Bridge Design Manual Part 3 - July14Final MASTER

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY
BRIDGE DESIGN
MANUAL
PART 3
APPENDICIES TO PARTS 1 & 2 OF THE
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
2013
Bridge Design Manual – 2013 Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Illustrations ........................................................................................................... iii

List of Tables and Charts ................................................................................................. iv
1 CONSIDERATION OF DESIGN LIVE LOAD .................................................... 1-1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1-1
1.2 95th Percentile of Truck Weight Distribution ............................................... 1-1
1.3 Truck Weight Deemed To Be Maximum .................................................... 1-2
1.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 1-5
2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGE ............................................................... 2-6
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 2-6
2.2 Preparation and Planning ............................................................................ 2-6
2.2.1 The Establishment of a Prestressed Concrete Bridge Committee ............. 2-6
2.2.2 Project Meetings ..................................................................................... 2-7
2.2.3 Planning and Design .............................................................................. 2-7
2.3 Structural Types of Prestressed Concrete Bridge ......................................... 2-9
2.3.1 T-Shaped, Post Tensioning Girder Bridge (Precast Girder Bridge)....... 2-12
2.3.2 Box-Shape girder bridge (Cast in place); Single Girder bridge; Continuous
Girder bridge; Ridged Frame bridge .................................................................... 2-14
2.4 Materials .................................................................................................. 2-15
2.4.1 Concrete ............................................................................................... 2-15
2.4.2 Grout Materials .................................................................................... 2-16
2.4.3 Post-tensioning materials...................................................................... 2-16
2.5 Principle and advantages of prestressing ................................................... 2-16
2.5.1 History.................................................................................................. 2-16
2.5.2 High Strength Steel ............................................................................... 2-17
2.5.3 Prestressing versus Conventional Reinforcing ...................................... 2-19
2.5.4 Concrete to Steel Bond.......................................................................... 2-22
2.6 Flexure ..................................................................................................... 2-22
2.6.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) ............................................................. 2-23
2.7 Strand Transfer and Development Length ................................................. 2-25
2.8 Shear ........................................................................................................ 2-25
2.9 Horizontal Interface Shear ........................................................................ 2-28
2.10 Loss of Prestress ................................................................................... 2-29
2.11 Camber and Deflections ........................................................................ 2-30
2.12 Deck Slab Design ................................................................................. 2-31
2.13 Transverse Design of Adjacent Box Beam Bridges ............................... 2-31
2.14 Lateral Stability of Slender Members .................................................... 2-32
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Table of Contents Bridge Design Manual – 2013
2.15 Bending Moments and Shear Forces due to Vehicular live Loads .......... 2-32
2.16 Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Disturbed Regions ....................................... 2-32
2.17 Detailed Methods of Time-Dependent Analysis..................................... 2-33
2.18 References............................................................................................. 2-33
3 BRIDGE SCOUR REFERENCE ........................................................................... 3-1
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 3-1
3.2 Overview of Bridge Scour ........................................................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Bridge Scour Mechanism......................................................................... 3-1
3.2.2 Selection of Countermeasures.................................................................. 3-5
3.2.3 Countermeasures for Contraction Scour.................................................. 3-5
3.2.4 Countermeasures for Local Scour ........................................................... 3-5
Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual – 2013 List of Illustrations
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1-1: Axle Load Distribution in 2009 ................................................................ 1-1

Figure 1-2: Exclusion Vehicles .................................................................................... 1-2
Figure 1-3: HS20 + 9.3 ................................................................................................. 1-3
Figure 1-4: Results for Simple Span Centreline Moments ......................................... 1-3
Figure 1-5: Results for Negative Moments at Support ............................................... 1-4
Figure 1-6: Results for Shear at Support .................................................................... 1-4
Figure 1-7: Truck Weight Deemed to be Maximum in Ethiopia ............................... 1-5
Figure 2-1: Shape of Girder....................................................................................... 2-13
Figure 2-2: Section of Bridge ..................................................................................... 2-13
Figure 2-11: Strand Transfer and Development Length .......................................... 2-25
Figure 2-12: Shear Design Flow ................................................................................ 2-27
Figure 2-13: Prestressing Loss Calculations Flow .................................................... 2-30
Figure 3-1: Approach Embankments .......................................................................... 3-2
Figure 3-2: Schematic Representation of Scour at a Cylindrical Pier ....................... 3-3
Figure 3-3: Pier Scour Depth in a Sand-Bed Stream as a Function of Time ............. 3-4
Figure 3-4: Plan View of the Extent of Rock Riprap Apron ...................................... 3-7
Figure 3-5: Typical Guide Bank4 ................................................................................ 3-7
Figure 3-6: Riprap Layout Diagram for Pier Scour Protection ................................. 3-9
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

List of Tables Bridge Design Manual – 2013
LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
Chart 2-1: Flowchart for Planning and Design of Prestressed Concrete Bridges...... 2-8
Table 2-1: Typical Prestressed Concrete Bridge Structure and Standard Span Length
............................................................................................................. 2-10
Table 2-2: Ratio Girder Height to Span Length of Prestressed Concrete Bridge.... 2-12
Table 2-3: Example of Capacity of Crane Truck to Erect Girder ............................ 2-13
Table 3-1: Contents of HEC-23 Volume 2 ................................................................. 3-10
Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 1
Bridge Design Manual – 2013 Consideration of Design Live Load
1 CONSIDERATION OF DESIGN LIVE LOAD
1.1 Introduction
This paper examines if the current design live load fits to the actual truck load in Ethiopia.
This paper looks at two aspects as follows;
• The 95thpercentile of truck weight distribution;
• The truck weight deemed to be the maximum.
1.2 95th Percentile of Truck Weight Distribution

The legal limit of axle load in Ethiopia is now 80 kN for a front axle, 100 kN for a rear
axle. The axle load control survey in Ethiopia in 2009 shows that 2%of the front axles and
16%of the rear axles were overloaded.
Assuming that the typical heavy truck in Ethiopia has two front axles and two rear axles
(tandem), the 95th percentile of truck weight distribution can be 360 kN according to the
survey (See Figure 1-1).
Figure 1-1: Axle Load Distribution in 2009
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-1

Chapter 1
The Design Vehicular Live Load of AASHTO LRFD Specification is derived from the
Ontario truck weight data. The 95th percentile of the data was 364 kN, which is a little
heavier than that of the Ethiopia data1.
1.3 Truck Weight Deemed To Be Maximum

In the US, many states have written exclusions into their regulatory policies, which
permitted some vehicles in excess of the legal loads to operate in an unrestricted manner.
These loads are sometimes referred to as "grandfather provision" loads.
Vehicle configurations representing the grandfather provision exclusions to legal loads
available in various states are shown as "EX" vehicles in Figure 1-2. They represent
various types of special hauling vehicles and long combination vehicles common in the
US, including a five-axle truck weighing 466 kN (EX 3-S2), and a long combination
vehicle weighing 662 kN(EX 3-S3-5).This "family" of vehicles is referred to herein as
"exclusion loads".
Figure 1-2: Exclusion Vehicles2
1
Transportation Research Board: Calibration of Load Factors forLRFR Bridge Evaluation, 2001
2
FHWA/NHI: Reference Manual - LRFD Design of Highway Bridges, FHWA/NHI Course 13061, 2003.
Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 1
Figure 1-3: HS20 + 9.3
The LRFD design live load “HL93” consists of the HS20 truck and a uniform load of 9.3 N
per running mm of lane, as shown in Figure 1-3.Several live load models were examined in
the development of LRFD live load model. The HL93 produces the best fit to the exclusion
loads as follows;
Data is presented as a ratio of a given force effect from the envelope of exclusion loads
divided by the corresponding force effect from each of the live load models considered.
Thus, a value of greater than 1.0
on the vertical axis indicates a situation in which the envelope of the exclusion vehicles
produce more force effect than the design model under consideration. Once again, a
horizontal line, intersecting the vertical axis at a value of 1.0, indicates a perfect match.
Figure 1-4: Results for Simple Span Centreline Moments

Chapter 1
Figure 1-5: Results for Negative Moments at Support
Figure 1-6: Results for Shear at Support
So it can be concluded that a long combination vehicle weighing 662 kN(EX 3-S3-5),
which is heavier than a truck deemed to be heaviest in Ethiopia (See Figure 1-7) can run
safely through a bridge designed to AASHTO LRFD Specification.

