or Banas Chalcolithic in which the white painted Black-and-Red Ware formed the most
definitive trait in association with a thick red slipped ware, a tan ware and thin red ware.
Until recent interest in this area, the entire Banas culture was understood solely on the
basis of Ahar (in 1954-55), partially reported Gilund (in 1957-58) and on explorations. In
the last decade, extensive excavations at Balathal (24° 43' N, 73° 59' E, District Udaipur),
renewed excavations at Gilund (25° 01' N : 74° 15' E, District Chittorgarh) and others at
Ojiyana (25° 53' N : 74° 21' E; District Bhilwara) and Purani Matmi (25° 06' N : 74° 25'
E; District Chittorgarh) are helping form a more complete picture about the beginnings,
development and internal dynamics of this culture. One of the sites chosen for the present
study is Balathal.

Balathal
Balathal (24° 43’ N : 73° 59’ E; Vallabhnagar Tehsil, Udaipur District) was excavated by
the Deccan College, Pune, for seven seasons from 1993-94 tol999-2000. It revealed a
habitation deposit of seven meters which is divisible into two periods. The lowermost is a
substantial Chalcolithic habitation followed by the Early Historic Period, with
considerable stratigraphic and chronological gap between the two. The C14 dates place the

chalcolihtic occupation between 2800 - 1500 BC. (Misra 1997, Misra et al 1997). There
are three dates for the middle phase of the Chalcolithic period ranging between 2350 B.C.
and 2300 B.C.

7
The Chalcolithic deposit is divided into two Phases. Phase A represents the early
settlement and Phase B represents the mature phase. Chalcolithic Phase A is represented
by the early occupational deposits and is characterised by simple architectural features
such as circular mud floors with post holes around the periphery of the floors and burnt
pieces of clay plaster suggest superstructure plastered with clay. Silos lined with grass
and lime are also found in this phase and they are associated with a number of large,
heavily worn querns. There is a marked change in construction activity and material in
Phase B, which evinces extensive use of semi-dressed and undressed stones of locally
available granite and gneiss and mud-bricks for construction. Four structural phases have
been identified for this Phase, of which the most prolific is Structural Phase II in which
there is evidence of massive construction activity in the form of a fortified enclosure
made of mud walls revetted on both faces with stones and by three multi-roomed
complexes with stone foundations and walls of mudbrick and mud. This also gives
evidence of the beginning of planned architecture at Balathal and witnessed a remarkable
increase in prosperity. An outer periphery wall and two pottery kilns were also found.

The ceramics were predominantly wheel made and comprised of Thin Red Ware, Blaek-
and-Red Ware, Tan Ware, Thick Bright-Slipped Red Ware, Plain Red Ware, Burnished
Grey Ware and Plain Grey Ware. There was a small amount of Reserve Slipped Ware and
were of two types; imported and locally made imitations. Apart from the ceramics and
structural remains, the remaining material evidence is in the form of copper, stone,
terracotta, shell and stone objects. There was an established lithic industry and a variety
of semi-precious and other stones were used. Terracotta bull figurines, copper-bronze
objects (choppers, knives, razors, chisel, tanged and barbed arrowhead etc) were also
found in small numbers. Balathal represented a mixed economy based on farming
(wheat, barley and mustard and a variety of pulses and oil-seeds) (Kajale 1996), stock
raising and occasionally hunting and fishing (Thomas and Joglekar, 1996).

Environmental Setting and Archaeological Background of Gujarat

Physiographically, Gujarat consists of five broad geographical regions, namely, the
alluvial plains of Gujarat divisible into South, Central and North Gujarat Plains with a
chain of rocky highlands forming a backbone to the Plains on their eastern side, Kutch
with the Great and Little Rann, the Plateau of Saurashtra and the Coastal Lowlands.
Gujarat has a much more enduring and widespread Harappan presence than Rajasthan,

8
but the archaeological picture is not as straightforward as most of these sites in Gujarat
present strong evidence of a non-Harappan indigenous nature that runs either antecedent
to, coeval with or subsequent to the Harappan phase. Mature Harappan sites in Gujarat
are few and found mainly in Kutch and some coastal sites in Saurashtra.

Explorations in Kutch over the last four decades and subsequent small and large scale
excavations at sites like Desalpur (23°25’N : 60°10’E), Surkotada (23°37’N : 70°50’E) ,
Dholavira (23°53’N : 70°13’E) and Shikaipur (23°16’N : 70°41’E) have yielded a
material assemblage that is distinctly Mature Harappan, relating them with the Harappan
sites in Sind, Punjab and Rajasthan. At these typically Harappan sites, white painted
Black-and-Red Ware occurs in small amounts but only in the late stage.

