ASSIGNMENT 1

DOMESTIC ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

SECTION 2

NO GROUP MEMBERS MATRIC NO

1
2
Resistor and Cable
A resistor is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines.
High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as
part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp
dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed
of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

Components and wires are coded are with colors to identify their value and function.

The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5-band resistors
only. All 5-band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%) “band” is only used
with the “4-band” code (3 colored bands + a blank “band”).
 The most important characteristics in an electronic cable are impedance, attenuation,
shielding and capacitance. Cable capacitance is so important, a lot of analysis goes into
minimizing it. This can be accomplished by:

 Increasing the insulation wall thickness

 Decreasing the conductor diameter
 Using an insulation with a lower dielectric constant.

The size of the conductor is usually determined by the electrical requirements of the circuit that
the cable interconnects. If the circuit has been designed to require a 22 AWG wire, you cannot
reduce it to 28 AWG just to reduce the capacitance. Also, the insulation wall thickness cannot be
increased beyond reason since this increases the diameter of the cable, increasing costs and
affecting terminations. Thus, the insulation chosen for the cable often becomes the critical
variable.
Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in
an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While capacitance exists
between any two electrical conductors of a circuit in sufficiently close proximity, a capacitor is
specifically designed to provide and enhance this effect for a variety of practical applications by
consideration of size, shape, and positioning of closely spaced conductors, and the intervening
dielectric material. A capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser.

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many
capacitor types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors
often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor
may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric
acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include
glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of
electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does
not dissipate energy.

When two conductors experience a potential difference, for example, when a capacitor is
attached across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive
charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current
actually flows through the dielectric, however, there is a flow of charge through the source
circuit. If the condition is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit
ceases. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source
experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
Inductor
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component
that stores electrical energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An
inductor typically consists of an electric conductor, such as a wire, that is wound into a coil
around a core.

When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor, described by Faraday's law of induction. According to Lenz's
law, the direction of induced electromotive force (e.m.f.) opposes the change in current that
created it. As a result, inductors oppose any changes in current through them.

An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate
of change of current. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of inductance is the henry
(H). Inductors have values that typically range from 1 µH (10−6H) to 1 H. Many inductors have
a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic
field and thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three
passive linear circuit elements that make up electronic circuits. Inductors are widely used in
alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They are used to
block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are called chokes. They
are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination
with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.

Coil of wire is one of the example of inductor

DIODE

Diode is one of the building blocks of electronic circuits. There are different types of
diodes, each with its own operating characteristics and applications. The various diode types are
easily identified by name, circuit applications and schematic symbol. It should be noted that the
term diode, used by itself, refers to the basic pn-junction diode. Different diodes has different
names, such as zener diode, light emitting diode and so on. In this section we will learn more
about diodes.

Defination of diode is one of the building blocks of electronic circuits. There are different
types of diodes, each with its own operating characteristics and applications. The various diode
types are easily identified by name, circuit applications and schematic symbol. It should be noted
that the term diode, used by itself, refers to the basic pn-junction diode. Different diodes has
different names, such as zener diode, light emitting diode and so on. In this section we will learn
more about diodes.A Diode is a two-terminal device that acts as a one way conductor that is it
permits current flow in only one direction. The most basic type of diode is the p-n junction
diode.

Diode Symbol

The schematic symbol for the p-n junction diode is given below. The p-type material is called the
anode and the n-type material is called the cathode.

Important rules about diodes:

1. If the voltage on the anode is positive with respect to the voltage on the cathode, we say
that the diode is forward biased. At forward biased condition the diode permits current
flow.

2. If the voltage on the anode is negative with respect to the voltage on the cathode, we say
that the diode is Reverse biased. At reverse biased condition the diode inhibits current
flow.
FUSE
An electrical fuse is a current interrupting device which protects an electrical circuit in
which it is installed by creating an open circuit condition in response to excessive current.When
the element in a fuse receives too much heat it will melt and interrupt the current. Fuses are
usually used as a conduit between an electrical power source and an electrical component or a
combination of components arranged in an electrical circuit. A fusible link is connected between
the fuse terminals. This means that when an electrical current passing through the fuse goes
beyond what the device is able to handle, the fusible link will melt and the circuit opens thus
preventing electrical component damage.
Fuses are typically made for single time use. In other words, once it shuts a device down
it must be replaced. You can get over-current protection from a variety of sources such as circuit
breakers, switches, and relays. Each type of equipment has variations in ratings, service
requirements and costs. Fuses are typically the most economical means for providing automatic
high-voltage current protection against a single over-current failure.
Fuses are part of electrical systems in cars, trucks, boats, motorcycles and other types of
vehicles. These fuses function to stop electricity from flowing to a particular component of the
system by creating an open circuit as a result of an unsafe electrical condition. In the utility
industry, you will find fuses used in distribution transformers, cables, capacitor banks and other
equipment from damaging over currents. Fuses are utilized in such a way that the disconnect will
occur before damage can harm your systems. Fuses are used quite a bit in high voltage electrical
networks in order to protect the electrical equipment in the network from damage caused by
surges through the system.
There are many types of fuses: thermal fuses, mechanical fuses, spark gap surge arrestors,
varistors, and other similar devices, each designed specifically as a solution to one or more
extreme electrical events. In general, an electrical fuse combines both a sensing and interrupting
element in one self-contained device.
TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate
for electronic signals. Transistors consist of three layers of a semiconductor material, each
capable of carrying a current.