Chapter 1
Figure 1-7: Truck Weight Deemed to be Maximum in Ethiopia
1.4 Conclusion
It can be concluded that the current design live load fits to the actual truck load in Ethiopia.
Chapter 2
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Bridge Design Manual – 2013
2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGE
2.1 Introduction
The road network in Ethiopia provides the main form of transportation in Ethiopia. Hence,
the provision of a well planned, constructed, maintained and managed road network is
critical to the prosperity of the country through economic growth and food provision. As
part of the road infrastructure improvements, the ability to construct longer bridges will
greatly enhance access and provide viable alternative routes to reduce travel times.
The design of longer bridge implies the constructionprestressed concrete bridges but
currently there is limited experience in the country for the design and construction of these
types of bridges. For this to be a reality, it will require active support by government to
introduce these types of bridges and to build capacity in their design and construction.
The benefits of introducing prestressed concrete bridgesare as follows:
• Pre-tensioned beam
o Improve quality control within factory conditions which promotes improved
durability for the life of the structure.
o Reduction of site activities in relation to casting of superstructures.
• Post-tensioned beams
o Spans up to 50m can generally be readily achieved.
This chapterprovides guidelines for the planning, design and construction of prestressed
concrete bridges.
It should also be noted that steel member bridges also can be considered for longer bridges.
However, steel has to be imported and is very costly. Therefore, thelikelihood of
constructing steel bridges is low.
2.2 Preparation and Planning

The overall process for the planning and design of prestressed concrete bridges is shown in
the Chart 2-1.
2.2.1 The Establishment of a Prestressed Concrete Bridge Committee

Aprestressed concrete bridge committee should be established to oversee and monitor the
progress in developing local capacity for the design and construction of prestressed
bridges.To date, experience in the design and construction of prestressed concrete bridge in
Ethiopia is limited and most prestressed concrete bridges in Ethiopia are designed and
constructed by overseas consultant and contractor. A programme of training and
mentorship for Ethiopian consultants and contractors will need to be developed and
teaching in the design and construction of prestressed bridges will need to be introduced
into the relevant curricular at tertiary educational institutions.
Typical members in committee would be:
• Ethiopia Roads Authority (ERA);
• Addis Ababa City Road Authority (ACRA);
• Professors in universities;
• Consultants;
• Contractors;
• Material suppliers.
Chapter 2
Bridge Design Manual – 2013 Prestressed Concrete Bridge
2.2.2 Project Meetings

Regular project meetings should be held to verify and agree specific issues of design and
construction for each project during the planning, design and construction..
2.2.3 Planning and Design

When prestressed concrete bridges are planned, the following points shall be considered:
• Economy
Structural types, span lengths, and material should be selected with due consideration of
projected costs. Alternative plans of equal safety and serviceability shall be prepared for
comparison with a reinforced concrete bridge. In particular in Ethiopia, regional factors,
availability of materials, equipment and the skill of contractor should also be considered.
• Constructability
Because of the lack of experience in Ethiopia, constructability should be carefully
considered. There are several construction methods for prestressed concrete bridge such as;
o Erection of precast beam (crane erection);
o Erection beam method;
o Stationary false work method (all stage method);
o Cantilever method;
o Traveling false work method;
o Incremental launching method.
Constructability directly depends on construction method. Bridges should be designed to
match the capabilities of local contractors.
• Maintainability and Durability

Bridges should be planned with the consideration of maintenance. There is also no
experience to rehabilitate prestressed concrete bridge in Ethiopia. When bridges are
designed, inspection and repair method should be considered to avoid unreasonable
maintenance costs.

Chapter 2
Chart2-1: Flowchart for Planning and Design of Prestressed Concrete Bridges

Chapter 2
2.3 Structural Types of Prestressed Concrete Bridge

There are several types of prestressed concrete bridge that are categorized by criteria such
as structural configuration, girder type, and construction method. Typical prestressed
concrete bridge structures and standard span lengthsare shown in Table 2-1 withthe ratio of
girder height to span length of prestressed concrete bridge shown in Table 2-2.
A suitable structure shall be selected for each project under the specific conditions of the
project. General conditions to be considered are as follows:
• Span length
Span length should be the first thing to consider. Dependent on the standard span length,
several types of bridge are selected and compared with each other in terms of economy,
constructability and maintainability.
• Erection method
The most important condition for the selection of the bridge type is the erection
methodwhich will be dependent on the outcome of the site investigation. Other factors
relevant to Ethiopia that will influence the selection of the erection method will be the
availability of materials and equipment; and the skills of Contactor.
• Others
Other factors which will affect the selection of a suitable structure would befactors such as
alignment, clearance and speed of construction.

Chapter 2
Table 2-2: Typical Prestressed Concrete Bridge Structure and Standard Span Length
Span Length
Construction
Classification Structural Type Girder Type
Method
20 40 60 80 100 140 180
Slab-Girder Crane erection 5-24m
Pre-
tentioned
Girder T-Girder Crane erection 18-24m
Precast
Girder
Slab-Girder Crane erection 25-45m
erection beam
method
Post-
Simple
tentioning
Girder
Girder T-Girder Crane erection 20-45m
Bridge
erection beam
method
Box-Girder Stationary false 30-60m

work method (all
stage method)
Cast in place
Girder
Continuous Stationary false 20-30m
hollow Slab work method (all
stage method

work method
Cantilever method 50-110m
Traveling false 30-45m

Continuous work method
Cast in place
Girder
Girder
Bridge
Incremental 30-60m
launching method
Continuous Stationary false 20-30m

hollow Slab work method
traveling false
work method

work method
T-Rigid Frame
Rigid Cantilever method 40-80m

Frame
Bridge Box-Girder Stationary false 30-55m
Continuous Rigid work method
Frame

Chapter 2

Extradosed Pre-stressed work method
concrete bridge

work method
Cable stayed Bridge

Chapter 2
Table 2-3: Ratio Girder Height to Span Length of Prestressed Concrete Bridge
Ratio(girder
Classification Girder type
height/span)
Slab-Girder 1/14-1/24
Pretentioned
Girder
T-Girder 1/18-1/20
Precast
Girder
Post Slab-Girder 1/23-1/26
Simple Girder
Tentioning
Bridge
Girder T-Girder 1/13-1/18
Box-Girder 1/17-1/20
Cast in place Girder
Continuous hollow Slab 1/20
Box-Girder 1/15-1/20
Continuous
Cast in place Girder
Girder Bridge
Continuous hollow Slab 1/22
T-Rigid Frame Box-Girder 1/10-1/30

Rigid Frame
Bridge
Continuous Rigid Frame Box-Girder 1/15-1/35
Extradosed bridge Box-Girder -
Cable stayed Bridge Box-Girder -
Two bridge types are identified as the types most sutiable for construction in the Ethiopian
environment:
2.3.1 T-Shaped, Post Tensioning Girder Bridge (Precast Girder Bridge)

T-shaped post tensioning girder bridges (Precast Girder Bridge) are one of the most
generally represented bridge structure for which girders are cast close to the construction
site and are erected in the prescribed location by truck crane. The general shape of the
girder is shown in Figure 2-1 and the section of bridge is shown in Figure 2-2. Thestandard
span length of this type of bridge is 20-45m; Capable Skew is 70’<θ<90’; andthe ratio of
girder height to span length is 1/13-1/18.
Generally, the girders for the bridgeare produced at or close to the bridge site using a crane
erection method. When erecting this type of bridge the following should be considered:
• The plane of crane;
• The standard of crane capacity;
• The arrangement of crane truck.
Example of capacity of crane truck to erect girder is in Table 2-3.