Saurashtra represents an eclectic mix of Mature Harappan and regional Chalcolithic

cultures. A few Mature Harappan sites are present on coastal fringes (Lothal on the
eastern margin, Nageshwax, Bagasra and Kuntasi in the western coastal region, across
from the southern coast of Kutch). Except Nageshwar, the other Mature Harappan sites
cited above also incorporate indigenous Chalcolithic traits from Saurashtra and north
Gujarat. The majority of the other ‘Harappan’ sites, specially in Saurashtra show some
commonality in ceramic fabric and manufacture with those of the Harappan but are still
overwhelmingly individualistic in their material assemblage (Rangpur, Rojadi, Padri,
Prabhas). New concepts and terminology were evolved which culturally link these
different elements into the larger Indus tradition as sub-regional cultures or rural
manifestations of urban traditions, evolving out of interactions between the Harappans
and indigenous Chalcolithic communities (Possehl and Raval 1988, Ajithprasad and
Sonawane 1993). Thus came about concepts of the Sorath and Sindhi Harappan,
demarcating between typical Harappan settlements and those which are largely
indigenous but contemporary with the mature Harappans and show a strong influence,
specially in the pottery fabric. The chronological scheme as well as the terminology of
Sorath and Sindhi Harappan has been questioned from various quarters for the
connotations it carries (Verma and Menon 1999, Koiso 1994, Ratnagar 1991,
Chitalwala 2000). However, what is of interest for the present study is that these sites
in Saurashtra (barring Rangpur), which at present have been classed as Sorath Harappan
or Rangpur IIB/IIC sites carry negligible amounts of Black-and-Red Ware in their
ceramic repertoire.

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The only region in Gujarat which yields substantial amounts of Black-and-Red Ware in
the Chalcolithic context is North Gujarat, where a regional Chalcoithic culture (Anarta
Chalcolithic) has been identified (Ajithprasad and Sonawane 1993). These sites are
mainly located along the edge of the Little Rann of Kutch or close to low lying salty
wastelands. Habitational deposits are thin (20 cms to 1.5 m.) and sites are small in size,
ranging from .10 ha to 7 h.a. and sometimes activity in an area survives as just discrete
ephemeral clusters of artefacts .02 ha - .5 ha. Another characteristic is the occurrence
of many such small mounds or localities with differing cultural affiliations within a
radius of a few kilometres in the same area. Evidence of large number of bones of
domesticated cattle and sheep from these sites is suggestive of a pastoral economy with
live-stock raising as the mainstay and limited subsistence agriculture. However, there
are also few sites such as Nagwada and Moti Pipli which evince a longer and a
relatively more intensive occupation. Sites such as Zekhada present an interesting
picture of short-lived successive occupations as their small deposits (50ems- 1.5m in
different parts of the mound) (Momin 1980-81) produce evidences of late Mature to
Late Harappan periods along with the regional Chalcolithic present throughout. Pre-
Harappan burials with burial pottery similar to pre-Harappan Amri, Nal and Kot Diji are
also found unassociated with any other cultural deposit at many localities around
Nagwada, Datrana and Santhli. In and through these various elements is the over-riding
evidence is of a regional Chalcolithic pottery tradition represented by a distinct range of
pottery types such as the Gritty Red Ware, Fine Red Ware, Burnished Red Ware and
Burnished Grey/Black Wares, which differ from Harappan and other pottery in terms of
clay paste, vessel form, surface treatment and firing. They thus represent a regional
Chalcolithic ceramic tradition of North Gujarat and have been called Anarta wares.

The Anarta Chalcolithic sites in North Gujarat incorporate a fair amount of Black-and-
Red Ware in their assemblage. It varies from forming 12.5% of the assemblage at early
Anarta sites like Loteshwar to a maximum of 27.6% at later sites like Kuwar (RGP II)
and 30.5% in Khandia (Anarta/RGP IIC-III), but mostly ranges between 16-25% of the
assemblage (Mahida 1992). Thus the presence of Black-and-Red Ware and the eclectic
nature of Chalcolithic sites in North Gujarat provide a very interesting backdrop for
studying the Black-and-Red Ware in different contexts. Two sites of various
affiliations were chosen from this region for the present study : Nagwada, a mature

10
Harappan affiliated Anarta Chalcolithic site with evidence of pre-Harappan burials and
Ratanpura, a Late Harappan (Rangpur III) Lustrous Red Ware site.

Nagwada:
Nagwada (23° 18' N, 71° 42' E ; Surendranagar district, Dasada Taluka) lies on the edge
of a vast fertile alluvial plain, close to the eastern margin of the Little Rann of Kutch. Of
the five mounds situated close to the village, NGW I and IY are of Anarta tradition with
Mature Harappan affiliation and pre-Harappan burials while NGW II, III, and V are late
Harappan (Bhan 1992, Ajithprasad and Sonawane, 1993), coeval with RGPIIC and III.

Excavations at mound Nagwada I (NGW) yielded a single culture site, 15,400sq.m. (140
X 100m) in area, with a deposit of 90-110 cms. The earliest evidence of human activity
consists of six burials (both symbolic and inhumation), with pots as burial goods.
Stylistically, the burial pots bears very close resemblance in fabric, shape and decorative
features to the pre-Harappan burial pottery reported from the first period of Amri, Kot
Diji and Nal and on these grounds, have been dated to the early Harappan time period
(3000 - 2600 B.C.) (Possehl 1992, Sonawane 1994-95), preceding the beginning of the
urban phase occupation. The burial pottery does not occur in the later habitational
deposit of the site. There is also no habitational deposit or material that can be associated
directly with the burials. Thus the evidence of early activity is confined to these burials
and their grave goods.