The transistor was invented by three scientists at the Bell Laboratories in 1947, and
it rapidly replaced the vacuum tube as an electronic signal regulator. A transistor
regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals. A transistor
consists of three layers of a semiconductor material, each capable of carrying a current. A
semiconductor is a material such as germanium and silicon that conducts electricity in a "semi-
enthusiastic" way. It's somewhere between a real conductor such as copper and an insulator (like
the plastic wrapped around wires).

The semiconductor material is given special properties by a chemical process

called doping. The doping results in a material that either adds extra electrons to the material
(which is then called N-type for the extra negative charge carriers) or creates "holes" in the
material's crystal structure (which is then called P-type because it results in more positive charge
carriers). The transistor's three-layer structure contains an N-type semiconductor layer
sandwiched between P-type layers (a PNP configuration) or a P-type layer between N-type
layers (an NPN configuration).

A small change in the current or voltage at the inner semiconductor layer (which acts as
the control electrode) produces a large, rapid change in the current passing through the entire
component. The component can thus act as a switch, opening and closing an electronic gate
many times per second. Today's computers use circuitry made with complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) technology. CMOS uses two complementary transistors per gate (one
with N-type material; the other with P-type material). When one transistor is maintaining a logic
state, it requires almost no power.Transistors are the basic elements in integrated circuits (IC),
which consist of very large numbers of transistors interconnected with circuitry and baked into a
single silicon microchip.
RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device composed of one or more diodes that converts alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC). A diode is like a one-way valve that allows an electrical
current to flow in only one direction. This process is called rectification.
A rectifier can take the shape of several different physical forms such as solid-state diodes,
vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, silicon-controlled rectifiers and various other silicon-
based semiconductor switches.
Rectifiers are used in various devices, including:

 DC power supplies
 Radio signals or detectors
 A source of power instead of generating current
 High-voltage direct current power transmission systems
 Several household appliances use power rectifiers to create power, like notebooks or
laptops, video game systems and televisions.

One of the most common uses for rectifier diodes in electronics is to convert household
alternating current into direct current that can be used as an alternative to batteries. The rectifier
circuit, which is typically made from a set of cleverly interlocked diodes, converts alternating
current to direct current.

In household current, the voltage swings from positive to negative in cycles that repeat 60 times
per second. If you place a diode in series with an alternating current voltage, you eliminate the
negative side of the voltage cycle, so you end up with just positive voltage.

If you look at the waveform of the voltage coming out of this rectifier diode, you’ll see that it
consists of intervals that alternate between a short increase of voltage and periods of no voltage
at all. This is a form of direct current because it consists entirely of positive voltage. However, it
pulsates: first it’s on, then it’s off, then it’s on again, and so on.

Overall, voltage rectified by a single diode is off half of the time. So although the positive
voltage reaches the same peak level as the input voltage, the average level of the rectified voltage
is only half the level of the input voltage. This type of rectifier circuit is sometimes called a half-
wave rectifier because it passes along only half of the incoming alternating current waveform.

A better type of rectifier circuit uses four rectifier diodes, in a special circuit called a bridge
rectifier.

Look at how this rectifier works on both sides of the alternating current input signal:

 In the first half of the AC cycle, D2 and D4 conduct because they’re forward biased.

Positive voltage is on the anode of D2 and negative voltage is on the cathode of D4.
Thus, these two diodes work together to pass the first half of the signal through.

 In the second half of the AC cycle, D1 and D3 conduct because they’re forward biased:
Positive voltage is on the anode of D1, and negative voltage is on the cathode of D3.

The net effect of the bridge rectifier is that both halves of the AC sine wave are allowed to pass
through, but the negative half of the wave is inverted so that it becomes positive.