Chapter 2
Figure 2-1:Shape of Girder
Figure 2-2:Section of Bridge
Table 2-4: Example of Capacity of Crane Truck to Erect Girder
Standard for Truck

Birdge Type Weight per Girder
Crane
35t – 60t 120t crane*2
Post-tensioning
60t – 100t 160t crane*2
Girder Bridge
100t – 160t 200t crane*2

Chapter 2
Figure 2-3: Examples of Prestressed Concrete Bridge Construction
2.3.2 Box-Shape girder bridge(Cast in place); Single Girder bridge; Continuous

Girder bridge; Ridged Frame bridge
Box-shape Girder Bridge (see Figure 2-3) should be selected in Ethiopia when T-shape
Post-tensioning Girder Bridge is unsuitable due to the span length or the capacity of truck
crane. In the case of cast in situ bridges, there are several construction methods which can
be selected. However, in Ethiopia, the stationary false-work method (all stage method)
should be selected initially as this is the easiest method compared with other alternatives.
In this situation, although the selection may be limited, this structure is appropriate
compared with a Reinforced Concrete bridge for spans over 30m. The layout of PC cable
in continuous girder bridge is in Figure 2-4 and the outline of all stage method is in Figure
2-5.

Chapter 2
Figure 2-4:The Layout of PC Cable in Continuous Girder Bridge
Figure 2-5:The Outline of all Stage Method
2.4 Materials
2.4.1 Concrete
The following materials are required for concrete:
• Cement complying with the requirements of AASHTO M 85. (specific surface,
consolidation time, restriction on detrimental matter, etc.)
• Clean water free from oil, acid, chloride, organic or other deleterious matter.
• Clean, hard sand free from lumps of clay, organic or other deleterious matter.
• Hard, angular, field or quarry stones of such quality that they will not disintegrate
on exposure to water or weathering. The stones shall be free from overburden,

Chapter 2
shale, and organic material.

• Admixtures conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 194.
Concrete quality control should be undertaken by both the owner (and/or his consultant)
and the contractor as concrete strength is crticallyimportant for pre-stressed girders. The
minimum concrete strength should be 30MPa. It should also be noted that prestressed
structures are seriously affected by drying shrinkage and creep. Therefore,control of drying
shrinkage and creep should be undertaken by the appropriate authority in terms of the
specific localEthiopian conditions.
For further information, refer to PCI Bridge Manual Chapter2 Section2.3
2.4.2 Grout Materials

ASTM Specification C 1107 covers three grades of packaged dry hydraulic-cement grouts
(non-shrink) intended for use under applied loads. The grouts are composed of hydraulic
cement, fine aggregate and other ingredients which generally only require the addition of
mixing water for use. Three grades of grout are classified according to the volume control
mechanism exhibited by the grout after being mixed with water:
• Grade A – pre-hardening volume-adjusting in which expansion occurs before
hardening
• Grade B – post-hardening volume-adjusting in which expansion occurs after the
grout hardens
• Grade C – combination volume-adjusting which utilizes a combination of
expansion before and after hardening
For further information, refer to PCI Bridge Manual Chapter2, Section2.6
2.4.3 Post-tensioning materials

Post-tensioning systems may be conveniently divided into three categories depending on
whether the stressing tendon is wire, strand or bar. For bridge construction, wire systems
are generally not used. Further information on post-tensioning systems has been published
by the Post-Tensioning Institute (1990). For details of proprietary systems, the
manufacturers’ literature should be consulted.
For further information, refer to PCI Bridge Manual Chapter2, Section2.9
2.5 Principle and advantages of prestressing
2.5.1 History
The principles of prestressing have been used for centuries. For example, wooden barrels
have always been made by tightening metal straps around barrel staves. In the making of
early wheels, the wooden spokes and rim were first held together by a hot metal tyre
which, upon cooling, became tensioned. This induced radial compression on the rim and
spokes. Other forms of mechanical, chemical and thermal prestressing have been attempted
or used with varying degrees of success.
The use of prestressing for concrete bridge members has been employed with great success
for over five decades. Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension.
Therefore, prestressing is used to control tensile stresses and to precompress the concrete.
This is analogous to providing the concrete with a “storage” capacity to resist loads which
would otherwise produce tension and cracking in the concrete.
Chapter 2
The prestressing of precast concrete bridge members is accomplished by stretching high

strength steel strands, then casting concrete around them. As the concrete hardens, it bonds
to the strands. When the clamps holding the tensioned strands are released, the force in the
strands is applied to (or resisted by) the concrete. This puts the concrete into compression.
This technique of prestressing, through the placing of concrete around prestretched strands,
is called pretensioning. The high strength steel strands used for pretensioning typically
have an ultimate strength, fpu, of 270 ksi and a yield strength, fpy, of 243 ksi.
2.5.2 High Strength Steel

High strength steel is necessary for achieving prestressed concrete. Strands are typically
tensioned initially to 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi. Although high, this stress is still safely less than
yield (fpy = 243 ksi). Any loss of stress from this level will be elastic, related to strains by
the modulus of elasticity. With time, creep and shrinkage cause shortening of the member,
and, since they are bonded, shortening of the strands. The shortening of the strands relieves
some of the prestrain in the strands, so the prestress is also reduced.
To illustrate why high strength steel is necessary, consider a concrete member pretensioned
with high strength strand versus mild steel reinforcement (see Figure 2-6). Assume that the
shortening of the member produces a corresponding loss of prestress of 40 ksi. The stress
remaining in the strand after losses, which is called the “effective prestress,” would
therefore be 202.5 − 40 = 162.5 ksi. While the 40 ksi loss is significant, over 80% of the
initial prestress remains. Compare this with the same member being prestressed using mild
reinforcement (fy = 60 ksi). In this case, the initial stress can only be about 50 ksi in order
to remain safely below the yield stress and within the elastic range. Since the member and
the prestress force are the same, the losses would also be the same, i.e., 40 ksi. However, in
this case, the final conditions are much different, with the effective prestress dropping to
10 ksi, which leaves only 20% of the prestress remaining. So much of the prestress is lost
using mild reinforcement for prestressing that it becomes ineffective and unreliable. The
high level of prestrain in the strand due to the initial prestress is what makes high strength
strand an effective method of prestressing. The large prestrain reduces the significance of
losses.

Chapter 2
Figure2-6:Use of High Strength versus Mild Steel for Prestressing Concrete

Chapter 2
Another outstanding benefit of high strength (Grade 270) strand is relative cost. While
strand may cost nearly twice as much as mild reinforcement per pound, it provides over
four times the strength of mild reinforcement. Furthermore, prestressing provides a
significant enhancement in the behavior of reinforced concrete members. Thus, the
combination of high-quality, plant-cast concrete with prestressing using high strength steel,
results in the most economical bridge for most situations.
2.5.3 Prestressing versus Conventional Reinforcing

The behaviour of flexural members is illustrated using Figures 2-7 and 2-8. Figure 2-7
shows the conditions in a reinforced concrete member that has mild reinforcement and no
prestressing. Under service load conditions, concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis
is assumed to be cracked. Only concrete on the compression side is effective in resisting
loads. In comparison, a prestressed concretemember is normally designed to remain
uncracked under service loads (see Figure 2-8). Since the full cross-section is effective, the
prestressed member is much stiffer than a conventionally reinforced concrete member
resulting in reduced deflection (see Figure 2-9). No unsightly cracks are expected to be
seen. Reinforcement is better protected against corrosion. Fatigue of the strand due to
repeated truck loading is generally not a design issue when the concrete surrounding the
strands is not allowed to crack.