The occupation coeval with the Mature Harappan phase starts from Layer 5, but
develops more from Layer 4-1. There is little by way of structural activity apart from a
few post-holes and mud floors in layer 5 (Sonawane 1992, Hegde et al 1988), but
subsequent layers have yielded material relics coeval with the Mature Harappan phase.
The ceramic evidence corresponds to that of Surkotada I B and I C and Lothal AIV.
Structural remains consist of a series of mud-brick and rubble structures. Brick sizes
are 8 x 16 x 32 and 7 x 14 x 28, giving the standard Harappan ratio of 1:2:4. The
ceramic assemblage is dominated by non-Harappan ceramics like Gritty Red Ware,
Black-and-Red ware, Burnished Grey and Black Ware, Fine Red Ware etc. Coarse Red
and Grey Wares are also found. The Harappan sherds are very little, but are represented
by characteristic mature Harappan ceramics like sturdy red, buff and chocolate-slipped
ware in this type fossils like perforated jars, 'S’ profile jars, beakers, dish-on-stand etc.

11
Nagwada is believed to have thrived because it developed a craft-oriented economic base.
Although no separate area for bead or shell manufacturing could be identified, a large
number of beads and objects of shell, agate, steatite, faience, amazonite, camelian, and
lapis-lazuli, along with unfinished beads and drill bits, finished and unfinished bangle
pieces and other shell working debris indicates local working of shell and bead. Other
artifacts of interest were an inscribed clay sealing, a spherical shell object with
concentric circles it, variety of gold and silver ornaments, long parallel sided chert
blades, cubicle agate weights, copper celts, chisels, knives, pendants, inlay pieces etc.
One radiocarbon date of 2133, 2067 cal BC (A 4555) is available for the mature phase.

Ratanpura
Ratanpura (23° 28’ N : 71° 48’E Taluka Sami, District Mehsana) is a Late
Harappan/Lustrous Red Ware site coeval with Ranpur Period IIC/III. Cultural material
occurred here in four distinct concentrations spread over a stabilised dune.

Excavation revealed a single culture Late Harappan/Lustrous Red Ware habitation

deposit of about 60 cms, comprising of four layers and three structural levels.
Structural evidence was limited to outlines of rammed earth floors of circular huts with
9-10 post holes and ‘U’ shaped chuiah’s of mud built on the floor. The upper structural
phase was devoid of delineated structural evidence as above and comprised mainly of
hard rammed mud floors as working areas (Sonawane 1994-95).

The pottery comprised of plain and painted Sturdy Red and Buff wares, Chocolate
Slipped wares, Lustrous Red Ware, white painted Black-and-Red Ware, Coarse Black-
and-Red Ware, Polychrome and Rusticated ware and Coarse Grey and Red Wares. The
ceramics compare well with RGP III and certain ceramic types and wares have also
been compared with Ahar Phase IC (Buff and Cream slipped Ware, Chocolate and Tan
slipped wares and Coarse Red Ware) (Bhan 1989). There is no Carbon 14 date
available for this site.

The pottery from Nagwada and Ratanpura in North Gujarat and Balathal in Rajasthan
was analysed using typological and petrographic methods.

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Ceramics at Balathal
At Balathal, the major wares encountered were the Black-and-Red Ware, Tan Slipped
Red Ware, Thick Coarse Red Slipped Ware, Thick Coarse Grey Ware and Thin Red
Slipped Ware. Black-and-Red Ware was present in three fabrics. The fine Black-and-
Red Ware was well fired and made with a finely levigated smooth clay paste with tiny
mica flecks and miniscule pores. The medium fine fabric is micaceous and slightly sandy
in comparison to the fine fabric and contains tiny degraissants while the medium to coarse
variety was very sandy and grittier with abundant big degraissants and flaky mica. The
convex sided bowl has an everted featureless rim and carinated bowls with everted rims,
giving concavo-convex profiles were the main types present. The Tan Slipped Red Ware
had a fine, lightly sandy fabric. The surface had fine degraissants and tiny mica flecks.
The most popular shape was the deep dish/basin and pot/jar with many rim variants. The
Thin Red Slipped Ware was characterised by very thin vessel walls, well slipped and
smoothly burnished exterior surface and generally an unslipped grey interior, which
sometimes bears a pale red wash. The fabric is very fine and lightly sandy, like that of
the Tan Slipped Red Ware. It is well fired with a red to grey core. Thick Coarse Red
Slipped Red Ware has a coarse to medium fabric with plenty of large quartz pieces as
degraissants along with tiny mica pieces and many pores. It is moderately well fired and
the core is generally grey coloured with red margins. Pot/Jar and bowls ar ethe common
forms in this coarse ware. The variants are bowls with an externally bevelled rim, convex
sided bowl with simple featureless rim, bowl with a slightly inverted rim, and a blunt
carinated bowl with featureless rim. Thick Coarse Grey Ware is coarse, sandy and porous
with abundant quartz and white degraissants.

Fabric Characterisation of the pottery from Balathal divided into eight Fabric groups
(Fabric Groups 1-8) and several subgroups (2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A - 4C, 5A, 6A, 6B, 7A-
7C and 8A) based on textural differences of frequency and grain size of the aplastic
inclusions.

Provenance of Pottery at Balathal

The mineral suite met with in the ceramic sections of Balathal reveal a predominantly
Quartz-Feldspar fabric, constituting 65% - 85% of the mineral inclusions. Micas, both
biotite as well as muscovite, is the next widely occurring mineral present as fine fractions
in the matrix, as laths in coarser sections and as a constituent of rock fragments like

13
granite, biotite and muscovite mica schists/gneisses as well as fibrous aggregates. Quartz
is both clear and with undulatory extinction, its other occurrences being as sandstone
fragments, sheared quartz, cryptociystalline silica, poly-crystalline quartz with sutured
boundaries and sheared quartz. A variety of Sodic and Potassium feldspars are present -
microclines, plagioclases, altered feldspar with inclusions of muscovite and zoisite which
is a result of low-grade metamorphism, altered plagioclase with mottled appearance in
PPL, and Perthite as well as anti-perthite. Feldspars of the nature described here,
specially the altered ones are abundantly encountered in the granitic fragments present in
the clay-paste and are probably derived from the exposures of granite in the area. Mineral
grains of calcite are relatively less, and carbonates occur mainly as crypto-crystalline
calcite finely disseminated in the matrix as an intimate part of the clay paste, as Calcretes
or kankar fragments and argillaceous inclusions. Bioclasts are also present in small
amounts in the clay-paste, which are probably skeletal bioclasts of shells/molluscs
detectable as thin curved, sword-like fragments. Garnet is detected in minor amounts in
some sections. Lastly, minerals of the Pyroxene and Amphibole groups (mainly augite,
orthopyroxene (?) and hornblende) are present.

The nature of the mineral inclusions in the pottery sections of Balathal match the
metamorphic lithology of the Banas-Berach Basin and most of the pottery was made with
raw-material derived from a local source. Thus, die nature of the minerals suggests a
metamorphic and sedimentary source area for the clay. However, some non-local
material is also detected and is represented by Fabric Groups 8 /8a and Fabric group 5.

Paste-Preparation Techniques at Balathal

The clay paste preparation techniques at Balathal may be broadly studied under two
headings: a) that of the fine wares and b) that of the coarse wares.

Fine wares comprising the Black-and-Red Ware, Tan Slipped Red Ware and Thin Red
Slipped Ware fall into the first four (1-4) Fabric Groups. Within these groups and their
subgroups, textural differences are evident in the frequency of grain size ranges, the
sorting and in the relative abundance of non-plastic inclusions, which reflect the
differences in clay refinement. Technologically, Groups 1, 2 and 3 illustrate one method
of clay processing at Balathal with a little variation in the degree of refinement of the
clay-paste. It is possible to visualise a progression here wherein by a more stringent

14
refinement of group 3, the state of refinement of Group 1 can be attained. The mean
porosity of these three groups falls at 20%.

The second method of clay paste preparation was used for the production of both fine and
coarse wares. Groups 4 - 4B represent the finer processing of the clay-paste while 7C
represents its coarsest expression, with 4C forming the intermediate stage. In the fine
group, die clay is well levigated with the frequency of inclusions varying from 15-30%
between the subgroups. This method of refinement indicates a sorting process whereby
some larger inclusions, sub-angular to sub-rounded in shape, ranging from high MS to
VCS (15%) made their way into a fabric dominated by smaller angular grains. In 7C, the
smaller size fraction lies between Silt-low MS and the larger ones are from High MS-
VCS, with coarse-fine ratio of 1 : 5. The frequency of non-plastic inclusions is 50% and
the widely varying grain sizes indicate a poor sorting and bimodal distribution. This
textural link between coarse and fine wares is evidence indicating a conscious
manipulation of the raw material to meet the production requirements for wares that
served different functions. The coarse wares comprise of Thick Red Slipped Ware, Thick
Coarse Grey Ware and the coarser varieties of Black-and-Red Ware. Groups 6 and 7
represent these ad their subgroups represent the variability in the clay-paste making.

To sum up, the compositional and textural analysis of the ceramics at Balathal indicate
that at least three sources of raw material were exploited, of which two may be non-local.
The majority of the ceramics are manufactured with locally available raw-material. Two
modes of clay preparation is indicated for the fine wares and two for the Coarse wares.
The second mode of clay paste preparation represented by Group 4 develops more fully in
Stage B. There is a genetic textural link between die second mode of fine-ware clay
preparation (represented by group 4) and that of a Coarse Ware (represented by Group
7C), which indicates that the same raw material was manipulated to produce end products
differing widely in their quality. There is a difference in the physical properties between
Black-and-Red Ware and the other wares most closely associated with it. Black-and-Red
Ware shows a comparatively lower apparent porosity than the other wares. This is in all
probability a function of the type of surface treatment. As compared to the Tan Slipped
Red Ware, Thin Red Slipped Ware and the other Coarse Wares, Black-and-Red Ware
(both fine and coarse variants) has a comparatively thicker slip and very well burnished
surfaces.