Chapter 2
Figure2-7:Behaviour of Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Members

Chapter 2
Figure2-8:Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete Members
At ultimate load conditions, conventionally reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete

behave similarly. However, due to the lower strength of mild bars, a larger steel quantity is
needed to achieve the same strength as a prestressed member. This increases the member
material costs for a conventionally reinforced member. It should be noted, however, that
strand has a lower ultimate elongation at rupture (about 4 to 6%) than that of Grade 60
reinforcement (about 10 to 15%). This lower strain capacity or material ductility may lead
one to expect that prestressed concrete members may lack ductility or the capacity to
deflect adequately prior to failure. However, prestressed concrete members have been
shown both analytically and experimentally to have more than adequate deflection
capability prior to failure. It is not unusual in laboratory experiments to observe 10 to

Chapter 2
15 in(254 to 381 mm) deflection in a 40 ft-long (12.2 m)prestressed concrete member

before it fails. This deflection easily exceeds minimum ductility requirements.
Figure2-9:Typical Load Deflection Behaviour of Conventional Reinforced and

Prestressed Concrete Beams
Another major advantage of prestressing is the improvement in the member’s ability to

resist shear forces. As a result of the concrete being precompressed, prestressed concrete
members have a higher shear capacity (Vc) than conventionally reinforced concrete. This is
why thin-webbed I-beam and box-beam bridges have been used very successfully without
shear problems. In addition, harped strand, when used, provides a vertical force component
that tends to balance part of the gravity load shear force.
2.5.4 Concrete to Steel Bond

Because of the high strength of prestressing strand and the absence of deformations like
those found on the surface of reinforcing bars, anchorage of strand in concrete must be
carefully assessed. For example, while a Grade 60 #4 bar has a typical development length
of 12 to 15 in (305 to 381 mm), the development length of a 1/2-in (12.7mm) diameter
strand is about 72 to 100 in (approximately 2 – 3 m). Development length can be a limiting
design factor in short members such as precast stay-in-place deck panels. It may also be
significant for piles that are subjected to moment near the top end. However, the design
and performance of most precast bridge beams are not significantly affected by strand
development length.
2.6 Flexure
The design of prestressed concrete members in flexure normally starts with determination
of the required prestressing level to satisfy service conditions, using “allowable stress
design” (ASD). All load stages that may be critical during the life of the structure from the
time prestressing is first applied are considered. This is followed by a strength check of the
entire member under the influence of factored loads, using “load factor design” (LFD).
ASD controls the design of most prestressed concrete bridges. Except for rare situations
where strand development length is inadequate, and for some adjacent box applications,
Chapter 2
LFD seldom requires the addition of reinforcement or other design changes. As a result,
the flexural strength of prestressed concrete bridges may be significantly larger than that
required. This gives prestressed concrete bridges greater reserve strength than either
structural steel or reinforced concrete and may be part of the reason that prestressed
concrete beams in bridge structures last longer. Another significant fact is that prestressed
concrete members are essentially “proof tested” during fabrication. When prestress strands
are released in the plant, the prestress level is the highest a member will ever experience
while the concrete strength is at its lowest.
2.6.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

Various load combinations are considered in design. A load factor of 1.0 is used to reflect
the actual unfactored loading on the structure. There are exceptions to this unity factor as
explained in Chapter 7 and later in Section 8.2.1.2. The basic assumptions for flexural
design are:
a) Plane sections remain plane and strains vary linearly over the entire member depth
regardless of load level. Therefore, composite members consisting of precast
concrete beams and cast-in-place decks must be adequately connected so that this
assumption is valid and all elements respond to superimposed loads as one unit.
b) Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain; i.e. f = εE where f is stress,
E is modulus of elasticity and ε is strain.
c) After cracking, tension in the concrete is neglected.
d) Spans made continuous for live load through placement of reinforcing bars in the
deck slab, or by other means not involving prestressing, are assumed to be treated
as prestressed members in the positive moment zone between supports and as
conventionally reinforced members in the negative moment zones over the
supports. Therefore, no allowable tension limit is imposed on the top fiber stresses
in the negative moment zone. However, crack width, fatigue and ultimate strength
should be checked.

Chapter 2
Start
Design controlling girder (interior)
Determine compression and tension stress limits at transfer
Determine final compression and tension stress limits
Calculate initial service moment stress in the top and bottom of the
prestressed girder
Calculate final service moment stress in the top and bottom of the
prestressed girder
Select a different girder size or

Are service stresses within stress limits?
NG change strand arrangement
OK
Design the longitiudnal steel at top of girder
Calculate factored flexural resistance, M, at points of maximum

moment
Check the nominal capacity versus the maximum Select a different girder size or
applied factored moment change strand arrangement
NG
OK
Select a different girder size or

Check the maximum and minimum reinforcement
NG change strand arrangement
OK
Check negative moment connection at intermediate pier
Check moment capacity versus the maximum applied factored moment

at the critical location for negative moment.
Check service crack control in negative moment region
Check positive moment connection at intermediate pier
Check fatigue in prestressed steel (Notice that for conventional

prestressed beams, fatigue does not need to be checked)
Calculate required camber in the beams to determine bearing seat

elevations
Determine the haunch thickness
Calculate required camber in the beams to determine probable sag in

bridge
Check fatigue in prestressed steel (Notice that for conventional

prestressed beams, fatigue does not need to be checked)
Optional live load deflection check
End
Figure2-10:Flexural Design Flow

Chapter 2
2.7 Strand Transfer and Development Length

The transfer length, lt, is the length of strand over which the prestress force in retensioned
members is transferred to the concrete by bond and friction. The development length, ld, is
the length of strand required to develop the stress in the strand corresponding to the full
flexural strength of the member. The transfer length is included as part of the development
length. These two parameters are used differently in design as discussed below.
Figure 2-11 illustrates the relationship between the transfer and development lengths, and
the strand stress.
Figure2-3:Strand Transfer and Development Length
Much research has been conducted in recent years on methods of predicting lt and ld.
Prediction formulas have been developed with no clear consensus among researchers. It
should be emphasized, however, that the impact of variability of the transfer length on
design of bridge beams is very small, and is limited to the 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 1.0 m) at the end
of a member. The impact of variability of development length on bridge beams is also
small. An over-estimation of ld will not significantly increase the cost of beams. However,
ld may become a significant design parameter for some prestressed concrete members, such
as deck panels, which have very short spans, and piles, which may have their largest
bending moment at the pile/cap interface.
For further information, refer to PCI Bridge Manual Chapter8, Section 8.3
2.8 Shear
The design and analysis of precast, prestressed concrete bridge members for vertical shear
is presented in this section. Design and analysis for combined torsion and shear are not
included. The applicable sections in the Standard Specifications and the LRFD
Specifications are covered in detail. In addition, a simplified procedure given in the

Chapter 2
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1979 Interim Revisions, is

presented because it is permitted as an alternative to the procedure given in the
StandardSpecifications.
Generally, the design of vertical web reinforcement is one of the last steps performed in the
design of a prestressed concrete bridge beam. The precast member cross-section, beam
spacing, span geometry and flexural reinforcement have already been established. Unlike
flexural design, for which conditions at both service and factored load are evaluated, shear
design is only evaluated for factored loads (strength limit state).
Shear design is essentially based on the truss analogy which has been used for concrete
design since the early 1900s. In the truss analogy, a concrete member resists loads by a
truss composed of concrete “compression struts” and steel “tension ties.” However, while
this model is an effective tool for estimating the ultimate shear capacity of concrete
members, it may be overly conservative in calculating the cracking shear capacity when
compared to test results.
Therefore, both the Standard and LRFD Specifications provide three shear design methods
which attempt to provide more realistic estimates of shear capacity of a concrete member
by adding a concrete contribution to the basic truss analogy. And thus, the nominal shear
strength, Vn, is considered to be a combination of the concrete contribution, Vc, and web
reinforcement contribution, Vs. In members with harped strand, the vertical component of
the prestressing force, Vp, is also considered to resist the factored shear force. The nominal
shear resistance can, therefore, be expressed as:
Vn = Vc + Vs + Vp
The factored shear force at the section under investigation must be less than or equal to the
nominal shear resistance reduced by a resistance factor, ϕ:
Vu ≤ ϕVn = ϕ(Vc + Vs + Vp )
While both the Standard Specifications and the LRFD Specifications are based on the truss
analogy as discussed above, there is a significant difference in the way in which it is used.
The Standard Specifications shear design provisions may be interpreted to use a truss
model with the inclination of the diagonal compression struts fixed at 45° in all cases. This
limitation is appropriate for reinforced concrete members but may be too conservative in
prestressed concrete applications. The LRFD Specifications use variable inclination truss
analogy.
To ensure ductile behavior, the designer must properly detail the web reinforcement to
provide adequate development and to satisfy maximum and minimum limits on the
quantity and spacing of the reinforcement. Each of the shear design procedures is discussed
in detail in the following sections.