15
Nagwada
At Nagwada, Black-and-Red Ware occurs in two fabrics - fine and medium. This shape
is common in the bowls of Gritty Red Ware too. The clay is finer than the other Black-
and-Red Ware and contains only small white degraissants. The Gritty Red Ware (GRW)
in coarse, medium and fine varieties forms the majority of the ceramic assemblage at
Nagwada. The ware is medium to well fired and sturdy and usually has a reddish yellow,
light brown and reddish brown to pinkish grey and dark to very dark grey core. Most of the
sherds bear a slip (or remnants of it) in shades of red, yellowish red and painting is done in
black, chocolate or red, on a red or cream surface. Coarse Grey Ware and Coarse Red
Ware are similar in clay category and forms. The core is unoxidised and varies from grey to
black and dull red. A majority are rim sherds of globular pots with a flaring mouth, an
everted rim and a concave neck. Both Coarse Red and Grey ware also have die scooped
groove at the neck, like Gritty Red ware. Fine Red Ware at Nagwada is of three types.
Fine red ware of type 1 comprises very small, thin sherds which have a red, plum red,
chocolate or buff slip. Fine red ware of type 2 is very few in number, varying from 1.5% -
0.8%. The surface of the vessel is brick red and well fired. Fine red ware of type 3 form
only 3% - 4% of the entire assemblage and is distinguishable from the other wares in their
sturdy, well fired and well refined sherds. The clay is very well levigated and well fired.
The body is pale red-pinkish.

Provenance of the Pottery from Nagwada

The major mineral grains present in the ceramic sections of Nagwada are Quartz,
feldspars, calcites and mica. Quartz (both with clear extinction as well as pitted and
highly fractured grains) is also present in other forms such as schistose quartz, small
pieces of sandstone, poly-crystalline quartz, cryptocrystalline silica (also with iron oxide
inclusions and diffused grain boundaries), quartz with spherulitic texture and sheared
quartz. There is a high amount of Perthitic Feldspar in the sections and there is also some
slightly altered Plagioclase as well as some highly pitted ones with fine twinning.
Microcline (sometimes pitted), altered feldspar with inclusions, mermekitic feldspar are
also present. The calcareous component in the pottery of Nagwada is quite high.
Muscovite, Biotite, Mica lath and biotite flecks, iron oxide patches and opaque inclusions,
hematite, Pyroxenes such as Augite and sporadic Olivine, Argillaceous inclusions,
Calcareous and Carbonaceous argillans are present in fair amounts. Rock pieces of Basalt

16
also occur in one section and the other commonly occurring rock fragments are fine and
coarse sandstone and mica schist. A distinguishing element in one set of sections is
Bioclasts or Foraminfera (Gastropods, oolids, shell and carbonaceous material which is
filled in with calcite). Thus, the mineralogy and the nature of the minerals present in the
ceramic thin-sections of Nagwada seems to point to a metamorphic and calcareous source
area for the clay, which would also have high amounts of mica.

A comparison of the mineral detritals in the Nagwada sections with the lithology of the
North Gujarat plains shows that the majority of the ceramics represented in groups A, B,
C, E, F, G, H and J exploited the same clay source with the differences in mineralogy
relating to their clay paste preparation or more preferential raw-material choice exercised
within the larger common source area. Fabric I, with foraminifera and shell/mollusc
indicates a different exploitation of clay. Such mollusc shell and foramenfera occur most
commonly in the tidal muds of the Rann, formed in the late Holocene. These tidal muds
also show an abundance of clay minerals like Illite and Montmorillonite (Merh 1995:
161). Nagwada being located right on the margin of the Little Rann, it is quite probable
that one of these clays may have been exploited for production of some pottery. Lastly,
Group D is a third source, which is high in rock particles, is basaltic, is non-calcareous
and very ferrugenous.

Clay Paste Preparation Techniques at Nagwada

In terms of textural characteristics of the clay-pastes, the pottery of Nagwada shows much
diversity. The three types of Fine Red Wares with some degree of variation in the
macroscopic fabrics fall into five Fine - Medium Fine Fabric Groups (A, B, C, F and G).
Fabric Groups B, C, F and G show links with medium-fine and coarse wares. Fine Red
Ware of type 2 falls into Fabric Group A. Fabric Group C is largely represented by Fine
Red Wares of type 3. Fine Red Ware of type 1 falls into many fabric groups and is
represented in Fabric Group B, F, G and in sub-groups of Group C. Thus, these Fabric
Groups reflect the variability in the clay paste preparation of the Fine Red Wares.

The differences between them lie in the homogeneity of the clay matrice and size of
inclusions and their frequency. The frequency of inclusions in these groups varies from a
low of 5 - 15% in Groups A-C to a high of 25% - 45% in F and G. Fabric Group A is a
fine calcareous Fabric with particles sized between FS - Silt and lower, stippling the

17
matrix. The crypto-crystalline calcite is not so intimately a part of the matrix as it is in
Group B. Group B has grains ranging from Silt to CS, but is an open-spaced fabric, with
a compact matrix that is not crowded with minute particles. It also has a higher
proportion of Feldspars. Group C is a ferruginous Fabric with low frequency of 10 -
15%. The majority of the grains are below 2 microns, but the few larger particles are in
all sizes from MS-CS. There is also a higher rounding of grains. Group F has a high
frequency of inclusions (25% - 30%) but they all lie in the finer size fraction between
VFS and FS. The grains are very angular to subangular and the matrix is very dark. The
matrix of Group G has very high birefringence and there is an absence of calcareous
inclusions. The higher frequency of inclusions in Groups F and G makes them texturally
medium-fine and sandy. Thus, technologically, Groups A, B, C, F and G represent the
different paste preparation techniques practiced for achieving a fine - medium fine clay
paste.

By an increase in grain size as well as in frequency, most of these fine Fabrics (namely B,
C, F and G) show a graded progression into coarse Fabrics represented by Coarse Red
and Grey Wares and Gritty Red and Buff Wares. Some mineralogieal differences also
creep in with the increase in coarseness. Such Fabric links help understand the
technological similarities and which underlay the production of Fine and Coarse Wares at
the same site. One such continuation is represented by Group E and El, which illustrates
one method of producing Gritty Red and Buff Ware. This Fabric is a coarse progression
of Group C. The frequency of inclusions is higher, ranging from 25% - 35% and there is
an increase in the number of coarser inclusions. The occurrence of CS in the Fabric goes
up from 4% in Group C to 14% in Group El with 7% of VCS. Most of these coarser
particles are of quartz, quartz rock (sandstone) and crypto-crystalline silica and calcrete.
They are rounded in shape and may have been derived from fluvial or lacustrine
sediments.

A second method for the preparation of clay paste of Gritty Red Ware is represented in
Group J with links with Group B. This is quite a different fabric, being open-spaced with
coarser, but lesser inclusions (20%) that are almost equally distributed between FS and
CS. It has a compact, highly birefringent matrix with occasional occurrence of Bioclasts.

18
Groups F, G and H represent the full progression from a medium-fine to coarse Fabric
which charts the technological course of Coarse Red and Grey Wares and some Gritty
Red Ware. Group F and G have already been discussed above as exhibiting a higher
frequency of inclusions in the smaller size ranges and absence of coarse particles. CS
increases in percentage occurrence from nil in G to 4.76 in G1 and 12.34 in G2. These
larger grains are mostly of Quartz. Calcites have a very low presence in this Group,
which largely represents the Fabric of Coarse Red Ware. In Group H, particles are of
even higher ranges incorporating 3.20% - 4.46% of VCS. The larger pains are mostly
contributed by Quartz, some Feldspars and Calcretes. They usually have a higher
roundness compared to the smaller pains, which are angular to subangular. There is a
corresponding decrease in the percentage of Silt and VFS. Mineralogically, small
amounts of Augite and occasional bioclasts are detected. Group H largely illustrates the
Fabric of Coarse Grey Wares.

Black-and-Red Ware at Nagwada represents a completely different technological

tradition in terms of raw material selection and processing. Its clay paste characteristics
are illustrated in Group I and 1-2. The clay used for this Group of wares is very rich in
shell/mollusc. It is very calcareous and matrix is highly birefringent. The inclusions
range from Silt to small amounts of VCS, but most lie between VFS and FS. Silt sized
particles are comparatively less. Thus, there is no really fine Black-and-Red Ware at
Nagwada. Most of it pades as medium-fine texturally, with variation in the pade of
medium-fineness. The coarser manifestation into subpoups 1-2 and 1-3 define the third
mode of production for Gritty Red Ware. These poups have a higher frequency of
inclusions (30 - 45%) and an increase in the proportion of pains of specially Medium
Sand and Fine Sand. CS pains are mainly of Calcite and Quartz. A notable feature is
that pains of these larger sizes also have angularity and are not rolled like those in Coarse
Red Ware and Gritty Red Ware of earlier mentioned traditions.

Thus, the key points that emerge from the above provenance and comparative Fabric
analysis of the pottery of Nagwada are that three different clay sources were exploited for
the production of the wares at Nagwada. One clay source was basaltic, the second was
calcareous and bioclastic (with shell/mollusc), represented by Black-and-Red Ware and
Gritty Red Ware and the third was highly metamorphic sedimentary in nature, of which
the majority of the other wares - Coarse Red and Grey Wares, some Gritty Red Ware and

19
Gritty Buff Ware and Fine Red Ware is made. No stratigraphic correlation is found to
exist between Fabric groups and wares, so all techniques were practiced
contemporaneously. Black-and-red ware represents a distinct production mode and
source. It is related with textural differences with some Gritty Red Ware. The three
common modes of Fine Ware Production (indicated in Fabric groups B, C, and F and G
(taken together) and their correlation with Coarse wares (Fine Fabric B reflecting in
coarse Fabric J; fine Fabric C reflecting in coarse Fabric E and El and fine to medium-
fine Fabrics F and G progressing into coarse Fabric H) indicates that they were not
sporadic occurrences, but represented separate technological traditions each. Only one of
these modes of paste preparation represented the Coarse Red and Coarse Grey Wares
while the Fabric of Gritty Red Ware can be traced to Black-and-Red Ware, and Fine Red
Wares represented in Fabric Groups B and G.