Chapter 2
Start
Determine bv and dv Eq
Calculate Vp
Calculate shear stress ratio, vu/fc
If the section is within the development length of any

reinforcing bars, calculate the effective value of As
Assume value of shear crack inclination angle θ
Calculate εx
Is assumed value of θ greater than the value NO Use the value last determined for
determined based on calculated εx ? θ
YES
Is assumed value of θ too YES

conservative, i.e., too high?
NO
Determine transverse reinforcement to ensure Vu <=φVn
Check minimum and maximum transverse reinforcement

requirements
Can longitudinal reinforcement NO

resist required tension?
YE
Check bursting resistance
Choose values of θ and β Can you use excess shear capacity to

corresponding to largeer ε reduce the longitudinal steel requirements
,
Check confinement reinforcement NO

Use the value last determined for θ
Check horizontal shear at interface between beam and deck
End
Figure2-42:Shear Design Flow
For further information, refer to PCI Bridge Manual Chapter8, Section 8.4.

Chapter 2
2.9 Horizontal Interface Shear

Cast-in-place concrete decks designed to act compositely with precast concrete beams
must be able to resist the horizontal shearing forces at the interface between the two
elements. The basic strength equation for the design of the interface between the deck and
beam is:
ܸ௨ ≤ ߶ܸ௡௛ (Eq. 2-1)
Where
Vu = factored shear force acting on the interface
ϕ = strength reduction factor
Vnh = nominal shear capacity of the interface
Design is carried out at various locations along the span, similar to vertical shear design.
Theoretical calculation of the shearing force acting on the interface at a given section is not
simple because the section does not behave as a linear elastic material near ultimate
capacity. If it did, the shear stress, horizontal or vertical, at any fiber in a cross-section
would be calculated from the familiar equation:
௏ொ
ܸ௛ = (Eq. 2-2)
ூ௕
where
V = vertical shear force at the section
I = moment of inertia
b = section width at the fiber being considered
Q = first moment of the area above (or below) the fiber being considered
However, at ultimate conditions, the material is no longer elastic and the concrete may be
cracked at the section being considered. Further, the composite cross-section consists of
two different types of concrete with different properties. Therefore, application of the
above equation to design at ultimate, without modification, would yield questionable
results.
Loov and Patnaik (1994) determined that the above equation may yield adequate results if
both the cracked section moment of inertia and area moment of a transformed composite
section are used. The section would be transformed using the slab-to-beam modular ratio
used in flexural design by the allowable stress method.
However, this approach is still too complicated. It confuses the calculations at two limit
states: service and ultimate.
Kamel (1996) used equilibrium of forces to show that:
௏
ܸ௛ = (௝ௗ)௕ (Eq. 2-3)
ೡ
where
V = factored vertical shear at the section in question
d = effective depth of the member

Chapter 2
jd = distance between the tension and compression resultant stresses in the section.
This is the same distance as dv used in the LRFD Specifications.
bv = section width at the interface between the precast and the cast-in-place concrete. It is
important to understand that bv is not the web width.
Another important issue is which loads should be used to calculate Vu at a section. Neither
the Standard Specifications nor the LRFD Specifications give guidance in this regard.
While most designers would use all loads to compute Vu, a strong case can be made for
excluding the self-weight of the precast concrete member and the weight of the deck since
they are present prior to composite action taking effect. Some designers and agencies, such
as the Illinois Department of Transportation, use only the composite loads, which include
the superimposed dead loads (barriers, wearing surface, etc.) and the live loads.
Fortunately, the amount of reinforcement required, even with consideration of all loads, is
reasonable in practical applications.
To determine the shear capacity of the interface, the LRFD Specifications uses a form of
the well-established shear friction theory, while the Standard Specifications uses an
empirical approach based on several investigations, for example, Birkeland and Birkeland
(1966), Mast (1968), Kriz and Raths (1965) and Hofbeck, et al (1969).
The requirements of the Standard Specifications are stated in terms of vertical shear while
those in the LRFD Specifications are stated in terms of horizontal (interface) shear. This
difference in presentation has caused confusion among designers.
2.10 Loss of Prestress

Concrete is a material that exhibits time-dependent behavior. Under the effects of sustained
stress, “creep” causes concrete to experience ongoing strains. Even when no loads are
present, concrete specimens will undergo “shrinkage” strains. Prestressing steel, when
strained at levels normal in prestressed concrete bridge members, exhibits a gradual loss of
stress under constant strain that is referred to as “relaxation.” Chapter 2 and Section 8.13
provide equations, representative material constants and more information related to
predicting creep, shrinkage and relaxation.
Under the combined effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and the relaxation of
prestressing steel, prestressed concrete members gradually deform with time. These time-
dependent changes manifest themselves in the shortening of the member, in some loss of
prestress and, therefore, in a change in camber or deflection.
Several techniques are available to the designer to account for these effects. Approximate
methods suitable for conventional designs are given in this section.

Chapter 2
Start
Determine the stress limit immediately prior to transfer in the

prestressing strands for the prestressing steel
Determine Instantaneous Losses for pretensioned members,

only Elastic Shortening is considered
Will the lump sum method or the refined

Lump Sum method for time-dependent losses be Refined
Determine the lump sum time-dependent losses Determine shrinkage loss
Determine creep loss

Determine rlaxation loss at transfer
Determine losses due to relaxation

after transfer
Determine time-dependent losses after transfer
as the total time-dependent losses minus
Determine total time-dependent
losses after transfer by adding creep,
shrinkage and relaxation losses
Determine stress in strands immediately after transfer as the

stress prior to transfer minus instantaneous loss
Determine final stress in strands as stress immediately prior

to transfer minus sum of instantaneous loss and time-
End
Figure2-53:Prestressing Loss Calculations Flow
2.11 Camber and Deflections

Generally, there are three sets of beam deformations of interest to the designer:
• Vertical deflections (typically at midspan)
• End rotations
• Axial shortening
Of these, midspan deflection, or camber, is usually of greatest interest. Excessive,
unexpected camber at the time of erection may require adjustment of bridge grades to
prevent intrusion of the beam top flange into the deck. Additionally, estimates of the final
midspan deflections under the action of permanent dead load and live load may be required
to ensure serviceability of the bridge.
End rotations are of importance when continuity is introduced at the time of casting the
deck. When these rotations are restrained or partially restrained by adjacent spans,

Chapter 2
secondary time-dependent stresses are introduced in the structure. These stresses must be
considered in the design of connections and detailing of the end regions of beams.
Finally, axial shortening of precast, prestressed bridge members must be considered when
designing bearings and expansion devices. This information is also helpful in assessing the
impact of superstructure restraint against shortening in jointless bridge systems.
For further information, refer to PCI Bridge Manual Chapter8 Section 8.7.
2.12 Deck Slab Design