Thus the ceramic-paste preparation data indicates that at Nagwada, many patse-
preparation modes were followed concurrently wherein the same, typologically
conventional category of wares were made in different manners.

Ceramics at Ratanpura
The major ceramics encountered at Ratanpura were the Black-and-Red Ware, Lustrous
Red Ware, Coarse Wares, Grey Ware, Fine Red Ware, Buff Ware and Micaeous Red
Ware. The Black-and-Red Ware is found in profuse quantities in Ratanpura. The
exterior slip is mainly red and reddish brown and the fabric has a fine sandy texture with
few inclusions visible in the core. The only major shape present is gently concavo-
convex blunt carinated bowls. No stratigraphic change is perceived in the forms, fabric
and paintings on the Black-and-Red Ware. Lustrous Red Ware is distinguished by its
highly polished red slip. Both medium-fine and fine Lustrous Red Ware is found.
Lustrous Red Ware of medium fabric has a sandy clay paste with few grits visible in the
core whereas in the fine Lustrous Red Ware, the clay-paste is well levigated and smooth.
The central part is unoxidised and varies in shades of grey, veiy dark grey and dark grey,
while the interior and exterior margins are oxidised and are various shades of brown, red
and yellow. Apart from the classic Black-and-Red Ware are sherds of a coarse pottery,
which has a thin dull red slip on the exterior and a black slip on the interior rim. The
external slip is generally red, light red to weak red and in sherds which are smoke marked
or burnt, the colour is reddish brown and very dark grey. The unslipped interior is very

20
dark grey to black. There are small amounts of Fine ware, comprising Fine Red, Fine
Buff and Micaceous Red Wares. As with the Lustrous Red Ware, the slip in these cases
also extends only to the inner rim. The fabric is very fine and has an even coloured
oxidised core, completely free of any inclusions. There are small amounts of Buff ware
and Micaceous Red Ware also present.

Provenance of raw-material and pottery from Ratanpura

Quartz is the main mineral encountered in the thin-sections of the pottery of Ratanpura.
Apart from clear mineral grains, it occurs in various- other forms also as Sandstone,
Sandstone with sutured grain boundaries showing evidence of compaction, crypto­
crystalline silica with sutured and diffused boundaries, sheared quartz and schistose
sheared quartz. Quartz with spherulitic texture is also sometimes found. Other minerals
generally occurring in the sections are perthitic feldspar, altered feldspar of low-grade
metamorphism with inclusions of muscovite and zoisite, microcline, clear plagioclase,
high amounts of iron oxide, biotite, acicular Muscovite and small aggregates of fibrous
muscovite, few calcite/dolomite fragments and small amounts of hornblende and augite.
Calcite and other forms of calcium carbonates such as aggregates of crypto-crystalline
ealcite, well-rounded, dull brown and muddy calcareous argillans and argillaceous
inclusions, calcretes and finely disseminated micrite in the matrix are present in variable
amounts. There is a deficiency of calcites in some Fabric Groups where they seem to
occur mainly as post-depositional crumby precipitates in voids, while others are markedly
calcareous. Bioclasts are rare in most sections

The mineral detritals present in the ceramics at Ratanpura seem to conform to the general
lithology of North Gujarat. The main mineralogical difference observed in the different
Fabric Groups was the varying proportions of calcareous inclusions and calcareousness of
the Fabric, which can be related to a variability created in paste manufacturing or a
preferential selection of raw material within the larger common clay source. Thus at
Ratanpura, Groups I, II, IV, V, VIII and IX indicate a common source of clay. Of these,
Subgroup IVE and Group IX probably indicate a more selective exploitation within a
common source. Groups ID, VI and VII indicate three other sources and probably a
different provenance for the pottery.

21
Clay Paste Preparation Techniques at Ratanpura:
Three main paste preparation techniques were practiced at Ratanpura which can be
studied under the following heads - 1. that of the Black-and-Red Ware and Coarse Wares
2. that of Lustrous Red Ware and some Fine Wares and 3) that of Fine Red Wares.

The clay-pastes of Black-and-Red Ware and Coarse Wares, exemplified by Fabrics II and
I respectively, show close correspondence with each other. They are medium-fine to
coarse sandy Fabrics with a majority of the inclusions in the well sorted size range of Silt
- FS, with a dominance of VFS and a grain frequency of 40 - 50%. The inclusions are
predominantly of sharp, angular Quarto; grains with clear, straight grain boundaries. The
paste is homogenous and ferruginous. Fabric I and subgroups (Coarse Wares) has about
10 - 30 % of larger, well rounded inclusions (CS-VCS) added to the clay-paste,
comprising mainly of Quartz and altered Feldspar. This clearly seems to be an addition
of sand temper. The Fabric of the Black-and-Red Ware (Fabric II and subgroups) shows
remarkable consistency and textural differences between them is very marginal.
Macroscopically, too, this ware shows a standardization in shapes and surface finish.
Thus Fabrics I and II are essentially the same clay-paste, with some manipulation of the
paste to produce the Coarse Wares.