This section considers concrete slabs that act compositely with precast beams and where
the slab span and main reinforcement are transverse to traffic. Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete
is sometimes used as a topping on longitudinal, “full-deck” members such as adjacent box
beams, double tees and deck bulb-tees. However, this type of deck slab generally does not
require flexural design and is not covered in this section.The majority of deck slabs in new
bridge construction use CIP concrete with or without precast stay-in-place (SIP) deck
panels. The CIP topping provides flexibility to adjust for roadway profile and for
differences in beam elevations. The use of precast SIP panels is gaining popularity due to
their cost-effectiveness and improvement in jobsite construction safety.
This section focuses on the design of CIP decks using precast SIP panels according to both
the Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications. In addition, a subsection
summarizes the “Empirical Design Method” of full-depth CIP slabs. This method is
becoming more popular due to the relatively small amount of reinforcement it requires.
However, at this time, the LRFD Specifications do not permit this method for design of
precast SIP deck panel systems. Also in this section, two new precast concrete deck
systems will be introduced. The first system is an improved SIP panel that allows for better
construction speed and structural performance than for the conventional SIP panel system.
The second is a full-depth precast, prestressed concrete panel that is best suited for rapid
replacement of high-traffic bridge decks.
2.13 Transverse Design of Adjacent Box Beam Bridges

Adjacent box beam bridges are constructed by placing precast, prestressed concrete box
beams next to each other so that a deck slab is not required to complete the structure. The
small longitudinal joint between beams – the “shear key” or “keyway” – is normally filled
with grout. Often, a composite concrete topping or a non-structural asphalt concrete
overlay is used to provide the riding surface. Typically, longitudinal keyways are
dimensioned for standard products shown in Appendix B. Transverse connections are
made between beams to prevent differential deflection and to improve the distribution of
live loads.
The design of the transverse connections between adjacent box beams has been identified
as an important issue by bridge owners and designers. Without an adequate transverse
connection, beams will not deflect equally under live loads. Differential movement
between beams may lead to longitudinal cracking of the grouted keyways and reflective
cracking in the overlay, if one is present. Recent surveys of adjacent box beam bridges
have revealed that cracks of these types are a recurring problem in some areas. In rural
locations where deicing chemicals are not used, such cracks may be tolerated. However, in

Chapter 2
most locations, these cracks should be prevented because water and deicing chemicals may
penetrate the cracks and cause concrete staining and eventually structural deterioration of
the box beams from corrosion of reinforcement and subsequent spalling of the concrete
cover.
In addition, a transverse connection between box beams is necessary to provide effective
load transfer between beams. Without adequate transverse connection, live load cannot be
distributed across the bridge. Each beam in that case would have to be designed to resist
the full effect of a set of wheel loads.
2.14 Lateral Stability of Slender Members

Prestressed concrete members are generally stiff enough to prevent lateral buckling.
However, during handling and transportation, support conditions may result in lateral
displacements of the beam, thus producing lateral bending about the weak axis.
There are two important cases: that of a beam hanging from lifting devices and that of a
beam supported on flexible supports. For hanging beams, the tendency to roll is governed
primarily by the properties of the beam. For supported beams, the tendency to roll is
significantly influenced by the conditions of the supports and the roadway geometry
(cross-slope). Detailed explanations of these two cases are given in Mast (1989, 1993).
2.15 Bending Moments and Shear Forces due to Vehicular live Loads
In designing longitudinal members of bridges, the maximum bending moment and shear
force at each section along the span, are computed for live loads. The load position must be
determined to give the maximum values of shears and moments. The Standard
Specifications use the HS20 design truck while the LRFD Specifications use the HL-93
loading which is a combination of the HS20 design truck and a lane loading of 0.640 kip/ft.
Design for the fatigue limit state in the LRFD Specifications requires that a special design
truck be used. This section gives formulas which may be combined to get the maximum
bending moments and shear forces due to the above loading cases.
Readers are referred to the Standard Specifications for details about the effects of the
equivalent lane loading which must also be considered in design. It can be shown that this
equivalent lane loading may govern the design of spans longer than 144.5 ft(44 m) for
bending moment and 120 ft (36.6 m) for shear force.
2.16 Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Disturbed Regions

Traditionally, models used in the analysis and design of concrete structures have been
based on elastic theory and the basic assumption that plane sections remain plane,
regardless of the loading. However, it is well known that disturbances do occur in regions
near discontinuities, for example, at concentrated loads and abrupt changes in member
dimensions. Such regions are referred to as “disturbed regions.”
Methods used to analyze and design disturbed regions must include procedures that reflect
the actual flow of stresses in such regions. In considering stress distribution before
cracking, it is customary to apply elastic methods of analysis, especially when predicting
where significant cracking will occur. Since significant stress redistribution takes place
Chapter 2
after concrete cracks, elastic methods cannot adequately predict stresses subsequent to
cracking.
2.17 Detailed Methods of Time-Dependent Analysis

Section 8.6 in this chapter presents a variety of practical and relatively simple methods to
estimate time-dependent effects in prestressed concrete members. Those methods are
suitable for a very wide range of bridge projects but may not be applicable to certain
special situations. More detailed methods are available when the designer feels that a more
rigorous estimate of time-dependent effects is warranted.
2.18 References
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI), Bridge Design Manual, 3rd Edition,
November 2011.

Chapter 3
Bridge Design Manual – 2013 Comments to Specifications
3 BRIDGE SCOUR REFERENCE
3.1 Introduction
This reference is a supplement to article 4.8, BDM. This reference refers to Evaluating
Scour at Bridges3(HEC-18) and Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures:
Experience, Selection, and Design Guidance-Third Edition4(HEC-23), which are good
engineering practice in the U.S.
This reference consists of two parts. “3.2 Overview of Bridge Scour” provides a brief
overview of the bridge scour mechanism and the countermeasures for bridge scour. “3.3
Scour Depth Calculation”provides the calculation procedure of bridge scour depth and is
extracts from HEC-18.
3.2 Overview of Bridge Scour
3.2.1 Bridge Scour Mechanism

Total scour at a highway crossing is comprises three components. Thesecomponents are:
• Aggradation and Degradation: These are long-term stream-bed elevation
changes due tonatural or human-induced causes within the reach of the river on
which the bridge is located.
• Contraction Scour: This type of scour involves the removal of material from the
bed andbanks across all or most of the width of a channel. Most commonly, this
scour is theresult of a contraction of the flow by the approach embankments to the
bridgeencroaching onto the floodplain and/or into the main channel which causes
an increase in transport of the bed material in the bridge cross section (See Figure
3-1).
• Local Scour: This scour occurs around piers, abutments, spurs, and embankments
andis caused by the acceleration of the flow and the development of vortex
systems inducedby these obstructions to the flow(See Figure 322).
There are two conditions for contraction and local scour: clear-water and live-bed scour.
Clear-water scour occurs when there is no movement of the bed material in the
flowupstream of the crossing or the bed material being transported in the upstream reach
istransported insuspension through the scour hole at the pier or abutment at less than
thecapacity of the flow. At the pier or abutment the acceleration of the flow and vortices
createdby these obstructions cause the bed material around them to move. Live-bed scour
occurswhen there is transport of bed material from the upstream reach into the crossing.
Live-bedlocal scour is cyclic in nature; that is, the scour hole that develops during the
rising stage of aflood refills during the falling stage.
3
Federal Highway Administration, Evaluating Scour at Bridge s- Fourth Edition, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 18,
2001, http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/010590.pdf
4
Federal Highway Administration, Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures: Experience, Selection, and
Design Guidance-Third Edition, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 23, 2009,
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/09111/index.cfm

Chapter 3
Comments to Specifications Bridge Design Manual – 2013
Figure3-1:Approach Embankments3