The Red Wares, mainly Lustrous Red Ware, represents the second paste preparation
technique practiced at Ratanpura as evinced in Fabric Group IV and its sub-groups IVA,
IVB, IVC, IVD, and IVE and Fabric V. The clay paste has many small to large, well
rounded iron oxide clots. A clue to what this may signify in terms of clay-paste
preparation was obtained in the fabric of Subgroup 4A, where there is a very large,
roughly oval clot of iron oxide which is well defined on one side, while on the other side,
it gradually merges with the matrix. Thus, these discrete iron oxide clots probably reflect
an inadequate kneading and homogenising of the clay paste. Both macroscopically and
microscopically, the matrix has a sandwiched appearance, with dark cores and brighter
margins. This shows that the outer surfaces were oxidized whereas the carbon in the core
remained unoxidised. In terms of firing behaviour, a sandwiched core may indicate that it
was a rapid firing in which high temperatures were reached long enough for only the
outer surface of the sherd to be oxidized, the duration of the high temperature proving
inadequate for all the carbon in the core to bum out.

22
Group IV and its sub-groups, (IVA to IVE), indicate a progressively finer refinement of
the clay paste with a consistent drop in the frequency of inclusions from 30 - 35% in IV
to 10-15% in IVE with a corresponding change in the predominant pain size from VFS -
FS in Group IV to Silt - VFS in IVE. This is accompanied by an increase in the
percentage of feldspar. The pains are angular. Group V represents a coarser variety of
the above with grains ranging into VCS.

The third technique of clay paste manufacture encompasses the Fine Red wares including
Micaceous Red Ware and Buff Ware and these are represented by Groups VUI and IX.
Both macroscopically and microscopically, this is a smooth and homogenized paste. It is
very well levigated and the pain size lies in the range of Silt -VFS, but most of these
forming a part of the matrix. It has a uniformly fired matrix. Group IX representing the
Buff Ware is the same as the above except for a higher amount of crypto-crystalline
calcite.

Group VI is a medium fine fabric with majority of the pains falling within VFS - FS.
This is a calcareous fabric with a few bioclastic inclusions. It is a smooth, homogeneous
fabric. It is also uniformly fired. Most of the minerals present are clear and unaltered,
especially the feldspars.
Group VII is also a medium fine calcareous and bioclastic fabric. It is texturally unlike
any other fabric encountered at Ratanpura. It is an open-grained Fabric where the matrix
is very compact and the inclusions are widely scattered.

Implications:
Firstly, no stratipaphic correlation can be established in the poupings and each Group
includes Wares from different layers. Ratanpura is a single culture site and thus it seems
that the wares as well as paste-preparation methods indicated above were practiced
concurrently and were constant over the length of occupation of the site.

Secondly, the three kinds of paste-preparation techniques described above confirm largely
to a whole category with an occasional overlap. Texturally, there is little similarity
between them, except in nature of inclusions and minerals. For instance, Groups I and II
represent the clay paste for Black-and-Red Ware and Coarse Wares and forms one

23
technique. The second technique conforms largely to the Lustrous Red Ware with some
Fine Red Wares made like them too, specially in the finer progressions of the technique.
The third technique indicating a superior refinement of the clay conforms to Fine Wares.

Thus there seems to be a level of skill and specialisation achieved in the production of
different wares at Ratanpura, From the above discussion, it appears that at Ratanpura,
Black-and-Red Ware as well as the other wares represented a skilled production.

This piece of research has thus demonstrated that at each of the selected sites, Black-and-
Red Ware occupied different positions within the ceramic repertoire. It formed an
integral part of the larger ceramic tradition at Balathal, represented a different
technological tradition at Nagwada and a skilled mode of production at Ratanpura. Thus
it is clear, that in terms of techniques of paste preparation, Black-and-Red Ware had
specific contextual existence, which was not apparent from conventional typological
studies alone.

Thus, the need to pursue different lines of research, other than typological analysis of
pottery is clear from this study. Technological studies such as studies of ceramic paste
variability possess the potential to extract, to some extent, past human behaviour reflected
in aspects such as paste preparation techniques and can serve to illustrate the extent and
nature of ceramic variability at the microscopic level. Analysis and understanding of
forms and decorations on pottery are not, by themselves, capable of revealing other
aspects of technological behaviour. For instance, this study has pointed to the existence
of technological streams within a larger cultural context.

Thus, the real potential of this work lies in laterally widening each of the contexts of the
study within the cultural geography of the Black-and-Red Ware. From this, it may
become possible to extrapolate on wider socio-technological issues such as identifying a
regional Fabric or technological stream.

24
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