Chapter 3
Figure3-2:Schematic Representation of Scour at a Cylindrical Pier3
Typical clear-water scour situations include (1) coarse-bed material streams, (2) flat
gradientstreams during low flow, (3) local deposits of larger bed materials that are larger
than thebiggest fraction being transported by the flow (rock riprap is a special case of this
situation),(4) armored streambeds where the only locations that tractive forces are adequate
topenetrate the armor layer are at piers and/or abutments, and (5) vegetated channels
oroverbank areas.
During a flood event, bridges over streams with coarse-bed material are often subjected
toclear-water scour at low discharges, live-bed scour at the higher discharges and then
Clearwater scour at the lower discharges on the falling stages. Clear-water scour reaches
itsmaximum over a longer period of time than live-bed scour (Figure 3-3). This is
becauseclear-waterscour occurs mainly in coarse-bed material streams. In fact, local clear-
waterscour may not reach a maximum until after several floods. Maximum local clear-
water pierscour is about 10 percent greater than the equilibrium local live-bed pier scour.
Critical velocity equations with the reference particle size (D) equal to D50 are used
todetermine the velocity associated with the initiation of motion. They are used as an
indicatorfor clear-water or live-bed scour conditions. If the mean velocity (V) in the
upstream reach isequal to or less than the critical velocity (Vc) of the median diameter
(D50) of the bed material,then contraction and local scour will be clear-water scour. Also, if
the ratio of the shearvelocity of the flow to the fall velocity of the D50of the bed material
(V*/ω) is greater than 2,contraction and local scour may be clear-water. If the mean
velocity is greater than thecritical velocity of the median bed material size, live-bed scour
will occur. An equation todetermine the critical velocity for a given flow depth and size of
bed material is given in Chapter 5, HEC-18.

Chapter 3
Figure3-3:Pier Scour Depth in a Sand-Bed Stream as a Function of Time3
Contraction scour occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage is reduced, either
bya natural contraction of the stream channel or by a bridge. It also occurs when overbank
flowis forced back to the channel by roadway embankments at the approaches to a bridge.
Fromcontinuity, a decrease in flow area results in an increase in average velocity and bed
shearstress through the contraction. Hence, there is an increase in erosive forces in
thecontraction and more bed material is removed from the contracted reach than is
transportedinto the reach. This increase in transport of bed material from the reach lowers
the naturalbed elevation. As the bed elevation is lowered, the flow area increases and, in
the riverinesituation, the velocity and shear stress decrease until relative equilibrium is
reached; i.e., thequantity of bed material that is transported into the reach is equal to that
removed from thereach, or the bed shear stress is decreased to a value such that no
sediment is transportedout of the reach. Contraction scour, in a natural channel or at a
bridge crossing, involvesremoval of material from the bed across all or most of the channel
width. Methods toestimate live-bed and clear-water contraction scour are presented in
Chapter 5, HEC-18.
The basic mechanism causing local scour at piers or abutments is the formation of
vortices(known as the horseshoe vortex) at their base (Figure 3-2). The horseshoe vortex
resultsfrom the pileup of water on the upstream surface of the obstruction and
subsequentacceleration of the flow around the nose of the pier or abutment. The action of
the vortexremoves bed material from around the base of the obstruction. The transport rate
ofsediment away from the base region is greater than the transport rate into the region,
and,consequently, a scour hole develops. As the depth of scour increases, the strength of
thehorseshoe vortex is reduced, thereby reducing the transport rate from the base
region.Eventually, for live-bed local scour, equilibrium is reestablished between bed
material inflowand outflow and scouring ceases. For clear-water scour, scouring ceases
when the shearstress caused by the horseshoe vortex equals the critical shear stress of the
sedimentparticles at the bottom of the scour hole.
In addition to the horseshoe vortex around the base of a pier, there are vertical
vorticesdownstream of the pier called the wake vortex (Figure 3-2). Both the horseshoe
and wakevortices remove material from the pier base region. However, the intensity of
wake vorticesdiminishes rapidly as the distance downstream of the pier increases.
Therefore, immediatelydownstream of a long pier there is often deposition of material.

Chapter 3
Factors which affect the magnitude of local scour depth at piers and abutments are
(1)velocity of the approach flow, (2) depth of flow, (3) width of the pier, (4) discharge
interceptedby the abutment and returned to the main channel at the abutment (in laboratory
flumes thisdischarge is a function of projected length of an abutment into the flow), (5)
length of the pierif skewed to flow, (6) size and gradation of bed material, (7) angle of
attack of the approachflow to a pier or abutment, (8) shape of a pier or abutment, (9) bed
configuration, and (10) iceformation or jams and debris.
3.2.2 Selection of Countermeasures

The selection of a countermeasure depends on the type ofscour involved. Scour is the
result of the erosive action of running water, excavating and carrying awaymaterial from
the bed and banks of streams. Different materials scour at different rates.Loose granular
soils are rapidly eroded under water action while cohesive or cemented soilsare more
scour-resistant. However, ultimate scour in cohesive or cemented soils can be asdeep as
scour in sand-bed streams. Scour will reach its maximum depth in sand and gravelbed
materials in hours; cohesive bed materials in days; glacial tills, poorly cemented
sandstones and shales in months; hard, dense and cemented sandstone or shales in years;
andgranites in centuries. Massive rock formations with few discontinuities can be highly
resistantto scour and erosion during the lifetime of a typical bridge.
Designers and inspectors need to carefully study site-specific subsurface information
indetermining scour potential at bridges, giving particular attention to foundations on rock.
3.2.3 Countermeasures for Contraction Scour

Severe contraction of flow at highway stream crossings has resulted in numerous
bridgefailures at abutments, approach fills, and piers from contraction scour. Design
alternativesto decrease contraction scour include longer bridges, relief bridges on the
floodplain,superstructures at elevations above flood stages of extreme events, and a crest
verticalprofile on approach roadways to provide for overtopping during floods exceeding
the design flood event. These design alternatives are integral features of the
highwayfacility which reduce the contraction at bridges and, therefore, reduce the
magnitude ofcontraction scour.
3.2.4 Countermeasures for Local Scour

Local scour occurs at bridge piers and abutments. In general, design alternatives
againststructural failure from local scour consist of measures which reduce scour depth,
such aspier shape and orientation, and measures which retain their structural integrity after
scourreaches its maximum depth, such as placing foundations in sound rock and using
deeppiling. Countermeasures which can reduce the risk from local scour include placing
armor(e.g., riprap) at the structure or installing monitoring devices.
Abutments:Countermeasures for local scour at abutments consist of measures
whichimprove flow orientation at the bridge end and move local scour away from the
abutment, aswell as revetments and riprap placed on spill slopes to resist erosion (Figure 3-
4, Design Guideline 4).

Chapter 3
Sizing Rock Riprap
௏
For Froude Numbersቀ(௚௬)భ/మ ቁ ≤ 0.80 the recommended design equation for sizing rock
riprap for spill-trough and vertical wall abutments is in the form of the Isbash relationship:
஽ఱబ ௄ ௏మ
௬
= (ௌ ିଵ) ቂ௚௬ ቃ (14.1)
ೞ
where:
D50 = median stone diameter, ft (m)
V = characteristic average velocity in the contracted section (explained below),
ft/s (m/s)
Ss = specific gravity of rock riprap
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2)
y = depth of flow in the contracted bridge opening, ft (m)
K = 0.89 for a spill-through abutment
1.02 for a vertical wall abutment
For Froude Numbers > 0.80, Equation 14.2 is recommended:

଴.ଵସ
஽ఱబ ௄ ௏మ
= (ௌ ቂ ቃ (14.2)
௬ ೞ ିଵ) ௚௬
where
K = 0.61 for spill-through abutments
K = 0.69 for vertical wall abutments

Chapter 3
Figure3-4:Plan View of the Extent of Rock Riprap Apron4
Figure3-5:Typical Guide Bank4

Chapter 3
Guide banks (Figure 3-5) are earth or rock embankments placed at abutments. Flow
disturbances, suchas eddies and cross-flow, will be eliminated where a properly designed
and constructedguide bank is placed at a bridge abutment. Guide banks also protect the
highwayembankment, reduce local scour at the abutment and adjacent piers, and move
local scourto the upstream end of the guide bank (Design Guideline 15).
Local scour also occurs at abutments as a result of expanding flow downstream of
thebridge, especially for bridges on wide, wooded floodplains that have been cleared
forconstruction of the highway. Short guide banks extending downstream of the abutment
tothe tree line will move this scour away from the abutment, and the trees will retard
velocitiesso that flow redistribution can occur with minimal scour.
Piers: Three basic methods may be used to prevent damage from local scour at piers.
Thefirst method is to place the foundation of the structure at such a depth that the
structuralstability will not be at risk with maximum scour. This must be done on all new or
replacement bridges. The second method (for existing bridges) is to provideprotection at or
below the streambed to inhibit the development of a scour hole. The thirdmeasure is to
prevent erosive vortices from forming or to reduce their strength and intensity.
Streamlining the pier nose decreases flow separation at the face of the pier, reducing
thestrength of the horseshoe vortices which form at piers. Practical application of this
principleinvolves the use of rounded or circular shapes at the upstream and downstream
faces ofpiers in order to reduce the flow separation. However, flow direction can and does
changewith time and with stage on some streams. Piers oriented with flow direction at one
stage orat one point in time may be skewed with flow direction at another. Also, flow
directionchanges with the passage of bed forms. In general, piers should be aligned with
the mainchannel design flow direction and skew angles greater than 5 degrees should be
avoided.Where this is not possible, a single cylindrical pier or a row of cylindrical columns
willproduce a lesser depth of local scour.
The tendency of a row of columns to collect debris should be considered. Debris can
greatlyincrease scour depths. Webwalls have been used between columns to add to
structuralstrength and to reduce the tendency to collect debris. Webwalls should be
constructed atthe elevation of stream flood stages which carry floating debris and extended
to the elevationof the streambed. When installing a webwall as a countermeasure against
debris, thepotential for significantly increased scour depths should be considered if the
approach flowmight impinge on the wall at a high angle of attack.
Riprap (Figure 3-6) is commonly used to inhibit local scour at piers at existing bridges.
This practice isnot recommended as an adequate substitute for foundations or piling
located belowexpected scour depths for new or replacement bridges. It is recommended as
a retrofit or ameasure to reduce the risk where scour threatens the integrity of a pier
(Design Guideline11).
HEC-23 Volume 2 consists of design guidelines of some countermeasures (Table 3-1).

Chapter 3
Figure3-6:Riprap Layout Diagram for Pier Scour Protection

Chapter 3
Table 3-1: Contents of HEC-23 Volume 2
Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures

Experience, Selection, and Design Guidance
Third Edition
Volume 2
DESIGN GUIDELINES
INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………... 1
DESIGN GUIDELINES ……………………………………………..……………….…... 2
SECTION 1 – COUNTERMEASURES FOR STREAM INSTABILITY
Design Guideline 1 – Bendway Weirs/Stream Barbs ……………………………..... DG1.1
Design Guideline 2 – Spurs ……………………………………………………….... DG2.1
Design Guideline 3 – Check Dams/Drop Structures ………………….…………..... DG3.1
SECTION 2 – COUNTERMEASURES FOR STREAMBANK AND ROADWAY
EMBANKMENT PROTECTION
Design Guideline 4 – Riprap Revetment …………………………………..……...... DG4.1
Design Guideline 5 – Riprap Design for Embankment Overtopping ……………..... DG5.1
Design Guideline 6 – Wire Enclosed Riprap Mattress ……………………….…...... DG6.1
Design Guideline 7 – Soil Cement ………………………………………………..... DG7.1
Design Guideline 8 – Articulating Concrete Block Systems ……………………...... DG8.1
Design Guideline 9 – Grout-Filled Mattresses ……………………………….…...... DG9.1
Design Guideline 10 – Gabion Mattresses ………………………………………... DG10.1
SECTION 3 – COUNTERMEASURES FOR BRIDGE PIER PROTECTION
Design Guideline 8 – Articulating Concrete Block Systems at Bridge Piers ……... DG8.21
Design Guideline 9 – Grout-Filled Mattresses at Bridge Piers …………………..... DG9.14
Design Guideline 10 – Gabion Mattresses at Bridge Piers ……………………..... DG10.13
Design Guideline 11 – Rock Riprap at Bridge Piers …………………………….... DG11.1
Design Guideline 12 – Partially Grouted Riprap at Bridge Piers ………………..... DG12.1
SECTION 4 – COUNTERMEASURES FOR ABUTMENT PROTECTION
Design Guideline 13 – Grout-Cement Filled Bags ………………………………... DG13.1
Design Guideline 14 – Rock Riprap at Bridge Abutments ………………………... DG14.1
Design Guideline 15 – Guide Banks …………………………………………..…... DG15.1
SECTION 5 – FILTER DESIGN
Design Guideline 16 – Filter Design …………………………………………..…... DG16.1
SECTION 6 – SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
Design Guideline 17 – Riprap Design for Wave Attack ……………………….….. DG17.1
Design Guideline 18 – Riprap Protection for bottomless Culverts ………………... DG18.1
Design Guideline 19 – Concrete Armor Units …………………………………...... DG19.1

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THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

List of Illustrations ........................................................................................................... iii

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 1-1: Axle Load Distribution in 2009 ................................................................ 1-1

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS

Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

1 CONSIDERATION OF DESIGN LIVE LOAD

1.2 95th Percentile of Truck Weight Distribution

Figure 1-1: Axle Load Distribution in 2009

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-1

1.3 Truck Weight Deemed To Be Maximum

Figure 1-2: Exclusion Vehicles2

Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 1-3: HS20 + 9.3

Figure 1-4: Results for Simple Span Centreline Moments

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-3

Figure 1-5: Results for Negative Moments at Support

Figure 1-6: Results for Shear at Support

Page 1-4 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 1-7: Truck Weight Deemed to be Maximum in Ethiopia

2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGE

2.2 Preparation and Planning

2.2.1 The Establishment of a Prestressed Concrete Bridge Committee

2.2.2 Project Meetings

2.2.3 Planning and Design

• Maintainability and Durability

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-7

Chart2-1: Flowchart for Planning and Design of Prestressed Concrete Bridges

Page 2-8 Ethiopian Roads Authority

2.3 Structural Types of Prestressed Concrete Bridge

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-9

Slab-Girder Crane erection 5-24m

Box-Girder Stationary false 30-60m

Box-Girder Stationary false 30-60m

Cantilever method 50-110m

Traveling false 30-45m

Continuous Stationary false 20-30m

Box-Girder Stationary false 30-55m

Rigid Cantilever method 40-80m

Page 2-10 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Box-Girder Stationary false 50-100m

Box-Girder Stationary false 50-100m

Cantilever method 100-200m

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-11

T-Rigid Frame Box-Girder 1/10-1/30

Extradosed bridge Box-Girder -

Cable stayed Bridge Box-Girder -

2.3.1 T-Shaped, Post Tensioning Girder Bridge (Precast Girder Bridge)

Page 2-12 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 2-1:Shape of Girder

Figure 2-2:Section of Bridge

Table 2-4: Example of Capacity of Crane Truck to Erect Girder

Standard for Truck

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-13

Figure 2-3: Examples of Prestressed Concrete Bridge Construction

2.3.2 Box-Shape girder bridge(Cast in place); Single Girder bridge; Continuous

Page 2-14 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 2-4:The Layout of PC Cable in Continuous Girder Bridge

Figure 2-5:The Outline of all Stage Method

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-15

shale, and organic material.